h  . 


VU^U.VIK-  l>-o-t>-^^ 

SEP  15    ^ 

IS  F  '22 

AUG:    1927 

8  90  '41 

OCT  2  7  1946 

Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/califfruitshowtoOOwickrich 

I 
I 


The 

California  Fruits 

and  How  to  Grow  Them 


A  MANUAL  OF  METHODS  WHICH  HAVE  YIELDED 

GREATEST  SUCCESS.  WITH  THE  USTS  OF 

VARIETIES    BEST  ADAPTED    TO 

THE  DIFFERENT  DISTRICTS 

OF  THE  STATE 


By  EDWARD   J.   WICKSON,  A.   M. 

Dean  and  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the 

University  of  California;    Director  and  Horticulturist  of  the 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station;  Author  of  "California 

Vegetables  in  Garden  and  Field;"  Editor  of 

The  Pacific  Rural  Press;  Member  of 

the   National   Council   of 

Horticulture,  Etc. 


FIFTH  EDITION.  REVISED  AND  EXTENDED 


SAN  FRANCISCO.  CAL. 

PACIFIC    RURAL    PRESS 

NINETEEN  HUNDRED  TEN 


Copyright,  1910. 

By  E.  J.  Wickson  and  Pacific  Rural  Press, 

Published  March,  1910. 


BOLTE  &  BRADEN  CO. 

printers  anij  publishers 
San  Francisco     -     Cal. 


PREFACE. 


The  Fourth  Edition  of  this  treatise  met  a  wider  de- 
mand than  anticipated  and  the  Fifth  Edition  has  to  be 
undertaken  within  a  year  from  the  publication  date  of  its 
predecessor — bringing  the  work  to  the  end  of  its  thir- 
teenth thousand.  The  writer  rejoices  in  this  large 
demand  as  a  token  of  the  usefulness  of  the  undertaking. 

The  Fifth  Edition  returns  to  large  octavo  form  as 
preferable  to  a  quarto  for  a  book  which  is  intended  to  be 
always  at  hand  as  a  guide  in  real  work.  Technical  works 
are  largely  in  octavo  form.  The  picturesque  quarto  of  the 
Fourth  Edition,  while  admired  by  connoisseurs  in  art 
printing,  was  condemned  by  others  who  found  it  agreeing 
neither  in  length  or  breadth  with  other  books  they  com- 
monly used  and  therefore  inconvenient  and  undesirable. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  Fifth  Edition  the  writer  has 
seized  the  opportunity  to  bring  the  contents  abreast  of  a 
new  decade  by  incorporating  the  most  recent  lessons  of 
progressive  experience  and  repeats  the  request  which  he 
has  made  in  earlier  editions  that  all  readers  whose  obser- 
vation and  work  teach  them  any  better  way  than  he  has 
described  shall  share  with  him  the  advantage  of  such 
greater  wisdom. 

EDWARD    J.    WICKSON.       « 


University  of  California, 

Berkeley,  March,  1910. 


224135 


CONTENTS 


PART    ONE:    GENERAL. 
Chapter 

I  The  Climate  of  California  and  its  Modifications. 

II  Why  the  California  Climate  favors  the  Growth  of  Fruit. 

III  The  Fruit  Soils  of  California. 

IV  The  Wild  Fruits  of  California. 
V  The  California  Mission  Fruits. 

VI  Introduction  of  New  Fruit  Varieties. 

PART    TWO:    CULTURAL. 

VII  Clearing  the  Land  for  Fruit. 

VIII  The  Nursery. 

IX  Budding  and  Grafting. 

X  Preparation  for  Planting. 

XI  Planting  the  Trees. 

^  XII  Pruning  Trees  and  Thinning  Fruit. 

■    XIII  Cultivation. 

XIV  Fertilizers  for  Trees  and  Vines. 

XV  Irrigation  of  Fruit  Trees  and  Vines. 

PART    THREE:    ORCHARD    FRUITS. 

XVI  Commercial  Fruit  Varieties. 

XVII  The  Apple. 

XVIII  The  Apricot. 

XIX  The  Cherry. 

XX  The  Peach. 

XXI  The  Nectarine. 

XXII  The  Pear. 

XXIII  Plums  and  Prunes. 

XXIV  The  Quince. 


PART    FOUR:    THE    GRAPE. 
Chapter 

XXV  The  Grape  Industry. 

XXVI  Propagating  and  Planting  Vines. 

XXVII  Pruning  and  Care  of  the  Vine. 

XXVIII  Grape  Varieties  in  California. 

PART    FIVE:     SEMI-TROPICAL    FRUITS. 

XXIX  The  Date. 

XXX  The  Fig. 

XXXI  The  Olive. 

XXXII  The  Orange. 

XXXIII  The  Pomelo  or  Grape  Fruit. 

XXXIV  The  Lemon. 

XXXV     Minor  Semi-Tropical  Fruits. 

PART    SIX:    SMALL    FRUITS. 
XXXVI     Berries  and  Currants. 

PART    SEVEN:    NUTS. 
XXXVII     Nut  Growing  in  California. 

PART    EIGHT:    FRUIT    PRESERVATION. 
XXXVIII     Fruit  Canning,  Crystallizing  and  Preserving. 

PART    NINE:    FRUIT    PROTECTION. 

XXXIX  Injurious  Insects. 

XL  Diseases  of  Trees  and  Vines. 

XLI  Suppression  of  Injurious  Animals  and  Birds. 

XLII  Protection  from  Wind  and  Frost. 

PART    TEN:    MISCELLANEOUS. 
XLIII     Utilization  of  Fruit  Wastes. 
Topical  Index. 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS 


PART    ONE:     GENERAL 
CHAPTER    I 

THE    CLIMATE    OF    CALIFORNIA    AND    ITS    LOCAL 
MODIFICATIONS 


In  climatic  conditions  affecting  horticulture  we  have  in  Cali- 
fornia almost  an  epitome  of  the  whole  United  States,  with  added 
climatic  characters  peculiarly  our  own.  We  have  high  mountain 
valleys  with  wintry  temperature-conditions,  where  only  hardy 
northern  fruits  can  be  grown;  we  have  hot  valleys  where  the  date 
palm  confidently  lifts  its  head  to  the  fiery  sunshine,  while  its  feet 
are  deeply  planted  in  moist  substrata  beneath  the  sandy  surface; 
but  we  can  not  claim  tropical  conditions,  because  our  dry  air  denies 
us  many  strictly  tropical  growths,  although  we  have  frostless  sites 
for  them.  Intermediate  between  the  cold  and  snow  of  the  moun- 
tains and  the  heat  and  sand  of  the  desert,  we  have  every  describable 
modification  and  gradation,  and,  naturally,  it  is  between  these 
extremes  that  our  richest  inheritance  of  horticultural  adaptation  lies. 

When  this  breadth  and  scope  of  our  horticultural  adaptations 
is  realized,  it  becomes  apparent  that  an  enumeration  of  the  fruits 
we  can  grow  successfully  would  be,  in  fact,  a  catalogue  of  the 
known  fruits  of  the  world,  except  those  which  are  strictly  tropical. 
Wherever  there  is  a  northern  or  southern  departure  from  the 
equator  sufficient  to  bring  energy  to  mankind,  or  where  the  same 
is  accomplished  by  elevation  upon  tropical  mountainside  or  plateau, 
there  also  are  fruits  which  find  a  welcoming  home  in  California, 
and  are  improved  by  the  intelligent  cultivation  and  selection  which 
here  prevail.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  abundantly  demon- 
strated, during  recent  years,  by  official  awards  at  great  exhibitions 
and  by  the  sharp  criteria  of  the  markets  as  well,  that  the  fruits  of 
wintry  regions  are  quite  as  much  benefited  by  transfer  to  proper' 
locations  in  California  as  are  the  people  who  come  to  grow  them. 
From  north  and  south  alike,  then,  California  makes  grand  acquisi- 


IQ  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

tions  and  includes  within  her  area  the  adaptations  of  the  whole 
country,  with  some  which  no  other  State  possesses. 

But  while  this  horticultural  scope  is  claimed  for  the  State  as  a 
whole,  it  is  necessary  to  add  that  local  adaptations  within  the  State 
must  be  very  narrowly  drawn.  Our  greatest  failures  have  followed 
ill  choice  of  location  for  the  purpose  intended.  Whenever  certain 
California  fruits  have  been  ill  spoken  of,  they  have  been  produced 
in  the  wrong  places,  or  by  ill-advised  methods.  It  is  possible, 
then,  to  produce  both  poor  and  perfect  fruit  of  a  given  kind.  It 
may  be  said  this  can  be  done  anywhere  by  the  extremes  of  culture 
and  neglect,  but  to  this  proposition  it  must  be  added  that  in  Cali- 
fornia equally  excellent  methods  and  care  may  produce  perfection 
in  one  place  and  the  opposite  in  another.  One  who  seeks  to  know 
California  well  must  undertake  to  master  both  its  horticultural 
greatness  and  littleness;  and  so  closely  are  these  associated,  and 
so  narrow  the  belts  of  special  adaptations,  that  there  are  many 
counties  which  have  a  range  of  products  nearly  as  great  as  the 
State  itself. 

It  is  hard  for  the  stranger  to  realize  this.  It  is  difficult  for 
him  to  believe  that  the  terms  "northern"  and  ''southern"  have 
almost  no  horticultural  significance  in  California;  that  northern 
fruits  reach  perfection,  under  proper  conditions,  at  the  south,  and. 
vice  versa;  that  some  regions  of  greatest  rainfall  have  to  irrigate 
most  frequently;  that  some  of  greatest  heat  have  sharpest  valley 
frosts;  that  some  fruits  can  be  successfully  grown  through  a  north 
and  south  distance  of  500  miles,  but  can  not  be  successfully  carried 
a  few  hundred  feet  of  either  less  or  greater  elevation;  that  on  the 
same  parallel  of  latitude  within  a  hundred  miles  of  distance,  from 
coast  to  mountainside,  one  can  continuously  gather  marketable 
Bartlett  p^ars  for  three  months — not  to  mention  the  second  crop, 
which  is  often  of  account  on  the  same  trees  in  the  same  season. 

Through  the  multitude  of  local  observations,  which  seem  per- 
plexing and  almost  contradictory,  it  is  possible  to  clearly  discern 
certain  general  conditions,  of  both  nature  and  culture,  which  may 
be  briefly  advanced  as  characteristically  and  distinctively 
Californian. 

The  climate  of  the  Pacific  Coast  is  described  by  the  meteor- 
ologist as  "insular  or  moderate,"  as  contrasted  with  the  "continental 
or  excessive"  climate  of  the  regions  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The 
west  coast  of  Europe  is  also  insular  in  its  climate.  The  northern 
limit  of  an  annual  mean  temperature  of  50  degrees  Fahr.  is  50 
degrees  and  47  degrees  of  north  latitude  on  western  coasts  of 
Europe  and  America  respectively.  But  though  there  is  this 
similarity  in  mean  annual  temperature,  there  is  a  decided  advantage 
pertaining  to  our  climate  over  that  of  west  Europe  in  that  our 
range  of  temperature  is  less ;  that  is,  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are 
nearer  together,  and  changes  are  therefore  much  less  excessive. 


CL.IMAT1G    PECULIARITIES 


11 


This  characteristic  of  our  local  climates  is  due  in  the  main  to 
two  great  agencies,  one  active,  bringing  heat,  the  other  passive, 
shielding  us  from  arctic  influences. 

First :  Our  proximity  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Professor  McAdie, 
who  has  charge  of  the  San  Francisco  office  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau,  says :  ''The  prevailing  drift  of  the  surface  air 
in  temperate  latitude  is  from  west  to  east.  Therefore  the  proximity 
of  the  Pacific,  with  its  mean  annual  temperature  of  55  degrees 
Fahr.,  serves  to  prevent  large  temperature  changes,  because  of  the 
water  vapor  and  also  because  the  air  comes  landward.  Whenever 
the  circulation  is  reversed,  temperatures  vary." 

Second :  Another  agency  contributing  to  the  mild  climate  of 
the  Pacific  Coast  consists  in  the  mountain  barriers  upon  our 
northern  and  eastern  boundaries.  It  was  Guyot  who  first  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascade 
Mountains  reach  the  coast  of  Alaska  and  bend  like  a  great  arm 
around  its  western  and  southern  shore,  thus  shutting  ofif  or  deflect- 
ing the  polar  winds  that  otherwise  would  flow  down  over  the 
Pacific  Coast  States,  while  California  has  her  own  additional  pro- 
tection from  the  north  in  the  mountain  arch  which  has  its  keystone 
in  Mount  Shasta. 

CHIEF    TOPOGRAPHICAL    AND    CLIMATIC    DIVISIONS 
OF    CALIFORNIA 

California  is  usually  divided  into  three  main  areas  and  climates, 
each  distinct  in  typical  conditions  and  yet  separated  by  regions, 
more  or  less  wide,  in  which  these  conditions  merge  and  influence 
each  other.     Dr.  Robertson  says* : 

Isothermal  lines  which  normally  run  east  and  west  are,  as  they  near 
the  Pacific,  deflected  north  and  south,  and  define  three  distinct  climatic 
belts.  These  may  be  named  coast,  valley  and  mountain;  and  while  they 
resemble  each  other  in  having  only  two  seasons,  they  are  dissimilar  in 
other  respects.  These  differences  depend  upon  the  topography  of  the 
country,  and  are  of  degree  rather  than  of  kind;  altitude,  distance  from 
the  ocean,  and  situation  with  reference  to  mountain  chains,  giving  to  each 
region   its    characteristic   climate. 

How  similar  are  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  these  belts 
may  be  learned  from  the  data  shown  in  the  following  table,  which 
includes  points  separated  by  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  State, 
the  difference  in  latitude  of  the  extreme  north  and  south  points 
being  seven  or  eight  degrees.  Thus,  through  a  north  or  south 
distance  great  as  that  which  separates  the  States  of  Georgia  and 
New  York,  similar  climatic  conditions  prevail  in  California.  In  the 
following  table  the  averages  are  deduced  from  observations  by  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau  observers  for  a  long  series  of  years : 

♦  Report  of  State  Agricultural  Society,  1886,  p.  322. 


^2  CALIP^ORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

LOCATIONS    FOR    THE    GROWTH    OF    DIFFERENT 

FRUITS 

-_  It  is  intended  to  describe  as  definitely  as  possible  the  locations 
suitable  for  the  growth  of  different  fruits  in  the  special  chapters 
given  to  those  fruits,  but  there  are  a  few  general  conditions  which 
should  be  outlined. 


Seasonable  and  extreme  temperatures  and  average  rainfall   in  various  California  re- 
gions from  the  records  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  to  the  close  of  1907 

a   „^  „&  „s  „>  „^    s    p    sj 
s    33  33  II  II  |3   ,|    I     li 


STATIONS  COUNTY  o        2®     ^^     2         2<W     2^ 


C 


^  ^^.  ^v  ?§  c^  c3  3  2  g« 

<->■  i^  (n  a  z^  7  ^  <^ 

COAST  ^ 

Eureka Humboldt 64  47  50  56  54  52  85  20  45.8 

San  Francisco...  San  Francisco 155  51  55  59  59  56  101  29  22.7 

San    Jose Santa  Clara 95  50  57  67  60  58  104  18  14.8 

King   City Monterey 333  49  57  66  60  58  114  15  10.8 

Santa  Barbara...  Santa   Barbara 130  55  58  65  63  60  100  28  16.6 

Los  Angeles Los   Angeles 293  55  60  70  65  62  109  28  15.6 

San  Diego San  Diego 93  55  59  68  63  61  101  32  9.4 

VALLEY 

Redding Tehama 552  47  60  80  64  63  117  18  36.2 

Sacramento Sacramento 71  47  59  72  62  60  108  19  19.9 

Merced Merced 173  49  61  79  65  63  120  16  10.3 

Fresno Fresno 293  47  60  79  64  63  114  20  9.2 

Visalia Tulare 334  46  59  78  62  61  113  17  9.8 

FOOTHILL  AND  MESA 

Auburn Placer 1360  47  57  75  64  61  110  12  33.4 

Redlands San  Bernardino. ...  1352  52  61  77  65  64  113  25  14.8 


In  discussing  the  choice  of  location  for  an  orchard  it  is  not 
intended  to  speak  geographically.  As  has  already  been  intimated, 
latitude,  which  is  a  prime  factor  in  geography,  is  of  exceedingly 
small  account  as  an  indication  of  horticultural  adaptations  in 
California.  The  fact  becomes  strikingly  apparent  when  it  is  known 
that  the  apple  and  the  orange,  fruit  kings  whose  kingdoms  lie  at 
opposite  borders  of  the  temperate  zone,  so  far  distant  that  one 
may  be  called  semifrigid  and  the  other  semi-tropical,  have  in 
California  utter  disregard  for  the  parallels  of  latitude,  which  set 
metes  and  bounds  upon  them  in  other  lands,  and  flourish  side  by 
side,  in  suitable  localities,  from  San  Diego  to  Shasta.  Impressive 
as  this  truth  may  be,  it  is  not  so  startling  as  another  fact,  viz.,  that 
fruits,  in  suitable  interior  situations,  ripen  earlier  at  the  north  than 
at  the  south — a  complete  reversal  of  the  tenets  of  the  geographer. 


THE    COAST    CLIMATE  l^ 

It  is  apparent  then  that  the  selection  of  locations  for  orchards 
must  be  made  with  a  knowledge  of  special  conditions  governing 
the  distribution  of  equal  temperatures  and  other  natural  agencies 
contributing  to  the  development  of  fruit.  This  distribution,  as 
has  been  intimated,  is  not  by  parallels  of  latitude,  great  circles 
which  appear  as  straight  lines  on  a  map,  but  by  curves,  which 
proceed  in  various  directions,  governed  chiefly  by  topography. 
These  are  curves  of  temperature,  of  rainfall,  of  elevation,  of  soil 
formation  and  deposit.  Geography  retires  from  authority; 
topography  and  climatography  govern. 

Let  these  ruling  conditions  be  reviewed,  then,  briefly :  First, 
as  to  general  areas ;  second,  with  reference  to  special  situations 
and  locations. 

COAST   CLIMATE 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  coast  are  equable  temperature, 
increasing  southward ;  summers  cool  and  winters  warm,  as  com- 
pared with  the  interior;  abundant  rainfall,  decreasing  considerably 
southward ;  a  somewhat  humid  atmosphere,  as  compared  with  the 
interior ;  frequent  fogs  or  overcast  skies ;  prevailing  westerly  winds. 

The  extension  of  coast  influence  toward  the  interior  is  gov- 
erned by  local  topography.  Coast  valleys  open  to  ocean  winds  are 
cooler  and  moister  and  demand  hardier  fruits  than  valleys  sheltered 
by  intervening  ranges.  Gaps  and  passes  in  the  ranges  are  subject 
to  winds  of  considerable  force  and  low  temperature,  and  are  not 
generally  favorable  for  fruit ;  on  the  other  hand,  situations  sheltered 
on  the  north  and  west  favor  growth  of  fruits  even  though  quite 
near  the  coast.  Sometimes  a  distance  of  a  few  miles,  sometimes  a 
wind-break  of  natural  forest  or  of  planted  trees,  so  modifies  coast 
influences  that  fruits  do  well.  Elevation  on  the  sides  of  coast 
valleys  secures  similar  results.  For  example,  the  floor  of  the 
Pajaro  Valley  is  well  suited  for  apples,  late  pears,  cherries,  plums, 
prunes,  and  berries  (except  gooseberries),  while  on  adjacent  hill- 
sides peaches  do  well. 

In  southern  California,  coast  winds  are  warmer  than  in  the 
upper  half  of  the  State,  but  coast  influences  intrude  further,  as  a 
rule,  because  the  hills  near  the  coast  in  southern  California  are  low; 
the  high  ranges,  answering  to  the  Coast  Range  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  State,  trending  far  into  the  interior.  On  the  coast  side  of 
these  ranges  fruits  ripen  later  than  in  sheltered  interior  points  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  State,  but  eastward  of  the  mountains,  where 
soil  and  moisture  favor,  or  irrigation  is  practised,  extra  early  loca- 
tions have  been  found  and  are  now  being  rapidly  developed — in 
the  Imperial  and  adjacent  valleys,  for  instance. 

Some  of  the  horticultural  effects  of  the  conditions  prevailing 
on  the  coast  may  be  described  as  follows : 


-j^^  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Late  Ripening  of  Fruits. — The  late  ripening  of  fruits  west  of 
the  mountains  in  southern  California  has  just  been  mentioned. 
Intrusion  of  coast  influences  has  the  same  effect  in  more  marked 
degree  at  the  north  because  the  ocean  winds  are  colder.  Directly 
on  the  coast,  at  Pescadero,  San  Mateo  County,  for  example,  fruits 
ripen  about  a  month  later. than  in  Santa  Clara  Valley,  which  is  just 
across  the  Coast  Range.  Napa  Valley,  though  about  forty  miles 
inland  and  sheltered  by  ranges  of  hills,  still  is  sufficiently  affected 
by  coast  influences  to  mature  fruits  considerably  later  than  Vaca 
Valley,  ten  or  fifteen  miles-  further  east,  beyond  a  higher  range, 
which  completely  bars  out  these  influences.  Similar  local  effects 
are  found  in  southern  California.  For  instance,  in  Ventura  County, 
in  a  canyon  sixteen  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  at  an  elevation  of 
sixteen  hundred  feet,  fruits  ripen  three  weeks  earlier  than  on  the 
coast  or  in  the  valleys  opening  thereon. 

Failure  of  Certain  Fruits. — Though  killing  frosts  are  few  directly 
on  the  coast,  the  deficiency  in  summer  heat  and  sunshine  renders 
some  fruits  unsatisfactory.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  upper 
coast  region.  Grapes  and  figs  ripen  imperfectly,  while  but  a  short 
distance  back  from  the  coast,  in  situations,  sheltered  by  ridges 
parallel  to  the  coast,  they  do  well.  Elevation  sometimes  produces 
corresponding  effects. 

Pests  and  Diseases. — Certain  blights  are  more  prevalent  under 
coast  conditions.  The  scab  blight  of  the  apple,  the  curl-leaf  of 
the  peach,  and  some  other  blights,  are  prevalent  on  the  coast  and 
in  coast  valleys,  on  the  river  bottoms  in  the  interior,  and  on  the 
mountains,  and  less  serious,  or  wholly  absent,  in  the  hot  interior 
valleys.  Some  insects  prefer  the  coast  but  thrive  also  in  the 
interior,  as  hot  dry  wind  is  excluded  by  dense  growth  of  the  tree 
and  the  included  air  becomes  moister  above  irrigated  soil.  A 
notable  instance  is  the  black  scale,  which,  with  the  black  smut 
which  attends  it,  has  long  been  a  grievous  pest  of  growers  of 
olives  and  citrus  fruits,  and  has  recently  become  prevalent  on 
deciduous  fruit  trees  in  some  regions.  Directly  under  coast  influ- 
ences, moss  and  lichens  gather  quickly  and  should  be  removed. 
Spraying  with  alkaline  washes  not  only  kills  insects  but  cleans 
the  bark  from  parasitic  vegetable  growth.  Although  fruit  trees 
on  the  coast  are  not  so  subject  to  sunburn  as  in  the  interior,  there 
is  especial  value  in  low  heading  to  withstand  winds ;  there  should 
also  be  plenty  of  room  given  the  trees,  that  sunshine  may  have  free 
access  to  warm  the  ground  all  around  the  tree,  which  may  be 
undesirable  in  the  interior. 


VALLEY,    FOOT-HILL    AND    MOUNTAIN    CLIMATE  -t^ 


VALLEY    CLIMATE 

The  characteristics  of  the  interior  valley  climate  are  higher 
summer  and  lower  winter  temperatures  than  on  the  coast,  the 
range  of  temperature  being  nearly  the  same  both  north  and  south ; 
rainfall  abundant  in  the  north  and  decreasing  rapidly  southward, 
so  that  as  a  rule  the  interior  valleys  in  the  south  half  of  the  State 
require  irrigation;  very  dry  air  and  almost  constant  sunshine, 
freedom  from  fogs  and  from  dew  in  summertime ;  winds  occasion- 
ally strong,  hot,  and  desiccating  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter. 

Local  Modifications. — The  term  'Valley  climate"  is  broad,  and 
includes  everything,  away  from  the  coast  to  a  certain  elevation 
on  the  slope  of  the  mountains.  Certain  small  valleys  protected 
from  cold  northerly  winds  and  from  fog-bearing  westerly  winds 
and  open  to  the  spring  sunshine,  have  a  forcing  climate  which 
produces  the  earliest  maturing  fruit  of  the  season ;  earlier  not 
only  than  the  coast  and  the  mountain,  as  has  been  stated,  but  also 
somewhat  earlier  than  adjacent  locations  in  the  broad,  open 
valley.  Slight  elevation,  even  on  the  sides  of  small  valleys, 
frequently  secures  freedom  from  winter  frosts  and  ministers  to 
early  ripening.  Elevation  above  sea-level  on  the  rims  of  great 
valleys  also  secures  similar  results  and  gives  rise  to  thermal  belts 
in  which  semi-tropical  fruits  are  successfully  growing  even  as  far 
north  as  Shasta  County.  On  the  floors  of  great  valleys  moderating 
influences  are  secured  on  the  lee  side  of  wide  rivers  and  by 
planting  on  the  river  bank  or  on  slightly  elevated  swells  rather 
than  on  the  level,  open  plain.  The  river  bottom  lands  of  the  great 
valleys,  though  subject  to  severe  frosts,  are  freer  from  the  effects 
of  desiccating  winds  than  the  open  plains ;  they  are,  however, 
more  favorable  to  the  spread  of  certain  blights  than  the  plains. 

Some  of  the  horticultural  eflfects  of  valley  conditions  are  as 
follows:  Early  ripening  and  perfection  of  summer  and  autumn 
fruits,  owing  to  continual  sunshine  and  dry  air;  forced  maturity 
of  certain  fruits,  as  apples  for  instance,  which  destroys  character 
and  keeping  quality;  injury  from  sunburn  and  hot  winds  in' 
summer,  which  seriously  aflfect  both  fruit  and  foliage  of  some 
varieties;  occasional  injury  to  tender  fruits  (semi-tropicals)  and 
to  young  trees  of  hardy  fruits,  which  have  been  kept  growing  late 
in  the  season,  from  low  temperature,  which  sometimes  is  reached 
suddenly  on  the  floor  of  the  valleys ;  freedom  from  some  blights 
and  insects  which  are  prevalent  on  the  coast,  but  not  from  others. 
Many  of  these  minor  troubles  are,  however,  counterbalanced  by 
the  earliness,  size,  beauty,  and  quality  of  certain  fruits,  and  by 
the  most  rapid  and  successful  open-air  drying  of  fruits,  owing 
to  high  autumn  temperature,  the  freedom  from  summer  fog,  dew, 
and  generally  from  rain  during  the  drying  season. 


13  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


FOOT-HILL    CLIMATE 

Foot-hill  climate  is  usually  considered  as  a  modification  of 
valley  climate.  It  has  been  shown  that  up  to  about  two  thousand 
five  hundred  feet,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the 
seasonal  temperatures  are  quite  like  those  of  the  valley,  but  the 
rainfall  increases  about  one  inch  for  each  hundred  feet  of  elevation. 
There  are,  however,  in  the  foot-hills,  places  where  early  spring 
heat  and  freedom  from  frost  give  very  early  ripening  fruits,  and 
other  places  at  the  same  elevation  where  winter  temperature  drops 
below  the  valley  minimum,  and  where  late  frosts  also  prevail. 
This  is  governed  by  local  topography.  In  many  of  the  small 
valleys  among  the  foot-hills,  both  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the 
Coast  Ranges,  frosts  are  more  severe  than  on  the  hills  adjacent 
or  in  the  broader  valleys  to  which  they  are  tributary.  These  small 
''protected  valleys"  are  apparently  warm  and  cozy  for  early 
blooming  deciduous  and  citrus  fruits,  but  are  really  very  dan- 
gerous. They  frequently  have  such  narrow  and  obstructed  open- 
ings that  cold  air  is  dammed  up  over  their  lower  lands  and  frosts 
are  more  severe  and  later  than  in  valleys  which  have  ample  and 
free  outlets  and  seem  less  protected. 

Of  course  the  disposition  of  cold  air  to  settle  in  low  places 
and  to  flow  down  canyons  and  creek-beds  while  the  warm  air 
rises  and  bathes  the  adjacent  hillsides,  has  much  to  do  with  frost 
in  the  hollow  and  the  freedom  from  it  on  the  hills.  The  constant 
motion  of  the  air  on  the  slopes  is  also  a  preventive  of  frost,  pro- 
viding the  general  temperature  is  not  too  low.  It  is  not  un- 
common to  find  in  deeper  valleys,  protected  against  the  western 
wind,  flecks  of  snow  and  a  wintry  chill,  with  dormant  vegetation, 
while  one  thousand  feet  higher  up  the  foliage  is  fast  developing. 


MOUNTAIN    CLIMATE 

Above  an  elevation  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  to  three 
thousand  feet,  conditions  gradually  intrude  which  resemble  those 
of  wintry  climates.  The  tender  fruits,  the  apricot,  peach,  etc., 
become  liable  to  winter  injury  and  give  irregular  returns,  or  as 
greater  elevation  is  attained,  become  wholly  untrustworthy. 
Early  blooming  of  these  fruits  during  warm  spells  which  are  fol- 
lowed by  severe  frosts,  renders  the  trees  unfruitful.  At  four 
thousand  to  four  thousand  five  hundred  feet  the  hardy  apple  and 
pear  flourish,  ripening  late,  and  winter  varieties  possessing  excel- 
lent keeping  qualities.  Here,  however,  winter  killing  of  trees 
begins  and  locations  even  for  hardy  fruits  have  to  be  chosen  with 
circumspection. 


ACTIVITY    OP    PRUIT    TREES  IJ 

There  are  elevated  tracts  of  large  extent  among  the  Sierras 
where  the  common  wild  plum,  choke-cherry,  gooseberry,  and  Cali- 
fornia chestnut  are  produced  abundantly.  April  frosts  have  killed 
the  fruit  of  those  same  plums,  transplanted  to  lower  ground,  while 
those  left  in  their  natural  situation  were  quite  unharmed.  It  has 
been  observed  that  these  plum  trees,  with  other  fruits  and  nuts 
in  their  original  positions,  invariably  occupy  the  broad  tops  of 
the  great  ridges  instead  of  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  ravines  or 
narrow,  pent-up  valleys.  Follow  nature  in  the  choice  of  orchard 
sites  (with  due  regard  to  a  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  either 
natural  or  artificial)  and  little  hazard  attends  the  culture  of  the 
hardier  fruits  of  our  latitude  among  the  highlands  of  the  State 
than  is  incident  to  other  seemingly  more  favored  localities.  The 
beauty  and  quality  of  these  mountain  fruits  are  proverbial.. 


A    RULE    OF    GENERAL    APPLICATION 

What  has  been  thus  suggested  of  the  great  variation  of  tem- 
perature conditions  within  narrow  limits  should  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  not  only  must  the  kind  of  fruit  to  plant  be  determined 
by  local  observation  and  experience,  but  often  varieties  of  these 
fruits  must  be  chosen  with  reference  to  adaptation  to  local 
environment.  For  this  reason  it  is  impossible  to  compile  tables 
of  varieties  suited  for  wide  areas — ^and  yet  it  is  true  that  some 
varieties  have  shown  themselves  hardy  and  satisfactory  under  all 
conditions.  These  facts  will  be  shown  by  the  discussion  which 
will  be  given  to  each  of  the  diflferent  fruits. 

REST    AND    ACTIVITY    OF    FRUIT    TREES 

Indication  has  already  been  made  of  regions  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  early  and  of  late  fruits.  There  is,  of  course,  difference 
in  time  of  rest  and  of  returning  activity  in  blooming.  On  the 
mountains  under  wintry  conditions  the  trees  leaf  out  and  bloom 
late,  following  more  or  less  the  habit  of  Eastern  trees.  In  the 
foot-hills,  the  valleys,  and  the  coast,  there  is  less  difference  in 
time  of  rest  and  of  leaf  and  bloom.  Even  in  regions  where  there 
may  be  a  month's  difference  in  ripening  of  fruit,  as,  for  example, 
in  the  Vacaville  district,  fifty  miles  inland,  and  in  Berkeley,  two 
miles  from  the  bay  shore,  trees  bloom  almost  at  the  same  date. 
The  difference  in  ripening  is  due  to  the  higher  temperature  and 
fuller  sunshine  of  the  interior  situation,  which  have  a  forcing 
effect,  while  the  low  temperature  and  dull  skies  of  the  summer  on 
the  coast  retard  maturity. 

The  rest  of  the  tree,  in  all  save  the  mountain  district.  Is  not 
dependent  upon  the  touch  of  frost.     It  comes  rather  from  thirst 


18 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


than  from  cold.  The  immense  weight  of  fruit,  the  vigorous  growth 
of  wood,  and  the  exhaustion  of  moisture  from  the  soil  by  the 
draught  of  the  roots  to  compass  this  growth,  are  the  chief  causes 
which  bring  the  sere  and  yellow  leaf  in  California.  It  is  not  frost, 
for  the  petunias  may  be  blooming  and  the  tomato  vines  still  green 
in  the  fields.  But  the  time  has  come  for  a  rest.  The  trees  sleep; 
but  it  is  merely  as  a  nap  at  midday;  the  early  rains  wake  them 
soon.  The  roots  are  active  first,  then  the  buds  swell,  and  the 
blossoms  burst  forth — sometimes  as  early  as  January — the  almond 
first  heralding  the  advent  of  California  springtime. 

Sometimes  this  season  of  rest  is  too  short  for  the  good  of  the 
tree  or  vine.  The  early  rains,  when  followed  by  a  spring-like 
temperature,  as  sometimes  happens,  induce  activity  in  the  top  as 
well  as  the  root,  and  the  tree  is  not  in  condition  to  withstand  cold 
weather,  which  may  follow.  It  is  probable  that  such  stimulated 
activity,  suddenly  checked,  is  responsible  for  more  ills  to  tree  and 
vine  than  are  usually  attributed  to  it. 


CHAPTER    II 

WHY    THE    CALIFORNIA    CLIMATE    FAVORS    THE 
GROWTH    OF    FRUIT 

It  was  pointed  out  by  the  earliest  students  of  meteorology,  as 
related  to  horticulture,  that  perfect  development  of  fruits  depends 
upon  certain  atmospheric  conditions,  which  are  included  in  the 
term  climate :  First,  temperature ;  second,  light ;  third,  humidity 
or  atmospheric  moisture, — considered  w^holly  apart  from  soil 
moisture.  It  was  also  shown  that  temperature  and  humidity  should 
be  equable,  or  as  free  as  possible  from  excessive  extremes  or  rapid 
changes. 

Obviously,  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  California  climate  are : 
First,  freedom  from  extremes  of  low  temperature ;  second,  an 
abundance  of  sunshine ;  and  third,  an  atmosphere  with  a  low  per- 
centage of  humidity.  It  will  be  interesting  to  introduce  enough 
statistics  to  demonstrate  these  claims,  and  to  cite  reasons  why  these 
conditions  are  of  special  value  to  the  fruit  grower. 

THE   OFFICE   OF   HEAT   IN    FRUIT    PRODUCTION 

Temperature  conditions  may  preclude  the  success  of  a  fruit  tree 
either  by  destroying  it  outright,  by  dwarfing  it,  or  by  preventing 
it  from  setting  or  ripening  its  fruit.  ^Extremes  of  temperature 
accomplish  the  death  of  plants,  and  insufficient  or  excessive  mean 
temperatures  may  prevent  fruition  without  killing  the  plant.  The 
first  quality  of  the  California  climate  to  arrest  the  attention  of 
fruit  growers  in  the  states  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  the 
freedom  from  the  effects  of  extremely  low  winter  temperatures, 
to  which  is  due  the  deplorable  failure,  in  the  eastern  and  western 
states,  of  many  of  the  fruit  varieties  from  the  west  of  Europe,  and 
to  escape  which  such  zealous  effort  is  now  being  so  successfully 
put  forth  to  secure  hardy  varieties  of  native  and  foreign  origin. 

How  slight  is  the  injury  from  low  temperatures  in  all  parts  of 
the  state  where  fruit  is  largely  grown  may  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing compilation  of  extreme  low  temperatures  at  different  points 
approximately  at  the  same  latitude  on  the  coast,  in  the  interior 
valleys,  and  on  the  foot-hills. 

These  records  will  show  any  one  familiar  with  winter  killing  of 
the  leading  orchard  fruits  that  such  disasters  are  not  to  be  feared 
in  the  chief  fruit  regions  of  California.  Local  temperature  is  largely 
controlled  by  local  conditions,  as  has  been  already  pointed  out,  and 

19 


20  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO    GROW    THEM 

Lowest   temperature   at   several   CaFifornia    points 


Coast  and  Coast        Degrees     Interior  Valleys        Degrees        Foot-hills  Degrees 

Valleys  above  zero  above  zero  above  zero 

Eureka    20       Redding    18       

Ukiah 12       Red  Bluff 17 .. 


Cloverdale    24  Oroville    20  Nevada  City 7 

Napa 18  Marysville    20  Colfax    14 

San   Francisco 28  Sacramento   19  Auburn    12 

San  Jose 18  Merced    16  Jackson 10 

Gilroy 20  Fresno 20  

San   Miguel 15  Tulare  City 14  Porterville   22 

Los  Angeles 28  Colton    22  Redlands    25 

San   Diego 32  Poway   21  Fall  Brook 24 

in  the  districts  named  in  the  table  there  are  special  locations  where" 
the  lowest  temperature  probably  differed  a  few  degrees  from  the 
figures  given. 

NECESSITY   OF   ADEQUATE   SUMMER   HEAT 

Passing  beyond  the  freedom  from  winter  killing,  it  may  be 
remarked  that  the  influence  of  certain  degrees  of  heat  upon  the 
growth  of  the  plant  and  the  perfection  of  its  fruit,  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  close  observation.  Boussingault  conducted  care- 
ful experiments,  and  showed  that  a  temperature  above  a  certain 
minimum  of  heat  is  found  necessary  for  germination,  another  for 
chemical  modification,  and  a  third  for  flowering,  a  fourth  for  the 
ripening  of  seeds,  a  fifth  for  the  elaboration  of  the  saccharine  juices, 
and  a  sixth  for  the  development  of  aroma  or  bouquet. 

Originally  the  mean  annual  temperature  was  alone  observed, 
and  the  polar  limits  of  plants,  it  was  presumed,  could  be  thereby 
determined.  More  recently  it  was  taught  that  the  mean  tempera- 
ture of  seasons  is  of  more  importance  than  that  of  the  year,  and 
it  is  believed  that  to  the  relative  distribution  of  heat  over  the 
seasons  rather  than  to  the  absolute  amount  received  during  the 
year,  we  are  to  attribute  the  fitness  or  unfitness  of  a  region  for  the 
growth  of  certain  kinds  of  vegetation. 

It  is  held  in  Europe  that  the  mean  heat  of  the  cycle  of  vegetation 
of  the  vine  must  be  at  least  59  degrees  Fahr.,  and  that  of  the 
summer  from  65  degrees  to  66  degrees  Fahr.  It  is  stated  to  be 
impossible,  for  instance,  to  cultivate  the  vine  upon  the  temperate 
tablelands  of  South  America,  where  they  enjoy  a  mean  temperature 
of  62.6  degrees  to  66.2  degrees  Fahr.,  because  these  climates  are 
characterized  by  a  constancy  of  temperature,  never  rising  to  the 
higher  heats  necessary  to  the  process  of  sugar  forming,  and  the 
vine  grows,  and  flourishes,  but  the  grapes  never  become  thoroughly 
ripe.  Boussingault  shows  that,  in  addition  to  a  summer  and 
autumn  sufliciently  hot,  it  is  indispensable  that  at  a  given  period — 
that  which  follows  the  appearance  of    seeds — there  should    be  a 


SUMMER     HEAT     AMPLE 


21 


month  the  mean  temperature  of  which  does  not  fall  below  66.2 
degrees  Fahr.  As  will  appear  presently,  this  temperature  test 
should  not  be  taken  alone,  but  it  will  serve  as  a  standard  to  show 
one  featur*  of  the  horticultural  adaptation  of  the  California 
climate.  Boussingault  claims  the  need  of  66.2  degrees  Fahr.  for  a 
single  month.  To  be  sure  to  include  this,  the  accompanying  table 
gives  the  average  summer  temperature  at  the  leading  fruit-growing 
centers  named. 

Average  summer  temperature  at  various  California   points 

Coast  and  Coast    Deg.  Deg.  Eleva-  Deg. 

Valleys  F.         Interior  Valleys         F.  Foot-hills        tion      F. 

Upper   Lake 86  Redding    80       Auburn    1,363        75 

Napa    65  Oroville     79        Colfax    ...'. 2,421         76 

Livermore   69  Marysvllle   78       Georgetown  2,500        85 

San  Jose    67  Sacramento    72       Caliente  1,290        82 

Hollister 66  Merced    79       Fall  Brook 700         68 

Santa   Barbara 65  Fresno    79       Redlands  1,352         77 

Los   Angeles 70  Tulare  78 

San   Diego 68  Riverside     73 


These  points  are  selected  because  the  European  varieties  of 
the  grape  reach  perfection  in  their  vicinity.  The  excess  of  heat 
above  that  required,  as  is  found  at  all  the  interior  points  mentioned 
in  the  table,  results  in  a  very  high  sugar  percentage  in  the  grapes, 
and  contributes  to  the  ripening  of  a  second  and  third  crop,  as 
will  be  noted  presently.  The  superior  length  of  the  growing  season 
in  California,  of  course,  is  an  important  agency  toward  the  same 
end. 

DIRECT    SUNLIGHT    ALSO    A    REQUISITE 

Count  de  Gasparin  was  first  to  point  out  that  not  alone  sufficient 
heat,  but  abundance  of  continuous  sunshine  is  a  requisite  of  per- 
fection in  fruit  growth  and  ripening,  and  on  his  authority  may  be 
based  a  claim  of  exceptional  value  to  the  fruit  grower  in  the  months 
of  cloudless  skies  which  are  characteristic  of  the  California  summer. 

**The  solar  rays,"  says  Gasparin,  ''do  not  only  produce  heat,  but 
bring  us  light,  and  the  effects  of  the  heat  and  light  rays  differ  in  a 
very  pronounced  manner.  Without  light  there  is  no  fructification ; 
it  is  not  necessary  that  the  want  'of  light  should  be  complete  that 
there  should  be  a  failure  of  fruits.  In  fact,  diffused  light  alone  does 
not  suffice  for  the  greater  number  of  plants;  cultivated  plants  will 
not  ripen  their  seed  without  the  direct  rays  of  sun,  and  the  longer 
they  are  deprived  of  it  the  smaller  the  quantity  which  they  will 
mature."* 


♦  Cours  d' Agriculture,  t.  II,  p.  96. 


22  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Again,  referring  to  the  grape,  for  in  connection  with  the  growth 
of  this  fruit  the  most  careful  researches  have  been  made,  Humboldt 
wrote :  ''If  to  give  a  potable  wine  the  vine  shuns  the  islands  and 
nearly  all  seacoasts,  even  those  of  the  West,  the  cause  is  not  only 
in  the  moderate  heat  of  summer  upon  the  seashore,  but  it  exists 
more  in  the  difference  which  there  is  between  direct  and  diffused 
light;    between  a  clear  sky,  and  one  veiled  with  clouds.'' § 

Normal    cloudiness    at    California    and    Eastern    points 

Avg.  for 
CALIFORNIA       March  April     May     June     July      Aug.    Sept.     Oct.     Nov.   9  mo. 

Red    Bluff 4.4  4.2  3.6  1.9  1.0  0.7  1.3  2.4  3.4  2.5 

Sacramento     3.9  3.5  2.7  1.5  0.5  0.4  1.1  2.0  2.8  2.0 

San  Francisco 4.8  4.3  4.2  3.8  4.3  4.3  3.5  3.3  3.8  4.0 

Fresno    4.3  2.9  2.7  1.5  0.7  0.9  1.4  2.2  2.8  2.0 

San   Diego 4.8  4.4  5.3  4.8  4.3  3.9  3.7  3.8  3.3  4.2 

EASTERN 

Rochester,    N.    Y 6.6  5.4  5.2  4.9  4.6  4.6  4.9  6.0  7.6  5.5 

New  York,   N.   Y 5.5  5.3  5.2  4.9  5.0  4.9  4.7  4.9  5.2  5.0 

Philadelphia,    Pa 5.6  5.4  5.1  5.0  5.0  4.9  4.8  4.7  5.2  5.0 

Baltimore,   Md 5.4  5.1  5.1  4.9  4.8  4.9  4.7  4.6  4.9  4.9 

Cleveland,    Ohio 6.4  5.3  4.9  4.6  4.3  4.3  4.9  5.7  7.3  5.3 

Grand    Haven,    Mich.. 6.2  5.4  4.8  4.6  3.8  4.0  4.4  5.6  7.5  5.1 

Jacksonville,   Fla 4.2  4.1  4.1  5.1  4.8  4.9  5.0  4.2  4.5  4.5 

New  Orleans,  La 4.8  4.8  4.3  4.7  4.9  4.7  4.3  3.5  4.5  4.5 


It  is  noticeable  that  at  the  California  coast  points  the  average 
cloudiness  is  almost  twice  that  of  the  interior  valleys,  while  at  the 
East  the  interior  fruit  regions  of  western  New  York,  Ohio,  and 
Michigan,  have  a  greater  average  cloudiness  than  the  Hudson 
River,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware  regions  near  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board. The  average  cloudiness  in  the  Eastern  fruit  regions  is 
rather  more  than  twice  as  great  as  in  the  regions  of  California 
where  most  fruit  is  grown. 

This  excess  of  advantage,  as  it  may  be  termed,  in  connection 
with  the  high  and  protracted  heat  already  mentioned,  takes  prac- 
tical form  in  the  successful  ripening  of  a  second  and  sometimes  a 
third  crop  of  these  grapes  in  a  season,  from  later  bloom  on  younger 
cane  growth.  This  behavior  is  of  more  value  as  a  demonstration 
of  climatic  conditions  than  otherwise,  for  it  is  generally  better  to 
produce  the  main  crop  alone  than  to  undertake  later  ones. 

Another  indication  of  excess  of  advantage  in  the  interior  valley 
is  found  in  the  development  of  high  sugar  contents,  which  is  of 
direct  value  in  raisin  production.  The  same  tendency,  though 
perhaps  of  less  commercial  value,  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  some 
grapes  which  yield  a  good  claret  wine  nearer  the  coast  develop  too 
much  alcohol  when  grown  in  the  interior. 


§  Cosmos,  t.  I,  p.  349. 


ADVANTAGE    OF    DRY    AIR 


23 


The  advantage  of  California  over  Eastern  and  Southern  fruit 
regions  in  the  abundance  of  clear  sunshine  is  shown  in  the  adjacent 
table.  Cloudiness  is  rated  from  0  to  10,  three  observations  daily, 
and  the  figures  in  the  table  are  the  averages  from  these  daily 
observations  for  a  series  of  years,  compiled  from  the  records  of  the 
U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 


RELATION     OF     ATMOSPHERIC     HUMIDITY    TO     THE 
GROWTH     OF    TREES 

There  is  another  important  condition  of  the  climate  of  California 
which  is  intimately  related  to  those  which  have  been  considered, 
and  which  is  to  be  credited  with  no  small  influence  in  the  perfection 
of  our  fruits,  and  that  is  the  low  percentage  of  humidity  which  our 
atmosphere  contains.  In  California  the  percentage  of  humidity  is 
high  in  the  winter  and  low  in  the  summer;  in  the  East  the  condi- 
tion is  just  reversed.  For  this  reason  summer  heat  is  far  more 
oppressive  in  the  East  than  in  California,  and  for  the  same  reason 
certain  serious  fungoid  diseases  which  prevail  at  the  East,  though 
found  here  in  less  injurious  degree  directly  on  the  coast,  are  wholly 
unknown  in  the  interior  where  the  air  is  drier.  The  dry  air  also 
favors  the  access  and  action  of  light  and  heat,  for  Tyndall  says  that 
a  sheet  of  vapor  acts  as  a  screen  to  the  earth,  being  in  a  great 
measure  impervious  to  heat. 

Normal   relative  humidity  at  Eastern   and  California  points 


Eastern  Stations    April 

.Tacksonville,  Fla 72.3 

Philadelphia,  Pa 63.4 

Rochester,  N.  Y 67.8 

Grand  Haven,  Mich... 70.9 

St.  Louis,  Mo 63.7 

New  Orleans,  La 76.0 

Galveston,  Tex 84.6 

California   Stations 

Los  Angeles 73.1 

Fresno 59.3 

Sacramento 67.6 

Red  Bluff 61.9 


It  is  not  necessary,  then,  that  there  should  be  clouds  to  lessen 
the  chemical  effects  of  sun  heat  in  fruit  ripening.  Not  only  do 
clouds  intercept  sunshine,  but  water  vapor  in  the  air — when  to  the 
eye  the  sun  is  bright  as  ever — can  absorb  a  large  quantity  of  the 
effective  sun  rays,  and  so  retard  fruit  ripening.  Hence  an  appar- 
ently sunny  country  which  has  much  invisible  water  vapor  in  the 
air,  may  prove  defective  in  fruit-ripening  qualities. 


Avff.  for 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

8  mo. 

73.0 

77.6 

78.6 

80.9 

82.9 

79.8 

82.2 

78.3 

68.9 

69.2 

68.6 

71.2 

75.2 

70.7 

73.6 

70.1 

68.6 

69.1 

67.3 

70.7 

75.2 

75.6 

76.2 

71.3 

71.4 

73.7 

69.0 

73.1 

75.0 

75.7 

79.1 

73.5 

67.8 

68.8 

66.3 

67.3 

70.2 

65.9 

71.1 

67.6 

74.2 

78.1 

78.3 

78.8 

77.3 

74.0 

79.4 

78.0 

78.0 

79.3 

77.4 

78.1 

77.2 

75.6 

80.4 

78.5 

75.2 

73.0 

75.4 

76.2 

72.9 

74.3 

66.6 

73.3 

52.7 

42.4 

34.7 

34.7 

43.6 

55.1 

64.1 

48.3 

67.6 

66.1 

59.8 

59.8 

59.0 

62.4 

66.8 

63.6 

56.8 

43.7 

35.6 

35.3 

43.6 

51.6 

60.7 

48.8 

24  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

It  is  true  that  air  free  from  humidity  allows  rapid  escape  of 
heat  by  radiation  as  well  as  free  access  of  it,  and  in  dry  air  frost 
is  more  severe,  but  at  the  time  of  the  greatest  fruit  growth,  from 
June  to  October,  radiation  down  to  a  frost  point  is  prevented  by 
other  natural  agencies.  In  the  early  spring  and  late  autumn  the 
humidity  percentage  rises  again  and  checks  radiation  just  at  the 
time  of  the  year  when  it  is  most  desirable  to  have  it  checked. 

The  acccompanying  table,  compiled  from  the  records  of  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau,  shows  the  prevailing  relative 
humidity  in  the  East  and  South  and  in  California. 

THE   THREE    POINTS    COMBINED 

The  three  great  advantages  of  the  California  climate — abundant 
heat,  continuous  sunshine,  and  dry  air — taken  in  connection  with 
the  fitness  of  the  soil  and  the  great  length  of  the  growing  season, 
insure  the  characteristic  excellence  of  California  fruit,  and  the  early 
maturity,  great  growth,  and  abundant  fruitage  of  our  trees  and 
vines.  Heat,  sunshine,  dry  air,  and  a  rainless  summer  also  min- 
ister directly  to  the  curing  of  fruits  in  the  open  air.  All  things 
considered,  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  area  in  the  world  excels 
California  in  possession  of  natural  adaptation  to  fruit  production 
and  preservation. 

A    RECAPITULATION    OF    CALIFORNIA'S    CLIMATIC 

ENDOWMENT 

Through  the  multitude  of  local  observations,  which  seem  per- 
plexing and  almost  contradictory,  it  is  possible  to  clearly  discern 
certain  general  conditions  of  both  nature  and  culture,  which  may 
be  briefly  advanced  as  characteristically  and  distinctively  Cali- 
fornian.  Of  these,  perhaps  the  most  striking  is  the  length  of  the 
growing  season. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  peach  in  a  good  peach  region.  The 
bloom  may  appear  in  February,  followed  by  the  grand  foliage 
expanding  to  a  leaf-size,  marvelous  to  one  unused  to  such  peach 
leaves.  The  shoots  of  new  growth  rush  out  with  vigor  promised 
by  such  a  leaf,  and  yet  the  fruit  below  expands  as  though  it  would 
burst  its  skin  in  rapid  enlargement — and  still  it  grows.  The  new 
shoot,  apparently  weary  of  its  several  feet  of  extension,  stops  for 
a  rest,  and  then,  reviving,  starts  out  its  laterals — while  still  below 
the  peach  is  growing.  The  laterals  push  out  a  foot  or  more — ^all 
carrying  large,  fresh  leaves.  While  these  are  in  full  vigor,  the  fruit 
ripens,  after  having  a  full  year's  joint  work  of  root  and  foliage,  if 
it  is  a  late  variety.  Is  it  any  wonder  is  weighs  a  pound?  But  still 
the  tree  is  active.  It  forms  its  terminal  buds,  and  then  all  along 
the  new  main  shoots  and  their  laterals  are  formed  the  leaf  and 


IMPORTANCE     OP     CLEAR     SUNLIGHT 


25 


blossom  buds  for  the  following  year.  Still  the  foliage  holds  green 
and  active,  if  the  moisture  below  be  adequate,  and  the  leaves  seem 
loth  to  fall  in  the  ninth  month  from  the  time  of  blooming.  Is  it 
any  wonder  California  peaches  are  large  and  the  trees  require 
pruning  and  thinning  to  enable  them  to  carry  the  weight  produced 
in  such  a  season  of  growth?  And  what  has  been  said  of  the  peach 
is  true  of  other  trees,  according  to  their  nature  and  habits.  The 
trees  themselves  are  more  eloquent  of  California's  conditions  for 
growth  than  descriptions  or  statistical  tables  can  be  made. 

But  the  quality  of  the  light  and  heat,  if  the  term  is  admissable, 
is  a  factor  as  well  as  their  duration.  The  air,  free,  not  alone  from 
clouds,  but  from  the  insensible  aqueous  vapor  Avhich  weakens 
sunshine  in  its  effort  to  serve  vegetation  in  a  humid  climate,  has  a 
clearness  and  brilliance  from  its  aridity  which  makes  each  day  of 
the  long,  growing  season  more  than  a  day  in  other  climates,  and 
thus  adds  to  the  calendar  length  of  the  growing  season.  The 
surplus  light  and  heat  also  act  directly  in  the  chemistry  which 
proceeds  in  the  tissues  of  the  plant,  and  we  have  not  only  size^ 
but  quality,  color,  aroma — everything  which  makes  the  perfect  fruit, 
precious  and  beautiful  beyond  words. 

It  is  true  that  for  commercial  purposes  it  is  not  possible  to 
allow  this  process  to  go  too  far,  for  its  later  effects  are  higher 
sweetness,  accompanied  by  such  juiciness  that  the  fruit  can  not 
endure  transportation.  But  go  to  the  tree  to  apply  the  only  test 
which  can  fairly  be  put  to  a  juicy  fruit,  and  the  demonstration  of 
the  service  of  clear,  unobstructed  sunshine  through  an  adequate 
period  is  complete.  But  if  this  can  not  be  done,  place  the  judgment 
upon  the  majture  peach  carefully  sun-dried  and  intelligently  cooked, 
or  upon  the  ripe  peach  skilfully  canned,  and  the  distinctive  adapta- 
tions of  California  for  fruit  production  will  display  themselves. 

But  there  are  other  agencies  involved  in  the  perfection  of  fruit 
than  intensity  and  duration  of  light  and  heat.  Without  adequate 
moisture  in  the  soil,  the  air  which  we  have  credited  with  such 
benign  power  in  carrying  heat  and  light  for  perfection  of  fruit 
would  transmit  the  same  as  agencies  for  the  destruction  of  the  tree 
which  bears  it.  If  this  moisture  comes  from  rainfall,  it  descends 
at  the  time  of  the  year  when  the  tree  is  least  active,  consequently 
is  least  retarded  by  a  clouded  sky  and  moisture-laden  air,  and  least 
affected  by  atmospheric  disturbances.  Strong  storm  winds  find 
the  tree  with  reefed  sails,  and  able  to  endure  pressure  which  would 
tear  it  to  pieces  if  they  came  upon  its  grand  spread  of  foliage  on 
branches  heavy  with  fruit.  It  is  a  priceless  horticultural  endow- 
ment that  no  tornado  can  pierce  our  protecting  mountain-barriers, 
and  that  it  is  exceedingly  rare  that  our  local  winds  disturb  the 
confident  swaying  of  the  branches  and  leaf  movement  beyond  the' 
activity  which  ministers    to  the  sap  flow.     And  if    the  adequate 


26  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

moisture  is  not  from  rainstorm,  but  by  irrigation,  the  same  facts 
remain,  for  the  water  reaches  the  tree  without  interrupting  its 
aerial  activity.  Temperature  is  maintained,  light  is  unobstructed, 
and  the  tree  is  refreshed  with  moisture  without  the  chill  and  dark- 
ness which  favor  fungoid  parasites.  Of  all  the  ways  by  which 
moisture  could  come  to  soils  supporting  fruit  tree  or  vine,  the 
natural  by  its  time,  and  the  artificial  by  its  method,  endow  Cali- 
fornia with  the  best. 

The  characteristics  of  the  California  climate  which  have  been 
especially  pointed  out  in  this  sketch  are  not  propitious  to  fruit 
culture  when  they  exist  to  excessive  degree,  as  in  some  interior  or 
continental  climates.  Local  conditions  of  altitude,  distance  from 
the  sea,  and  exposure  to  the  sweep  of  arctic  winds,  induce  sudden 
and  great  weather  changes  which  are  serious  in  their  effects. 
Excessively  low  percentage  of  atmospheric  humidity,  in  connection 
with  desiccating  wind,  often  produce  greater  evaporation  from  the 
leaves  than  the  roots  can  supply.  Excessively  dry  air  admits  a 
parching  sun  heat  at  one  time,  and  at  another  facilitates  radiation 
of  heat,  until  the  rapid  decline  in  temperature  makes  killing  frosts 
frequent.  It  is  evident  that  California  has  these  agencies  constantly 
held  in  check  by  her  insular  situation  and  protecting  environment, 
and  owes  her  wonderful  adaptation  to  growth  of  tree  and  perfec- 
tion of  fruit  not  more  to  the  possession  of  certain  conditions  than 
to  the  fact  of  their  existence  in  moderation. 


CHAPTER    III 
THE    FRUIT    SOILS    OF    CALIFORNIA 

The  favoring  characteristics  of  the  California  climates,  which 
have  been  described,  find  their  fitting  complement  in  the  adaptation 
of  the  California  soils  to  the  perfect  development  of  fruit-bearing 
tree  and  vine.  In  their  wonderful  variety  and  consequent  great 
range  of  special  adaptations  within  narrow  limits  of  area,  our  soils 
also  resemble  our  climates.  As  a  man  may  sometimes  find  within 
the  boundaries  of  an  ordinary-sized  farm  such  a  difference  of 
atmospheric  conditions  that  the  same  fruit  will  thrive  in  one  spot 
and  not  in  another,  so  he  may  find  differences  in  soil  which  will 
tend  to  produce  the  same  results.  For  this  reason  the  precise  spot 
in  which  to  plant  any  given  fruit  must  be  chosen  with  regard  to 
both  soil  and  exposure.  In  the  chapters  devoted  to  the  several 
fruits,  there  will  be  an  attempt  made  to  describe  the  soil  require- 
ments of  each,  so  that  the  inexperienced  planter  may  not  err 
seriously  in  choosing  the  location  for  each  kind  of  fruit  he  desires 
to  grow.  While  this  is  true,  it  will  also  appear  in  these  special 
chapters  that  the  choice  of  roots  upon  which  to  bud  or  graft  gives 
the  planter  a  certain  latitude  and  independence.  This  is  of  greatest 
value  in  the  planting  of  home  orchards,  or  orchards  for  local 
markets,  in  regions  where  the  soil  is  not  what  is  usually  preferred 
for  fruit  production.  With  proper  choice  of  stocks  and  wisdom  and 
diligence  in  cultivation,  one  need  hardly  despair  of  growing  good 
fruit  on  soil  which  will  support  any  laudable  plant  growth.  And 
yet  in  commercial  orcharding,  the  secret  of  which  is  producing 
most  abundantly  and  cheaply,  too  great  attention  can  not  be  paid 
to  choice  of  specially  adapted  soils. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  more  complete  and  exact  knowledge 
exists  of  the  soils  of  California  than  of  any  other  State  of  the 
Union,  and  for  this  knowledge  the  public  is  indebted  to  E.  W. 
Hilgard,  Professor  Emeritus  of  Agriculture,  and  Director  of  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  of  the  University  of  California 
from  1875  to  1905.  For  the  last  thirty-three  years  he  has  given 
all  the  time  he  could  spare  from  many  other  and  pressing  duties, 
to  the  examination,  and,  when  needed,  the  analysis,  of  represen- 
tative soil  specimens,  and  to  practical  expositions  of  their  nature, 
adaptations,  and  requirements  in  the  event  of  exhaustion  from  too 
long  cropping,  and  he  has  just  published  a  general  treatise  entitled, 
"Soils :  Their  Formation,  Properties,  Composition  and  Relations 
to  Climate  and  Plant  Growth  in  the  Humid  and  Arid   Regions," 

27 


28  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

which  includes  the  results  of  his  long  study  of  California  soils  and 
climates.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  writer  to  set  forth  a  few  general 
characters  of  California  fruit  soils,  with  notes  of  their  local 
occurrence,  referring  the  reader  to  Prof.  Hilgard's  treatise  for  fuller 
exposition. 

Very  extensive  studies  of  California  soils  have  been  recently 
made  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Milton  Whitney,  Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Soils  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  a  new  classification  and  nomenclature  of  them,  from  his  points 
of  view,  with  extended  maps  of  their  occurrence,  are  to  be  found  in 
the  special  reports  of  the  Bureau. 

DISTINCTIVE     CHARACTERS     OF     CALIFORNIA    SOILS 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  recent  achievements 
in  soil  investigation  consists  in  demonstrating  distinctive  differ- 
ences between  soils  formed  under  arid  and  under  humid  climatic 
conditions.  In  the  development  of  this  subject  certain  distinctive 
characters  of  California  soils  clearly  appear,  and  they  are  of  direct 
relation  to  the  thrift,  productiveness,  treatment  and  longevity  of 
fruit  trees.  These  characters  are :  (a)  lightness  and  consequent 
permeability  and  ease  of  cultivation;  (b)  depth,  admitting  excep- 
tional root  extension  and  penetration;  and  (c)  richness,  containing 
some  kinds  of  plant  food  in  considerably  greater  amounts  than  are 
found  in  the  soils  of  humid  regions.  These  characteristics,  as 
demonstrated  by  Prof.  Hilgard,  may  be  outlined  in  this  way  with 
special  reference  to  their  relations  to  fruit  growing. 

Lightness. — California  soils  predominantly  exhibit  the  sandy, 
silty  or  pulverulent  nature  of  all  soils  formed  under  arid  conditions, 
save  in  case  of  pre-existing  clay  formations  of  former  geological 
epochs,  as  well  as  slack-water  deposits  of  the  present  epoch,  all  of 
which  are  substantially  independent  of  climate.  While  ''sand"  in 
the  humid  regions  means  virtually  quartz  grains  only,  in  the  arid 
country  it  means  very  largely  grains  and  powder  of  the  other  soil- 
forming  minerals  as  well.  While,  therefore,  in  the  humid  region, 
sandy  land  as  a  rule  means  poor  land,  in  the  arid,  on  the  contrary, 
sandy  lands  are  at  least  as  desirable  as  heavier  ones,  both  on  the 
score  of  high  productiveness,  durability,  and  ease  of  cultivation, 
together  with  ready  resistance  to  drouth. 

Depth. — Another  point  of  great  importance  is  that  the  difference 
between  soil  and  subsoil,  which  is  so  striking  and  important  in 
regions  of  abundant  rainfall,  is  largely  obliterated  in  arid  climates. 
Very  commonly  hardly  a  perceptible  change  of  tint  or  texture  is 
found  for  depths  of  several  feet;  and  what  is  more  important, 
material  from  such  depths,  when  thrown  on  the  surface  oftentimes 
subserves  the  agricultural  uses  of  a  soil  nearly  or  quite  as  well 


CALIFORNIA    SOIL    CHARACTERS  29 

as  the  original  surface  soil.  The  unconcern  with  which  irrigators 
proceed  to  level  or  otherwise  grade  their  land,  even  though  this 
may  involve  covering  up  large  areas  of  surface'  soil  with  subsoil 
from  several  feet  depth;  the  rapidity  with  which  the  red  loam  of 
the  placer  mines  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  foot-hills  is  re-covered  with 
the  natural  forest  growth  of  the  region,  etc.,  are  examples  familiar 
to  the  residents  but  surprising  to  newcomers,  who  are  accustomed 
to  dread  the  upturning  of  the  subsoil  as  likely  to  deprive  them  of 
remunerative  crops  for  several  years,  until  the  *'raw"  subsoil  has 
had  time  to  be  'Vitalized"  by  the  fallowing  effect  of  the  atmos- 
phere, and  to  acquire  the  needful  amount  of  humus  or  vegetable 
mold.  Thus  the  surface  soil,  which  in  the  humid  regions  supplies 
the  bulk  of  the  nourishment,  becomes  here  of  minor  importance, 
serving  chiefly  as  a  mulch  to  prevent  waste  of  moisture ;  while 
the  active  process  of  nutrition  occurs  in  the  deeper  portion  of  the 
soil  stratum,  whose  composition,  as  well  as  condition  of  disinte- 
gration and  aeration,  is  substantially  the  same  as  above.  The 
second  foot  is  rarely  found  to  differ  materially  from  the  first,  even 
as  to  humus  content;  for  the  latter,  being  almost  exclusively 
derived  from  the  humification  of  roots,  the  leaves  and  herbage  on 
the  surface  being  mostly  oxidized  away  under  the  intense  heat  of 
summer;  it  not  uncommonly  happens  in  very  porous  soils  that  the 
first  six  inches  of  surface  soil  are  poorer  in  humus  than  the  second 
foot. 

Practical  Results  of  Lightness  and  Depth. — The  ''lightness" 
and  perviousness  of  the  prevailing  soils  of  the  arid  region  permit 
of  the  penetration  of  roots  to  depth  which  in  the  humid  region  are 
inaccessible  to  them  on  account  of  the  dense  subsoils,  which 
prevent  the  needful  access  of  air.  This  deep  penetration  enables 
even  annual  plants  to  avail  themselves  directly  of  the  stores  of 
moisture  in  the  substrata,  at  depths  which  in  the  humid  region  are 
scarcely  reached  save  by  the  tap-roots  of  some  perennials  and 
trees ;  while  the  latter  themselves  reach  depths  never  approached 
by  them  in  the  region  of  summer  rains.  Professor  Hilgard  has 
personally  found  the  ends  of  the  roots  of  grape-vines  at  a  depth 
of  twenty-three  feet,  in  a  gravelly  clay-loam ;  and  from  ten  to 
fifteen  feet  are  ordinary  depths  reached  by  the  root  system  of  fruit 
trees.  Such  depth  of  rooting,  \^hen  conservation  of  moisture  is 
secured  by  proper  surface  cultivation,  enables  deciduous  fruit  trees 
to  grow  thriftily  and  bear  fine  fruit  through  six  months  of  drouth 
while  as  many  weeks  of  drouth  may  bring  distress  and  loss  of 
fruit  to  surface-rooting  trees  on  the  shallow  soils  of  the  humid 
region. 

Richness. — The  foregoing  conditions  are  rendered  the  more  sig- 
nificant and  effective  through  the  third  characteristic  of  soils 
formed  in  arid  climates.     The  average  aggregate  amounts  of  plant- 


30  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

food  ingredients  are  markedly  greater  in  the  arid  than  in  the  humid 
soils,  wherever  their  derivation  is  at  all  generalized.  Among  the 
agriculturally  important  ingredients  contained  in  larger  average 
amounts  in  the  arid  soils  than  in  the  humid,  lime  stands  foremost; 
its  percentage  in  soils  not  derived  from  calcareous  formations  being 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  times  greater  in  the  arid  than  in  the  humid 
soils.  Magnesia  follows  lime  in  this  respect,  but  the  average  differ- 
ence is  only  about  half  as  great.  The  average  content  of  potash 
in  the  arid  soils  exceeds  that  in  the  humid  in  about  the  proportion 
of  one  to  three  or  four.  But  no  such  constant  difference  exists  in 
respect  to  phosphoric  acid.  As  regards  humus,  and  the  nitrogen 
of  which  it  is  the  carrier  and  reservoir,  its  amount  is  usually  con- 
siderably less  than  in  the  humid  soils ;  but  the  total  nitrogen  per- 
centage does  not  differ  widely,  because  the  humus  of  arid  soils 
contains,  on  the  average,  from  three  to  five  times  as  much  nitrogen 
as  is  found  in  the  humus  of  humid  soils,  and  therefore,  the  supply 
of  soil  nitrogen  is  very  nearly  the  same  in  both  regions,  while 
from  several  causes,  the  humus-nitrogen  of  arid  soils  is  more 
available  to  plants. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    CALIFORNIA    SOILS 

Any  attempt  to  classify  the  soils  of  California  upon  scientific 
lines  or  even  to  describe  them  in  their  wonderful  variety,  according 
to  their  geographical  occurrence,  would  lead  beyond  the  limitations 
of  a  treatise  upon  the  practice  of  fruit  growing.  Rather  let  an 
attempt  bt  made  to  designate  certain  grades  of  soil  with  brief 
characterizacion  of  their  leading  features  as  they  are  related  to  the 
growth  of  fruits.  By  such  a  course  it  may  be  made  to  appear  that 
though  the  soils  of  the  State  are  predominantly  light,  deep  and  rich 
and  thus  eminently  fitted  for  fruit  growing,  there  are  many  degrees 
in  the  possession  of  these  characters  or  any  of  them,  in  local  soils, 
and  upon  this  individual  manifestation  they  rate  all  the  way  from 
perfection  to  defectiveness.  Let  a  classification  proceed  then  upon 
a  descending  scale. 

Light,  Deep  Loams. — Admixture  of  clay  with  enough  coarse 
materials  to  secure  permeability  to  air  and  water,  ease  in  cultiva- 
tion, deep  root  penetration  and  free  drainage  of  surplus  water, 
produces  soil  of  the  highest  adaptability  to  the  growth  of  fruit  trees 
and  vines.  These  soils  are  popularly  known  as  loams.  They  are 
designated  as  sandy  loams,  medium  loams  and  clay  loams,  accord- 
ing to  the  proportion  of  clay  commingled  with  the  sand  or  coarse 
materials. 

Professor  Hilgard  has  devised  the  following  nomenclature  of 
soils  based  upon  their  content  of  clay :  Sandy  soils,  less  than  5 
per  cent  of  clay;    sandy  loams,  from  5  to  10  per  cent;  ordinary  or 


FINE,     DEKP    LOAMS 


31 


medium  loams,  from  10  to  15  per  cent;  clay  loams,  from  15  to  20 
per  cent;  clay  soils,  from  20  to  50  per  cent  of  clay. 

The  coarse  materials  are  sand  grains  of  various  sizes  or  rock 
particles  in  various  degrees  of  disintegration.  The  fine  materials 
are  clay  and  rock  powder,  commonly  designated  as  fine  silt.  Loam 
soils  may  result  from  deposits  by  flowing  water  or  many  consist 
of  debris  but  little  removed  from  local  rock  disintegration.  They 
include  a  wide  variety  of  materials  but  agree  in  the  possession  of 
striking  adaptability  to  fruit  culture.  Some  of  the  leading  instances 
of  such  soils  may  be  cited. 

Loams  of  the  Valley  Plains. — On  the  east  side  of  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley  low  ridges  and  swales  at  right  angles  to  the  river's 
course  come  in  from  the  foot-hills,  forming  a  gently  undulating 
plain  with  a  fall  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  per  mile,  sometimes 
right  up  to  the  river  channels.  Nearly  all  the  soils  of  the  east  side 
have  a  reddish  tinge,  showing  the  admixture  of  the  red  foot-hill 
soil  and  demonstrating,  by  the  way,  that  all  these  lands  are  well 
drained.  In  cuts  ten  to  twelve  feet  deep,  made  by  the  sloughs,  the 
reddish  plains  loam  is  seen  to  reach  from  six  to  ten  feet  depth, 
being  then  underlaid  by  gravelly  substrata.  The  width  of  this 
class  of  profusely  fertile  valley  land,  east  and  west,  varies  consid- 
erably, according  to  the  meanderings  of  the  rivers.  Away  from  the 
water  courses,  the  higher  lands  of  the  valleys  are  largely  red  or 
yellow  loams,  sometimes  clayey  and  difficult  of  cultivation  unless 
taken  just  in  the  right  condition,  sometimes  gravelly  and  apt  to 
dry  out  unless  the  natural  water  supply  is  supplemented  by  irriga- 
tion, but  mostly  a  free-working,  fairly  retentive,  light  Ibam,  very 
satisfactory  for  some  kinds  of  fruit. 

The  soils  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  have,  as  a  rule,  a  much 
greater  admixture  of  sand  than  those  of  the*  Sacramento  Valley; 
there  is  also  a  more  distinct  subdivision  of  the  valley  lands  into 
upland  or  ''bench"  lands,  and  lowland  or  alluvial  lands  proper. 

Upon  the  upland  or  plains  soils,  especially  of  Fresno  and  Tulare 
counties,  wonderful  progress  in  fruit-growing  by  irrigation  has 
been  made  during  the  last  few  years.  Though  its  summer  aspect 
is  most  forbidding  and  almost  desert-like  in  lack  of  vegetation, 
the  application  of  water  has  shown  exceptional  quickness  of 
growth,  early  bearing,  and  lavish  productiveness  of  tree  and  vine. 
These  plains  loams  vary  in  appearance,  and  are  from  this  fact 
locally  named,  "reddish  loam,"  "white  ash,"  and  "sand  hill."  All 
are  distinctly  calcareous.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  latter,  which  is 
the  lightest  and  made  of  almost  90  per  cent  of  inert  sand,  it  is  so 
deep  and  has  its  plant  food  in  such  highly  available  condition  that 
it  is  prodifcing  very  large  crops  of  fruits  where  there  is  no  rise  of 
the  bottom  water  to  prevent  root  penetration.  In  the  foot-hills 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  there  are  some  loose  loams  of  light  color 


32  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

resulting  from  the  decomposit'  of  granite,  but  they  are  as  a  rule 
inferior  to  the  red  foot-hill  so..s,  which  are  more  clayey,  and  will 
be  mentioned  among  the  clay  loams  later. 

The  soils  prevailing  in  the  valley  of  southern  California,  from 
Redlands  at  its  head  to  Los  Angeles  at  its  opening  out  toward  the 
sea,  consist  chiefly  of  granitic  sand,  which  at  some  points  on  the 
slopes  forms  the  soils  exclusively,  but  everywhere  constitutes  a 
prominent  ingredient  of  the  valley  and  mesa  lands.  These  mesa 
lands  are  conspicuous  for  their  orange-red  tint,  and  the  red  sandy 
loam  of  which  they  are  composed,  to  depths  varying  from  ten  to 
as  much  as  eighty  feet,  is  evidently  the  choice  soil  for  orange 
culture.  It  is  manifest  that  at  some  remote  epoch  it  filled  the 
entire  valley.  Of  the  middle  portion  much  has  been  washed  away, 
but  islands  of  it  form  red-land  tracts  of  greater  or  less  extent  all 
over  the  region,  traversed  by  and  more  or  less  commingled  with, 
the  granitic  wash  from  the  valleys  and  canyons  of  the  Sierra 
Madre.  The  latter  frequently  consists  largely  of  gravel,  and  were 
it  not  for  the  luxuriant  natural  vegetation  borne  by  these  gravel 
beds,  few  would  have  thought  of  devoting  them  to  the  costly 
experiment  of  orange  planting,  which,  nevertheless,  has  proved 
eminently  successful  even  on  these  unpromising-looking  masses 
of  debris.  In  the  upper  valley  (San  Bernardino  Valley  proper)  the 
red  loam  is  conspicuous,  and  gives  its  name  to  the  flourishing  city 
and  citrus  district  of  Redlands,  on  the  terminal  slope ;  but  the 
heavy  flow  of  water  from  the  upper  canyons,  notably  from  that 
of  the  Santa  Ana  River,  has  scoured  it  out  of  the  valley  itself,  and 
left  there,  at  least  on  the  northern  portion,  gray  and  blackish 
granitic  loams  of  great  depth  and  productiveness,  underlaid,  and 
therefore  underdrained,  by  the  enormous  gravel  beds  that  hold  the 
artesian  water  of  this  favored  region. 

The  reddish  mesa  soils  prevail  through  the  smaller  Southern 
California  valleys  as  well,  and  are  similar  in  character,  as  they  are 
derived  from  similar  geological  formations. 

Where  the  surface  descends  gradually  to  the  seashore,  and  not 
in  bluflfs,  there  are,  as  in  Los  Angeles  and  Orange  counties,  coast 
flats  several  miles  in  width,  where  the  soil  is  a  dark-colored  sandy 
loarn,  glistening  with  scales  of  mica,  and  more  or  less  affected 
with  alkali  in  the  lower  portions.  Similar  soils  are  found  in  tracts 
of  greater  or  less  extent  up  the  coast  as  far  as  Santa  Barbara  at 
least.  As  a  rule,  these  seashore  lands  are  very  productive,  but 
fruits  for  them  must  be  chosen  with  reference  to  their  low  level 
and  exposure  to  coast  influences. 

The  light  loams  of  the  so-called  desert  region  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia are  not  inferior  in  productive  capacity  to  some  of  the  best 
soils  of  the  great  valley,  which  it  greatly  resembles,  save  in  the 
scarcity  of  humus,  or  vegetable  matter.  Only  a  detailed  survey, 
however,  can  determine  the  tracts  having  an  arable  soil,  as  against 


VALLEY  ALLUVIAL  LOAMS 


33 


those  overrun  by  arid  sand.  Thv  .^-oil  of  the  Colorado  River  bottom 
is  highly  productive,  easily  worked,  being  quite  light.  It  is  a  highly 
calcareous  soil,  and  now,  as  the  water  of  the  Colorado  River 
has  been  made  available  for  irrigation,  is  yielding  rich  returns  for 
cultivation. 

The  valleys  of  the  seaward  slope  of  the  Coast  Range  have  mostly 
gray,  light,  and  silty,  rather  than  sandy  soils,  quite  similar  in 
appearance  from  Ventura  to  Humboldt  county,  though  differing 
considerably  in  composition,  those  of  the  southern  region  being 
more  calcareous,  and  apparently  richer  in  phosphoric  acid ;  as  the 
coast  region  consists  for  the  most  part  of  low  ranges  with  inter- 
vening valleys,  the  valleys  are,  as  a  rule,  small,  though  a  few  show 
considerable  area.  In  such  a  country  the  soil  surface  shows  wide 
diversity  within  smaller  areas  than  on  the  vast  stretches  of  the 
great  interior  valley;  consequently,  so  far  as  soil  goes,  the  coast 
farms  are  often  suited  to  a  wider  range  of  fruits  than  the  interior 
valley  farms  of  similar  size. 

ALLUVIAL  OR  SEDIMENTARY  LOAMS 
These  soils  have  been  considered  from  the  earliest  plantings 
by  Americans  as  par  excellence  the  fruit  soils  of  the  great  valley 
of  central  and  northern  California.  They  occur  along  the  courses 
of  existing  streams,  and  extend  back  to  variable  distances,  until 
they  merge  into  the  valley  loams,  or  adobes.  These  deposits  are 
considerably  higher  than  the  present  beds  of  the  streams,  and  are 
sometimes  described  as  "next  to  river  bottom."  They  consist  of 
fine  alluvium,  with  seldom  any  admixture  of  coarse  materials. 
These  river  soils  are  usually  very  deep  and  they  are  naturally  well 
drained. 

These  deposits  cross  the  valley  in  somewhat  irregular  courses ; 
they  are  of  greater  or  less  width  according  to  the  drainage  area, 
whence  they  have  come.  They  vary  also  in  depth,  and  taper  down 
on  either  side  to  the  level  of  the  red  loam  or  adobe  upon  which 
they  have  been  deposited.  Such  strips  are  first  chosen  by  the  fruit 
planters  of  the  district  in  which  they  occur.  In  the  valleys  of 
the  rivers  crossing  the  eastern  side  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley, 
there  are,  bordering  the  streams  as  well  as  Tulare  Lake,  consid- 
erable areas  of  brown  to  blackish  loam  varying  from  heavy  to  light, 
but  for  the  most  part  easily  tilled  and  exceedingly  rich.  Consid- 
erable fruit  has  been  grown  for  years  on  these  situations,  and  some 
kinds  do  well  on  these  bottoms  which  do  not  show  adaptation 
to  the  plains.  Some  even  of  the  higher  lying  portions  of  these 
''black  lands"  support  thrifty  orchards  without  irrigation.  The 
wider  stretches  of  alluvial  soils  in  the  upper  part  of  the  valley,  as 
in  the  Mussel  Slough  country  and  the  Visalia  region,  for  instance, 
are  notably  well  adapted  to  fruit  growing.  The  occasional  intru- 
sion of  alkali,  which  must  be  carefully  avoided,  is  the  chief  obstacle 


34  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW     TO    GROW    THEM 

to  the  general  approval  of  these  alluvial  lands  for  fruit  purposes. 

Soil  of  similar  character  is  found  in  some  small  valleys  con- 
sisting of  an  alluvial  wash  from  the  bordering  hills  which  in  some 
places  reaches  a  depth  of  thirty  feet  or  more  without  notable 
change  in  character.  Such  soils  have  proved  very  fertile  and 
durable. 

The  rich  river  bottom,  adjacent  to  the  beds  of  the  main  rivers 
and  sloughs  of  the  valley,  has  usually  a  dark,  rich,  and  miost  soil, 
easily  tilled  and  not  subject  to  baking  and  cracking.  It  is  largely 
used  for  the  growth  of  vegetables  and  alfalfa,  but  considerable 
areas  have  been  planted  with  fruit  trees,  especially  with  pears, 
which  do  ndt  suffer  from  submergence  of  their  roots  for  consid- 
erable time. 

In  the  coast  valleys  of  the  State  there  are  also  very  extensive 
areas  of  alluvial  soils  which  are  largely  used  in  fruit  production, 
as  well  as  upland  loams  formed  in  place  by  the  disintegration  of 
local  rock  formations.  The  famous  fruit  region  extending  from 
Oakland  southward  nearly  one  hundred  miles,  including  the  Ala- 
meda and  Santa  Clara  Valleys,  has  very  large  areas  of  alluvial  soil, 
ranging  from  deep,  rich  blackish  loams  used  for  vegetables  and 
small  fruits,  to  lighter  loams  resulting  from  intermixture  of  sedi- 
ment brought  by  streams  from  adjacent  hillsides  with  the  clay  of 
the  valley  bottom.  It  is  to  these  deep,  rich  alluvial  deposits  that 
the  region  owes  its  great  reputation  in  fruit  lines. 

CLAY    LOAMS  ''' 

Or  loams  containing  sufficient  clay  to  render  them  somewhat 
heavy  and  tenacious,  there  is  also  a  great  variety  in  California. 
Their  suitability  for  different  fruits  depends  upon  selection  of  roots 
adapted  to  their  character  and  upon  the  depth  and  degree  of  reten- 
tiveness  of  the  soils  themselves.  They  are  more  difficult  of  tillage 
than  the  free  loams,  but  offer  some  compensation  therefor  in  their 
richness  and  durability. 

Clay  Loams  of  the  Foot-hills  and  Valley  Border. — The  soils  of 
the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  throughout  its  course  along  the 
great  valley,  vary  from  a  moderately  clayey  loam  to  a  heavy,  though 
not  uncommonly  gravelly,  often  orange-red  clay.  This  character 
seems  to  be  sensibly  the  same,  whether  the  soil  be  derived  from 
the  decomposition  of  the  ancient  slate  bed-rock  or  directly  from 
the  dark-colored  granites,  thus  creating  a  presumption  that  the  two 
rocks  are  closely  related.  The  soils  are  highly  charged  with  iron 
to  the  extent  of  from  seven  to  over  twelve  per  cent,  which  being 
finely  divided,  imparts  to  them  the  intense  orange-red  tint.  The 
soils  of  the  foot-hills  agree  with  the  soils  of  the  valley  in  having  a 
good  percentage  of  lime,  while  the  supply  of  potash  and  phos- 
phates, as  well  as  of  organic  matter,  is  smaller,  and  sometimes  low. 


USES    OF    HEAVY    LOAMS  05 

though  never  apparently  inadequate  for  present  productiveness,  in 
the  presence  of  so  much  lime. 

Along  the  base  of  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra  there  is  in  Fresno, 
Tulare,  and  part  of  Kern  county,  a  narrow  belt,  irregular  in  width, 
of  partly  red  and  partly  black  clay  or  adobe,  so  highly  calcareous 
as  to  break  up,  when  dry,  into  small  fragments,  producing  a  con- 
dition that  has  received  the  name  "dry  bog."  It  is  upon  this  that 
the  citrus  orchards  of  the  Porterville  district  are  chiefly  grown.  A 
white,  calcareous  marl  sometimes  occurs  beneath  this  soil  at  vary- 
ing depths,  producing  chlorosis  or  yellowing  of  citrus  leaves  when 
reached  by  the  roots.  Westward  of  this  "dry  bog"  land  there  is  a 
belt  of  reddish  or  brown  loam  soils,  corresponding  to  those  simi- 
larly located  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  but  generally  more  clayey, 
and  hence  frequently  designated  as  adobe  by  contrast  with  the 
very  sandy  soils  of  the  valley  at  large,  although  properly  they 
should  be  classed  simply  as  clayey  loams.  This  belt  is  eight  to  ten 
miles  wide  in  middle  Tulare  county  and  narrows  to  the  north  and 
south.  Here  these  lands  have  a  gentle  slope  of  ten  to  twenty  feet 
per  mile  from  the  base  of  the  foot-hills,  and  appear  to  be  underlaid 
at  a  depth  of  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  by  water-bearing  gravel.  The 
soil  is  a  reddish,  more  or  less  sandy,  loam,  changing  little  in  its 
aspect  for  several  feet.  Its  adaptation  to  fruit  is  shown  by  the 
products  of  the  Lindsay  region. 

CLAY    SOILS 

Thus  far  a  very  small  area  of  true  adobe*  soil  has  been  employed 
in  horticulture.  There  is  a  great  difiference  in  the  character  of 
what  is  known  as  adobe  in  different  localities.  Its  color  varies,  as 
the  popular  terms  "black  waxy,"  "black,"  "brown,"  and  "gray" 
adobe  indicate.  Its  physical  condition  and  chemical  composition 
also  vary  greatly.  The  black  adobe  of  the  east  side  of  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley  is  easily  tilled  as  compared  with  the  gray  adobe 
on  the  west  side,  which  is  very  refractory  and  often  largely  impreg- 
nated with  alkali.  To  render  soil  of  adobe  character  useful  for 
fruit  growing,  this  tendency  to  dry  out  and  crack,  thus  allowing 
evaporation  from  below  as  well  as  from  the  surface,  must  be  over- 
come. The  discussion  of  this  point  belongs  to  the  chapter  on 
cultivation.  Adobe  soils  are,  as  a  rule,  rich  and  durable  and  there- 
fore promise  long  fruitfulness  to  trees  and  vines  with  roots  adapted 
to  heavy  soils,  but  difficulty  of  cultivation,  excessive  retention  of 
water,  and  other  evils  are  always  present.  Some  suggestions  on 
the  treatment  of  such  soils  will  be  given  in  the  chapter  on 
fertilization. 


*  This  name  has  been  erroneously  applied  to  the  loam  commonly  used  in  the 
construction  of  adobe  houses.  Agriculturally,  it  means  "a  heavy  clay  soil,"  such  as 
could  not  be  used  in  building. 


35  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


DEFECTIVE    SOILS 

Although  California  soils  are  predominantly  of  the  depth,  light- 
ness and  richness  best  suited  to  the  growth  and  bearing  of  fruit 
trees  and  vines,  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are 
marked  exceptions,  and  failure  to  observe  this  fact  has  resulted  in 
considerable  disappointment  and  loss.  There  is  in  California  much 
land  which  is  bad  from  a  horticultural  point  of  view  and  it  is  apt 
to  occur  even  in  the  vicinity  of  lands  of  the  highest  excellence.  It 
is,  therefore,  necessary  to  advise  that  the  closest  examination  be 
made  before  investment  be  made  in  the  planting  of  fruits. 

Although  there  are  instances  of  deficiency  in  plant  food  in  Cali- 
fornia soils  and  considerable  areas  of  land  sterile  through  excess 
of  saline  and  alkaline  salts,  these  are  usually  indicated  by  the  local 
reputation  of  the  tracts,  if  the  newcomer  will  take  pains  to  make 
inquiry.  It  is  rather  the  more  obscure,  subsoil  conditions  which, 
lead  to  loss  or  failure,  and  they  may  be  unknown  even  to  men  who 
have  owned  or  farmed  the  land  for  years  for  ordinary  field  crops. 
These  defects  are,  in  the  main,  three :  .. 

Hard-pan. — Good  loams  may  be  underlaid  near  the  surface  by 
hard-pan  or  by  layers  of  heavy  clay.  These  prevent  root  penetra- 
tion; they  also  limit  moisture  reception  to  the  shallow  surface 
layer,  which  is  apt  to  become  water-logged  for  lack  of  drainage 
during  the  rainy  season  or  by  excessive  irrigation,  and  to  quickly 
lose  its  moisture  by  surface  evaporation  in  the  dry  season,  with 
no  compensation  from  the  tight  layer  below.  In  such  a  situation, 
then,  the  plant  may  suffer  severely  from  excess  of  water  at  one 
time  of  the  year  and  lack  of  it  at  another.  Such  lands  may  serve 
well  for  some  of  the  small  fruits,  but  not  for  trees  or  vines.  Under 
certain  circumstances  the  defects  of  these  soils  may  be  corrected, 
as  will  be  suggested  in  the  chapter  on  preparing  lands  for  planting. 

Leachy  Sub-soils. — Good  loams  are  also  occasionally  underlaid 
by  layers  of  coarse  sand  or  gravel,  through  which  water  flows  away 
beyond  the  reach  of  roots  which  will  only  make  measured  progress 
through  such  materials.  Trees  in  such  situations  are  apt  to  come 
into  distress  in  the  dry  season  and  can  only  be  comforted  by 
frequency  and  volume  of  irrigation  and  fertilization,  which  may 
be  out  of  proportion  to  the  returns  they  are  able  to  make. 

Rise  of  Ground  Water. — Good  fruit  lands  are  also  occasionally 
rendered  defective  by  the  rise  of  the  ground  water  toward  the  sur- 
face so  that  only  a  shallow  layer  is  left  for  root  extension — the  evil 
being  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  a  temporary  fall  of  the  ground 
water  induces  deeper  rooting,  which  a  subsequent  rise  of  the  water 
destroys,  and  decay  of  the  roots  ensues.  This  trouble  has  occurred 
over  large  areas  where  excessive  irrigation,  or  the  course  of  leak}^ 


TO     DISCOVER     SOIL,     DEFECTS 


37 


ditches,  on  higher  lands,  has  filled  the  lower  level  to  such  an  extent 
that  there  is  actual  outcropping  of  swamps  in  the  swales.  The 
cure  for  these  conditions  is,  obviously,  drainage,  which  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  secure  at  a  warranted  outlay. 

Alkali. — Connected  with  this  rise  of  the  ground  water  the  alkali 
evil  may  intrude.  But  little  trouble  arises  from  this  cause  in  the 
high-lying,  sandy  tracts,  where  irrigation  or  the  natural  rainfall 
carries  the  soluble  salts  annually  into  the  country  drainage ;  but  in 
the  low-lying  and  less  pervious  soils  of  swales  and  valley  troughs, 
which  are  at  the  same  time  intrinsically  the  richest  in  available 
mineral  plant  food,  the  accumulation  frequently  causes  consid- 
erable trouble  and  difficulty. 

Prospecting  for  Soil  Defects. — For  subterranean  prospecting. 
Professor  Hilgard  commends  a  steel  rod  not  less  than  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  (round  or  square,  preferably  the  latter),  well 
pointed  at  one  end,  and  provided  at  the  other  with  a  stout  iron 
ring  for  the  reception  of  a  stout  cross-handle,  such  as  is  used  for 
post-hole  augers.  With  such  a  prod,  or  sounding  rod,  not  less  than 
five  feet  in  length,  the  exploration  of  the  subsoil  for  hard-pan  or 
dense  clay  layers  becomes  a  matter  of  a  few  minutes.  It  is  easy 
also  to  detect  thus  the  presence  of  underlying  layers  of  quicksand, 
gravel,  or  other  loose  materials  through  which  irrigation  water 
would  waste,  or  which  would  prevent  the  rise  of  bottom  water 
within  the  reach  of  plant  roots,  by  the  large  interspaces  between 
their  grains.  Any  remaining  doubts  as  to  the  nature  of  such  under- 
lying materials  at  particular  points  can  then  quickly  by  solved  by 
the  use  of  a  post-hole  auger  or  by  digging,  for  thorough  inspection 
of  each  foot  of  depth  which  may  be  found  desirable. 


CHAPTER    IV 
THE    WILD    FRUITS    OF    CALIFORNIA 

The  wild  fruits  of  California  are  numerous,  and  for  the  most 
part  peculiar  to  the  region,  being  either  of  local  genera  or  local 
species  of  more  widely  distributed  genera.  Very  few  are  identical 
with  the  wild  fruits  common  to  great  areas  of  the  continent.  For 
this  reason  our  wild  fruits  constitute  a  very  interesting  subject 
for  botanical  study,  and  they  are  now,  perhaps,  more  widely  than 
ever  before,  attracting  the  attention  of  botanical  pomologists. 
Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  practical  pomology  or  horticulture, 
our  wild  fruits  can  not  be  claimed,  on  the  whole,  to  have  attained 
any  very  great  importance. 

A  few  fruits,  as  will  be  noted  further  on,  have  demonstrated 
their  culinary  or  household  value,  and  are  locally  sought  for,  but 
none  have  any  notable  commercial  value.  This  may  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  some  of  our  most  delicious  wild  fruits  are  very  exact- 
ing in  their  choice  of  conditions,  and  can  not  be  moved  far,  even 
within  the  limits  of  our  own  State,  and  presumably  would  not  take 
kindly  to  longer  journeys. 

Another  reason  why  we  have  made  little  of  our  own  wild 
species  is  found  in  the  fact  that  our  climate  favors  the  superior 
growth  of  the  best  improved  fruits  of  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Therefore,  we  have  little  occasion  for  recourse  to  the  improvement 
of  local  wild  fruits,  because  of  superior  hardiness  and  adaptation, 
as  has  been  done  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  Neither  fruit 
planters  nor  propagators  have  given  any  special  attention  to  the 
wild  growths,  either  for  fruit  or  for  stocks,  although  a  beginning 
has  been  made  in  both  these  directions,  which  may  ultimately  attain 
importance.  The  horticulture  of  California  wild  fruits  is  a  thing 
of  the  future. 

The  distribution  of  our  wild  fruits  is  determined  by  limitations 
of  areas  of  similar  climatic  conditions.  In  a  general  way  it  may 
be  said  that  fruits  are  most  abundant  in  foot-hill  and  mountain 
regions,  and  that  our  great  valleys  have  always  been  practically 
destitute  of  them,  except  along  stream  borders.  These  fruits  are 
most  abundant  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  State,  but  some  exist 
throughout  the  State,  usually  thriving  at  higher  elevations  as  they 
proceed  southward. 

Oregon  Crabapple  (Pirus  rivularis). — This  fruit,  though  more 
abundant  in  the  more  northerly  regions  of  the  coast,  as  its  name 
indicates,  is  found  in  the  northwest  counties  of  this  State.  It 
chooses  a  moist  situation,  becomes  a  tree  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet 
high,  shows  white  bloom,  and  red  or  yellow  oblong  fruit,  about 

39 


40  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

half  an  inch  long.  The  flavor  is  rather  acid,  but  the  fruit  is  eaten 
by  the  Indians,  and  was  sometimes  used  for  jelly-making  by  early 
settlers. 

Wild  Plum  (Prunus  subcordata). — This  must  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  most  useful  of  our  wild  fruits.  Even  now,  when  the 
plum  varieties  of  all  the  world  have  been  introduced,  residents  in 
some  of  the  Sierra  regions,  where  an  excellent  variety  (Kelloggii) 
abounds,  prefer  it  to  the  cultivated  fruit,  both  for  eating  and  pre- 
serving and  jelly-making.  The  typical  species  is  widely  distributed 
over  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  State,  and  is  a  low  shrub  with 
white  bloom  and  fruit  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  of  red  color 
and  inferior  pulp.  The  better  variety  has  a  narrower  range,  forms 
a  larger  shrub,  and  bears  a  yellow  fruit,  larger  and  better  than  the 
typical  species.  Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  this 
variety  by  cultivation  and  selection  of  seedlings,  and  the  results 
are  promising,  as  fruit  has  been  shown  at  our  fairs  notably  better 
than  the  wild  gatherings.  The  roots  have  also  been  used  to  some 
extent  as  stocks,  but  seem  to  possess  no  marked  advantage.  The 
late  Mr.  Felix  Gillet,  of  Nevada  City,  reported  that  grafting  an 
improved  plum  on  the  wild  stock  seems  to  cause  the  root  to  grow 
to  much  greater  size  than  natural  to  it.  Observation  upon  grafted 
and  non-grafted  seedlings  in  the  same  nursery  row  convinced  him 
of  this  behavior.  Other  experimenters  have  condemned  the  stock 
because  of  dwarfing  and  suckering.  In  early  days  the  wild  plums 
in  the  mining  regions  of  the  mountains  were  largely  made  use  of 
and  are  highly  praised  by  pioneers. 

Oso  Berry  (Nuttallia  cerasiformis). — This  fruit  is  sometimes 
called  the  "California  false  plum."  It  has  a  plum-like  form,  one- 
half  inch  long,  and  is  of  a  rich,  blue-black  color,  but  is  bitter,  though 
not  disagreeable  to  birds  and  animals,  which  feed  upon  it.  The 
white  bloom  of  the  shrub  has  an  almond  odor.  Used  as  a  stock, 
the  plum  varieties  grafted  upon  it  have  been  dwarfed. 

Wild  Cherries  (Prunus  sp.). — Quite  a  group  of  wild  fruits  come 
under  this  generic  grouping,  and  they  have  marked  and  widely 
different  characteristics.  The  western  Choke-cherry  (Prunus 
demissa)  closely  resembles  the  Eastern  choke-cherry,  and  bears  its 
round,  red,  or  dark  purple  fruit  on  a  raceme.  It  is  used  for  marma- 
lade by  housewives  in  the  mountain  districts.  This  species  has 
proved  of  some  utility  both  for  its  fruit  and  as  a  stock  for  grafting 
in  early  days  when  better  cherry  stock  was  not  available.  Another 
species,  Islay  (Prunus  ilicifolia),  has  evergreen  foliage,  and  is  a 
useful  hedge  plant. 

Of  species  bearing  fruit  in  umbels,  or  true  cherry  style,  we  have 
the  Bitter  Cherry  (Prunus  emarginata),  which  makes  a  handsome 
tree,  sometimes  thirty  feet  high,  but  its  oval,  dark  red  fruit  is  quite 


WILD     FRUITS     OP     CALIFORNIA  ^^ 

bitter  and   astringent.     The   bush    form   bearing    bright   red   fruit 
intensely  bitter,  is  the  variety  CaHfornica. 

California  Grape  (Vitis  CaHfornica). — Along  our  streams  the 
native  grape-vine  attains  large  size  and  fruits  freely,  the  fruit 
resembling  the  ''frost  grape"  of  the  East.  The  vine  frequently 
covers  and  sometimes  kills  large  trees  with  the  density  of  its 
foliage.  Some  variation  is  reported  in  the  species,  but  it  is  possible 
that  some  of  the  better  kinds  are  seedlings  from  some  imported 
species,  bird  planted.  The  species  has  attained  something  of  a 
reputation  as  a  phyloxera-resisting  root  for  grafting,  but  it  has 
proved  exacting  in  its  choice  of  soils  and  situations,  and  otherwise 
not  desirable,  and  some  Eastern  species  are  now  relied  upon  for 
this  service. 

Elderberry  (Sambucus  glauca). — The  elderberry  makes  a  fine 
tree  in  California,  sometimes  twenty  feet  or  more  in  height,  and 
with  a  trunk  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter.  The  fruit  is  borne  in 
large  quantities  and  is  used  to  some  extent  for  preserves  and  pastry. 

Raspberries  (Rubus  sp.). — In  the  mountains  of  the  eastern  part 
of  the  State  is  a  scarlet  hemispherical  berry  of  pleasant  flavor, 
which  is  called  "thimbleberry"  (Rubus  parviUorus.)  It  seems  to 
have  an  advantage  over  a  variety  {velutinus)  of  the  same  species 
which  is  found  near  the  coast  and  has  a  dry,  insipid  fruit.  Another 
raspberry,  which  is  found  in  all  hilly  and  mountainous  regions, 
both  on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior  is  Rubus  leucodermis.  It 
resembles  the  black-cap  raspberry  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  except  that 
it  has  yellowish-red  fruit.  This  fruit  is  quite  largely  gathered  for 
domestic  uses,  and  some  efforts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  the 
plants. 

Salmon  Berry  (Rubus  spectabilis). — The  beauty,  size,  and 
delicious  flavor  of  this  fruit  are  highly  commended  by  all  who  have 
enjoyed  it  in  the  upper  coast  counties  of  California  and  farther 
northward.  The  plant  makes  a  strong  bush,  five  to  ten  feet  high, 
and  it  delights  in  woods  and  shady  banks  of  streams.  The  praise 
of  all  who  know  the  fruit  has  led  to  frequent  attempts  to  mtroduce 
the  plant  to  warmer  and  drier  parts  of  the  State,  but  such  efforts 
have  thus  far  uniformly  failed. 

Wild  Blackberry  (Rubus  vitifolius). — This  fruit  should  perhaps 
be  called  a  ''dewberry,"  as  it  has  a  trailing,  or,  at  most,  but  partially 
raised  stems,  which  extend  from  five  to  twenty  feet.  The  plant 
occurs  abundantly  on  banks  of  streams  and  other  sufficiently  moist 
locations,  both  in  the  coast  and  interior  regions  of  the  State. 
Around  the  margin  of  Humboldt  Bay,  on  land  cleared  by  fire  or 
axe,  blackberries  spring  up  abundantly  on  the  denuded  land.  Tons 
of  the  fruit  are  said  to  remain  after  the  local  housewives  have  done 
their  utmost  in  preserving  and  jelly-making.    In  the  lowland  region 


42  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

around  Stockton  considerable  quantities  are  sometimes  gathered 
for  sale.  The  fruit,  which  has  been  held  in  high  repute  ever  since 
pioneer  days,  is  oblong,  black,  and  sweet.  The  species  is  variable, 
and  the  anomaly,  a  white  blackberry,  has  been  reported  from  Del 
Norte  county.  The  native  wild  blackberry  is  one  of  the  parents 
of  the  Loganberry  and  of  some  of  Mr.  Burbank's  hybrids  which 
are  widely  grown. 

Wild  Strawberries  (Fragaria  sp.). — We  have  in  California  two 
Eastern  species:  Fragaria  vcsca  and  F.  Virginiana.  Thus  far  these 
have  only  been  reported  from  localities  in  the  Sierra  mountain 
region.  Another,  the  sand  strawberry,  has  been  found  identical 
with  a  South  American  species,  Chilensis,  and  it  occurs  along  the 
coast,  where  the  fruit  is  esteemed,  and  is  sometimes  abundant 
enough  to  gather  in  quantity.  A  fourth  species,  wood  strawberry, 
is  local,  and  is  named  Calif ornica.  It  bears  a  small  round  fruit  and 
is  partial  to  the  coast  region.  Recently  some  cultural  attention 
has  been  given  to  the  wild  strawberries,  and  varieties  worthy  of 
propagation  have  been  reported  by  growers  resident  in  the  Sierra 
region.  Mr.  Albert  F.  Etter  of  Ettersburg,  Humboldt  county,  has 
secured  notable  results  in  crossing  with  the  wild  strawberry,  as  will 
be  noted  in  the  chapter  on  that  fruit. 

Wild  Gooseberries  and  Currants  (Ribes  sp.). — Some  of  our 
currant  species  are  achieving  quite  a  reputation  abroad  as  orna- 
mental shrubs,  but  they  bear  insipid  fruit.  The  fruit  of  Rihcs 
tenuHiorum  is,  however,  more  agreeable,  and  is  esteemed  for  jellies, 
etc.,  by  dwellers  in  its  region,  which  is  the  mountain  region  of  the 
extreme  north  of  the  State.  We  also  have  a  species  (Bracteosum) 
which  has  something  of  the  black  currant  flavor  and  a  fair-sized 
fruit,  black  with  whitish  bloom,  and  very  sweet. 

There  are  also  several  species  of  Ribcs  which  are  classed  with 
the  gooseberries,  but  only  three  bear  edible  fruit.  One  of  these 
(Ribes  divaricatum)  is  peculiar  to  this,  coast;  another  (Ribes 
oxyacanthoides)  occurs  at  an  elevation  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
thence  extends  eastward  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  berries 
are  small  to  medium,  of  pleasant  flavor,  and  well  armed  with  spines, 
Another  species  (Ribes  leptanthum),  common  in  San  Luis  Obispo 
and  Kern  counties,  resembles  the  flavor  of  the"  cultivated  goose- 
berry, and  is  free  from  spines. 

Cranberries  and  Huckleberries  (Vaccinium  sp.). — We  have  sev- 
eral species  belonging  to  the  same  botanical  genus  as  the  Eastern 
cranberry,  but  quite  different  from  it  both  in  growth  of  plant  and 
character  of  fruit.  The  fruit  of  two  species  is  reddish,  but  insipid. 
Other  species  (V.  ovatum,  etc.)  have  dark  blue  or  purple  fruit. 
Some  of  these  are  locally  esteemed,  and  the  argument  drawn  from 
them  is  that  the  cranberry  of  commerce  would  succeed.  It  should 
be  stated,  however,  that  the  situations  in  which  these  plants  thrive 


A     GRAND     CLUSTER     OF     BERRIES  ^o 

are  not  at  all  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  bog  cranberry. 
A  huckleberry  (Vaccinium  ovatum)  is  largely  gathered  in  the  red- 
wood region  of  northern  California,  for  canning  and  pie-making. 
The  berries  are  juicy  and  delicious,  and  the  preserved  fruit  has  a 
very  agreeable  flavor.  In  one  year  as  many  as  two  thousand  boxes 
were  profitably  gathered  on  the  hills  of  western  Sonoma  county. 

Other  Berries. — There  are  many  small,  wild  fruits,  commonly 
designated  as  berries,  which  are  of  considerable  botanical  interest. 
The  fruit,  too,  may  be  said  to  be  edible,  judging  by  the  taste  of 
Indians,  birds,  and  wild  beasts,  but  not  likely  to  be  much  more  than 
ornamental  in  the  eyes  of  white  people.  They  may  be  briefly 
enumerated : 

The  "manzanita"  (Arctostaphylos  manzanita),  the  ''little  apple" 
of  the  Spaniard,  bears  a  rather  dry  but  sub-acid  fruit. 

The  "bear  berry"  {Arctostaphylos  uvaursi)  is  esteemed  by  the 
Indians  both  as  food  and  medicine. 

The  ''western  bufifalo  berry"  (Shepherdia  argentea)  has  small 
acid  edible  fruits. 

The  "salal"  (a  species  of  Gaultheria),  small  fruit,  either  red  or 
purple,  is  also  a  favorite  of  the  aborigines. 

Of  "barberries"  we  have  three  species  of  Berheris.  One,  aqui- 
foliiim,  is  called  the  "Oregon  grape,"  chiefly  notable  for  its  hand- 
some bloom,  which  has  been  chosen  the  State  flower  of  Oregon. 
The  fruit  is  dark  blue,  and  the  root  is  said  to  be  a  febrifuge.  An- 
other species  {nervosa)  has  a  larger  fruit,  which  is  esteemed  in 
cookery;  and  a  third  species  {pinnata)  bears  a  small,  pleasant- 
flavored  fruit.     It  is  the  Lena  amarilla  of  the  Spanish  Californians. 

Our  "service  berry"  {Amelanchier  alnifolia)  is  from  a  quarter 
to  a  third  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  of  a  purple  color. 

The  "lemon  berry"  is  a  fruit  of  Rhus  integrifolia,  and  is  coated 
with  an  acid  exudation  which  is  said  to  dissolve  in  water  and  make 
a  pleasant  drink.  The  fruit  of  Rhus  trilobata  is  said  to  have  both 
a  sweet  and  an  acid  coating. 

The  berries  of  the  "toyon"  or  "tollon"  {Heteromeles  arhutifolia), 
or  "California  holly,"  are  said  to  be  eaten  by  Indians,  but  they  serve 
the  white  people  a  better  purpose  in  Christmas  decorations. 

The  "jujube  "of  commerce  {Zizyphus  jujuha)  has  a  local  rela- 
tive in  Zizyphus  parryi,  which  is,  however,  dry,  and  mealy,  rather 
than  juicy. 

The  "beach  strawberry,"  or  "sea  fig,"  is  the  fruit  of  Mesembrian- 
themupi  aequilaterale,  a  relative  of  the  ice-plant.  The  good-sized 
fruit  is  gathered  along  the  seashore,  and  remotely  suggests  a  straw- 
berry. 

Wild  Olive  (Forestieria  Neo-mexicana), — This  is  a  tall  willow- 
like shrub,  f(i>un<^l  in  springy  places  on  the  borders  of  the  Mojave 
Desert.  It  bears  an  abundance  of  small  fruits  which,  from  their 
botanical  relationship  to  the  olive,  have  attracted  some  attention. 


44  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Experiments  to  determine  its  standing  as  a  possible  root  for  the 
olive  have  been  suggested. 

Wild  Nuts  of  California. — The  wild  nuts  of  California  are  of 
very  little  commercial  importance.  The  wild  almond  (Prunus 
Andersonii)  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  chiefly  of 
botanical  interest,  although  some  experiments  are  in  progress  in 
its  use  as  a  grafting  stock  for  the  sweet  almond.  The  California 
filbert  (Corylus  Calif ornica)  has  none  of  the  quality  of  the  im- 
proved filberts  nor  even  of  the  wild  hazelnut.  Our  chestnut 
(Castanopsis  chrysophylla)  has  a  sweet  kernel,  but  a  hard  shell, 
almost  like  a  hazelnut;  its  variety,  sempervirens  or  Bush  Chin- 
quapin of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  dry  Coast  Range,  is  said  to  have 
a  bitter  flavored  kernel.  Our  native  walnut  (Juglans  Calif  ornica) 
is  better  in  flavor  than  the  Eastern  black  walnut,  but  its  hard  shell 
makes  it  of  little  commercial  account  in  competition  with  better, 
cultivated  nuts. 

The  one  native  nut  which  is  regularly  sold  in  the  local  market 
is  the  ''pinenut" — seeds  of  several  species  of  Pacific  coast  pines, 
particularly  the  ''Nevada  Nut  Pine"  or  "One-leaf  Pinon."  Their 
flavor  is  somewhat  resinous,  but  is  agreeable. 

The  seeds  "of  two  species  of  palms,  Washingtonia  Mifera  and  the 
Lower  California  Erythea  armata,  are  sought  for  by  the  Indians, 
who  also  eat  the  sweetish  fruit  of  the  Yucca  Mojavensis,  which 
somewhat  resembles  in  shape  the  banana,  and  in  flavor  the  fig,  and 
is  called  the  "wild  date." 

The  Indians  also  use  the  acorns  of  several  species  of  California 
oaks  as  food,  extracting  the  bitterness  by  soaking  in  water,  and 
then  making  a  rude  bread  of  the  acorn  meal. 

The  "jajoba,"  or  "goat-nut"  (Simmondsia  Calif  ornica),  is  a  low 
shrub,  the  fresh  fruits  of  which,  deprived  of  their  seed-coats,  are 
eaten  like  almonds,  and  when  dried  by  fire  and  ground  they  are 
used  as  a  beverage,  in  the  form  of  tablets  made  up  with  sugar,  or 
as  a  simple  infusion.  Fire-dried  seeds  contain  48.30  per  cent  of 
fatty  .-matter ;  the  oil  is  suitable  for  food  and  of  good  quality,  and 
possesses  the  immense  advantage  of  not  turning  rancid.  In  Lower 
California  it  is  prepared  by  boiling  with  water. 

The  nuts  of  the  California  laurel  were  roasted  by  the  native 
tribes  and  esteemed  a  great  delicacy.  Further  improvements  in  the 
preparation  process  may  some  day  adapt  them  to  the  white  man's 
tastes. 

Cactus. — The  common  cactus  (Opuntia  Engelmanni)  bears  a 
sweet  edible  fruit  which  the  Indians  dry  in  large  quantities  for 
winter  use.  By  long  boiling  they  make  a  sauce,  which,  after  slight 
fermentation,  they  consider  especially  nutritious  and  stimulating. 
The  local  species  has  been  used  by  Mr.  Burbank  in  some  of  his 
crossing  to  secure  improved  spineless  fruits  on  plants  of  more^vigor- 
ous  growth  and  productiveness. 


CHAPTER   V 
CALIFORNIA   MISSION   FRUITS 

Cultivated  fruits  were  first  brought  into  California  from  the 
south.  Mission  work  among  the  Indians  of  Lower  California  was 
actually  begun  by  the  establishment  of  the  mission  at  Loreto  by 
Salvatierra,  October  19,  1697.  The  following  years  horses  and 
cattle  were  brought  from  Mexico,  and  from  this  introduction  came 
ultimately  the  vast  herds  which  roamed  the  hills  and  plains  of  Cali- 
fornia. Probably  the  first  seeds  and  plants  of  cultivated  vegetables 
and  fruits  came  about  the  same  time,  for  there  was  a  small  garden 
and  a  few  fruit  trees  at  Loreto  in  1701.  But  Loreto  was  not  fitted 
for  horticulture,  and  in  the  same  year  an  expedition  in  charge  of 
Father  Ugarte,  who  is  called  the  founder  of  agriculture  in  Lower 
California,  crossed  over  the  mountain  to  a  more  suitable  location 
at  the  mission  of  Vigge  Biaundo,  which  had  been  destroyed  some 
time  before  by  hostile  Indians.  Ugarte  restored  the  mission,  made 
irrigating  ditches,  and  planted  fruit  trees  and  vines.  This  eflfort 
was  successful  from  a  horticultural  point  of  view,  for  in  1707 
Ugarte  made  more  wine  than  would  suffice  for  mission  use,  and 
sent  some  to  Mexico  in  exchange  for  other  goods.  Thus  began  the 
export  trade  in  California  wine. 

The  Jesuits  continued  their  establishment  of  missions  in  Lower 
California  until  there  were  fifteen  missions,  at  five  of  which  there 
were  vineyards,  and  presumably  as  many  or  more  which  had  gar- 
dens with  fruit  trees. 

The  variety  of  fruits  grown  in  Lower  California  was  small. 
They  had  figs,  oranges,  citrons,  pomegranates,  plantains,  and  some 
olives  and  dates.  There  were  no  North  European  fruits,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  peaches,  which,  however,  did  not  appear  to 
thrive. 

The  Jesuits  were  supplanted  in  Lower  California,  in  1768,  by 
the  Franciscans.  The  Franciscans,  led  by  Junipero  Serra,  at  once 
pressed  northward,  and  entered  the  territory  which  is  now  the  State 
of  California.  Their  first  establishment  was  at  San  Diego,  in  1769. 
Thence  they  proceeded  northward,  braving  many  perils,  and  under- 
going great  hardships,  establishing  missions  through  the  coast 
region  of  the  State.  Credit  is  given  to  the  secular  head  of  the 
expedition  to  San  Diego,  Don  Joseph  de  Galvez,  representing  the 
king  of  Spain,  for  ordering  the  carrying  of  seeds  of  fruits,  grains, 
vegetables,  and  flowers  into  the  new  territory,  and  from  the  plant- 
ing at  San  Diego  the  same  varieties  were  taken  to  the  twenty  mis- 
sions afterwards  established. 
f 
45 


46  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Kinds  of  Fruit  at  the  Missions. — It  is  of  no  little  interest  to 
ascertain  how  great  a  variety  of  fruits  was  grown  in  these  mission 
orchards.  Vancouver,  in  1792,  found  a  fine  orchard  at  Santa  Clara, 
with  apple,  peach,  pear,  apricot,  and  fig  trees,  all  thrifty  and  prom- 
ising. He  also  describes  at  the  mission  of  San  Buena  Ventura 
apples,  pears,  plums,  figs,  oranges,  grapes,  and  peaches  and  pome- 
granates. Robinson  described  the  orchards  connected  with  the 
Mission  of  San  Gabriel  as  very  extensive,  having  among  their  trees 
oranges,  citrons,  limes,  apples,  pears,  peaches,  pomegranates,  and 
figs.  There  were  also  grapes  in  abundance.  Edwin  Bryant  noticed 
at  San  Luis  Obispo  Mission  the  orange,  fig,  palm,  olive,  and  grape. 
At  the  Mission  San  Jose  he  found  an  inclosure  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
acres,  the  whole  of  which  was  planted  with  trees  and  grape-vines. 
There  were  six  hundred  pear  trees  and  a  large  number  of  apple  and 
peach  trees,  all  bearing  fruit  in  great  abundance  and  in  full  perfec- 
tion. The  quality  of  the  pears  he  found  excellent,  but  the  apples 
and  peaches  indiflferent.  E.  S.  Capron,  in  a  general  enumeration 
of  the  fruits  grown  at  the  missions,  includes  cherries. 

Early  Planting  by  Others  than  the  Padres. — Though  the  earlier 
Spanish  population  had  the  example  of  successful  horticulture 
before  them  for  half  a  century  at  the  missions,  they  did  not  seem 
inclined  to  emulate  the  eflforts  of  the  padres  upon  their  own  grounds, 
except  in  occasional  instances.  General  Vallejo  planted  fruit  trees 
in  Sonoma  Valley  as  early  as  1830,  and  of  his  place  it  is  said :  *Tt  is 
an  old  and  well-cultivated  place,  well  known  in  all  the  northern 
portion  of  California  while  this  State  was  still  Mexican  territory." 
Exceptions  there  were,  also,  at  the  south.  The  old  fruit  garden  on 
the  Cumulos  Rancho,  in  Ventura  county,  has  become  famous. 
Fremont,  writing  of  his  observations  in  1846,  says  that  among  the 
arid,  brush-covered  hills  south  of  San  Diego  he  found  little  valleys 
converted  by  a  single  spring  into  crowded  gardens,  where  pears, 
peaches,  quinces,  pomegranates,  grapes,  olives,  and  other  fruits 
grew  luxuriantly  together. 

Scarcely  had  six  years  elapsed  subsequent  to  the  settlement 
of  the  pueblo  of  San  Jose  on  its  present  site,  before  the  inhabitants 
were  enjoying  the  benefits  of  luxurious  fruits.  Before  1805  more 
was  grown  than  could  be  disposed  of  in  its  natural  state. 

Decline  of  the  Mission  Orchards. — The  decline  of  most  of  the 
mission  orchards  and  gardens  followed  the  secularization  of  the 
establishments  in  1834.  There  were  a  few  exceptions,  where  the 
mission  lands  fell  into  enterprising  Spanish  or  American  hands. 
During  the  years  of  neglect,  the  more  tender  trees  died,  and  the 
more  hardy  survived.  The  pear  and  the  olive  vied  with  the  vine 
in  withstanding  drouth  and  the  trampling  and  browsing  of  the 
cattle  that  roamed  unmolested  through  the  deserted  gardens.    These 


MISSION    FRUITS     AFTER    GOLD    DISCOVERY 


47 


pears,  as  will  be  described  presently,  were  turned  to  good  account 
by  the  early  American  settlers;  the  olive  and  the  vine  furnished 
cuttings  for  most  of  the  plantations  made  during  the  first  twenty 
years  or  more  of  American  occupation. 

But  it  seems  that  not  all  the  mission  orchards  were  permitted  to 
fall  into  decay  after  the  secularization.  In  1846  Bryant  found  at 
the  Mission  San  Jose  two  g-ardens  inclosed  by  high  adobe  walls. 
The  area  was  from  fifteen  to  twenty  acres,  all  of  which  was  planted 
with  fruit  trees  and  vines.  There  were  about  six  hundred  pear  trees 
and  a  large  number  of  apple  and  peach  trees,  all  bearing  fruit  in 
great  abundance,  the  quality  of  the  pears  being  excellent,  the  apples 
and  peaches  indifferent.  Other  visitors  to  some  of  the  mission 
orchards  between  the  events  of  secularization  and  American  occu- 
pation speak  of  being  regaled  with  pears  and  milk,  a  dish  which 
seemed  to  them  ambrosial  after  the  weary  journeys  overland  across 
the  deserts,  or  after  months  of  ship  fare. 

Planting  of  Mission  Fruits  by  Early  Settlers. — There  were  quite 
considerable  plantations,  chiefly  of  mission  grapes  and  oranges,  by 
early  settlers  in  the  neighborhood  of  Los  Angeles.  General  Bidwell 
saw  in  Los  Angeles  in  1845  the  largest  vineyards  that  he  had  seen 
in  California,  and  the  vines  were  the  most  thrifty.  Wine  was  also 
abundant — even  the  Angelica.  Los  Angeles  had  orchards,  also, 
mostly  of  oranges.  The  largest  orange  orchards  at  that  time  were 
those  of  Wolfskin,  Carpenter,  and  Louis  Vigne.  During  recent 
years  the  modern  city  of  Los  Angeles  has  been  built  over  and 
beyond  them. 

Among  the  early  planters  of  mission  fruits  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  State  was  Yount,  who  planted  vines  in  Napa  Valley  in  1838, 
and  other  fruits  later.  John  Wolfskill,  of  Winters,  saw  grapes  and 
peaches  at  Yount's  in  1841,  and  J.  M.  Pleasant  took  peach  pits  from 
Yount's  over  into  Pleasant's  Valley,  Solano  county,  in  1851.  Dr. 
Marsh,  on  his  place  at  the  base  of  Mount  Diablo,  had,  in  1842,  a 
mission  grape  vineyard  more  than  an  acre  in  extent,  and  in  good 
bearing.  The  vines  were  planted  about  1838.  Mr.  Wolfskill  planted 
a  few  vines  on  Putah  Creek  in  1842. 

Partial  Revival  of  the  Mission  Fruit  Gardens. — After  the  incom- 
ing of  Americans  in  1849  some  of  the  old  mission  trees  w^ere  secured 
by  enterprising  men,  and  made  to  renew  their  youth  by  pruning, 
cultivation,  and  irrigation,  that  they  might  minister  to  the  great 
demand  for  fruit  which  sprang  up  among  the  gold  seekers.  The 
trees  richly  reciprocated  the  care  and  attention  given  them  and 
there  still  exist  at  the  San  Gabriel  Mission  old  pear  trees  grafted 
over  with  improved  varieties  by  W^  M.  Stockton  in  1854.  The  first 
fruits  oflfered  for  sale  in  San  Francisco  markets  were  from  the  pear 
trees  of  Santa  Clara  and  San  Jose  Missions,  and  from  the  mission 
grapevines   of  the   same    localities,   and   of    Los   Angeles"  county. 


48 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


These  grapes,  packed  in  sawdust,  came  up  the  coast  by  steamer, 
and  were  then  re-shipped  to  the  mining  camps,  arriving  for  the 
most  part  in  good  condition,  and  were  very  popular.  It  is  recorded 
that  one  thousand  five  hundred  tons  of  these  grapes  were  sent  from 
Los  Angeles  county  to  San  Francisco  and  the  mines  in  1852.  An- 
other instance  in  which  thrift  followed  neglect  is  seen  in  the  fact 
that,  in  1858,  Don  Andres  Pico,  who  succeeded  to  possession  of  the 
orchard  at  the  San  Fernando  Mission,  did  a  considerable  business 
in  drying  pears  and  other  fruits,  using  the  labor  of  the  Indians. 

At  the  present  time  vestiges  of  the  old  mission  orchards  still 
remain,  the  pears  and  olives  still  bearing,  and  in  some  cases  the  old 
date  palms  guarding  the  desolate  scenes,  or  standing  as  reminders 
of  the  old  regime,  while  the  new  life  of  California  is  surging  up 
around  them. 

RUSSIAN    FRUITS 

The  second  introduction  of  cultivated  fruits  to  California  was 
by  the  Russians.  The  exact  date  of  their  planting  at  Fort  Ross  on 
the  ocean  side  in  Mendocino  county,  is  not  known,  but  is  believed 
to  have  been  as  early  as  1812.  The  survivors  of  the  original 
Russian  planting  look  "very  old  and  mossy,  and  are  not  very 
thrifty,  but  still  bear  some  fruit  every  year."  They  were  planted 
too  closely,  and  have  undergone  periods  of  neglect,  no  doubt.  The 
trees  are  apple  for  the  most  part,  but  there  were  also  cherries,  and 
some  of  both  fruits  survive.  The  trees  are  all  believed  to  have  been 
grown  from  seed,  and  if  this  be  true  some  fortunate  results  were 
obtained,  for  there  is  still  grown  in  Green  Valley,  Sonoma  county, 
a  medium-sized,  bell-shaped  apple,  lightly  striped  with  red,  which  is 
called  the  Fort  Ross  or  Russian  apple,  and  was  probably  propagated 
by  grafts  from  the  Fort  Ross  orchard.  Seeds  were  also  secured 
from  this  source  for  propagation  of  apple  trees  in  early  days  in  that 
section  of  the  State. 


CHAPTER   VI 
INTRODUCTION  OF    NEW    VARIETIES 

The  first  cultivated  fruits  of  the  old  era  came  to  California 
with  the  padres.  The  first  fruits  of  the  new  era  came  with  the 
American  pioneers.  Though  not  a  little  inquiry  has  been  made,  it 
is  not  yet  possible  to  declare  definitely  who  brought  the  first 
budded  or  grafted  trees  upon  California  soil.  It  is  a  tradition  in  the 
family  of  Martin  Lelong,  who  came  to  California  as  a  member  of 
Stevenson's  regiment  in  1846,  that  he  brought  with  him  a  small 
lot  of  French  varieties  of  apples  growing  in  a  box,  and  that  they 
were  planted  in  Los  Angeles. 

In  the  fall  of  1849,  W.  H.  Nash  joined  with  R.  L.  Kilburn  in 
ordering  from  a  nursery  in  western  New  York  a  small  box  of  thirty- 
six  fruit  trees,  which,  packed  in  moss,  well  survived  the  journey 
around  the  Horn,  arriving  and  being  planted  in  Napa  Valley  in  the 
spring  of  1850.  The  shipment  included  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
Roxbury  Russet,  Winesap,  Red  Romanite,  Esopus  Spitzenburg 
apples;  Bartlett  and  Seckel  pears;  Black  Tartarian  and  Napoleon 
Bigarreau  cherries. 

Before  this  introduction  of  grafted  fruit  trees,  and,  indeed,  for 
several  years  afterwards,  there  were  many  shipments  of  fruit-tree 
seeds  from  the  eastern  States  to  California.  Mr.  Barnett  planted 
Kentucky  seed  as  early  as  1847  in  Napa  county.  T.  K.  Stewart 
brought  to  California  with  him,  in  1848,  about  two  hundred  pounds 
of  vegetable  and  fruit  seeds,  the  latter  including  peach,  pear  and 
apple,  all  of  which  were  planted  on  the  American  River,  within  the 
present  limits  of  Sacramento,  in  the  spring  of  1849.  At  the  same 
time  he  planted  figs  and  olives,  and,  in  1851,  seeds  of  oranges.  From 
all  these  he  secured  bearing  trees. 

But  these  early  efforts  at  improvement  of  California  fruits  were 
but  faint  forerunners  of  the  zeal  and  enterprise  which  followed  the 
great  invasion  by  gold  seekers.  As  soon  as  the  first  thought — to 
get  gold  directly  from  the  soil — would  admit  the  second — to  get  it 
indirectly,  by  agricultural  and  horticultural  arts — there  came  a 
demand  for  something  better  than  the  wild  fruits  of  the  mountains, 
better  and  more  abundant  than  the  fruits  from  the  mission  orchards. 
At  first  everything  in  the  line  of  fruit-tree  seed  which  could  be 
obtained  was  planted.  Thus  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  mines 
soon  began  to  show  growing  fruit  trees.  But  seedlings  of  any  kind 
would  not  satisfy  the  planters,  and  effort  was  put  forth  in  every 
direction  after  grafted  trees  of  the  best  varieties.  Oregon  had  a 
few  years  the  start  of  California  as  an  inviting  field  for  immigration, 

49 


50  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

and  the  advantage  also  of  winning  the  attention  of  those  who  went 
out,  not  as  gold  seekers,  but  as  agricultural  producers.  Oregon 
had  grafted  trees  in  bearing,  and  nursery  stock  as  well,  about  the 
time  the  demand  sprang  up  for  it  in  California.  Its  introduction 
was  then,  however,  of  very  recent  date.  Up  to  1847  the  cultivated 
fruit  of  Oregon  consisted  of  seedlings  introduced  by  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  and  by  early  settlers  from  the  Mississippi  Valley.  In 
that  year  occurred  the  first  considerable,  if  not  the  very  first,  intro- 
duction of  grafted  fruit  upon  the  Pacific  coast.  The  story  of  that 
venture  has  been  so  often  wrongly  told  that  it  is  well  to  record  its 
interesting  incidents  in  the  words  of  one  quite  near  to  the  event, 
if  not  actually  participating  in  it.  Seth  Lewelling,  of  Milwaukee, 
Oregon,  writes : 

In  1847  my  brother,  Henderson  Lewelling,  crossed  the  plains  from 
Henry  County,  Iowa,  to  Oregon,  bringing  with  him  a  pretty  general 
variety  of  grafted  fruits.  He  fitted  up  a  wagon  for  the  purpose,  selected 
small  plants,  and  planted  them  in  soil  in  the  boxes  and  watered  them  to 
keep  them  alive.  He  told  me  that  in  some  places  he  had  to  carry  water  a 
mile  up  the  mountains  to  save  his  trees.  When  he  arrived  in  Oregon,  late 
in  the  fall,  he  had  something  over  three  hundred  plants  alive.  The  same 
fall  William  Meek  arrived  in  Oregon  with  a  few  varieties  of  fruit  trees. 
He  and  my  brother  put  their  stock  together,  and  commenced  the  first 
nursery  of  grafted  fruits  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  was  situated  five  miles 
south  of  Portland,  just  below  Milwaukee,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Willa- 
mette River.  For  want  of  seedling  stock  they  could  not  increase  their 
nursery  much  until,  in  1850,  my  brother  John  and  I  crossed  the  plains, 
bringing  with  us  some  apple  seed,  which  we  planted  that  winter.  We 
also  found  a  gentleman  named  Pugh,  in  Washington  County,  Oregon, 
who  had  planted  some  apple  seed  in  the  spring  of  1850,  which  had  grown 
well,  and  we  bought  his  stock.  During  the  winter  of  1850-51  we  put  in 
about  twenty  thousand  grafts.  In  March,  1851,  I  went  to  Sacramento, 
taking  with  me  a  box  of  grafts  of  apple,  pear,  peach,  plum  and  cherry,  and 
sold  them  in  Sacramento,  I  believe  I  have  the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  dis- 
tribute  grafted   fruit  in   California. 

Other  Early  Introductions. — The  introduction  of  grafted  trees, 
ior  sale  by  Mr.  Lewelling  in  the  spring  of  1851,  was  quickly  followed 
by  other  commercial  importations,  and  by  shipments  by  planters 
for  their  own  use,  so  that  the  plantings  of  1851-52  were  quite  large. 
Still  there  was  great  doubt  as  to  the  success  of  the  trees.  The  late 
G.  G.  Briggs,  after  his  great  melon  profits  of  1851,  went  back  to 
New  York  State  for  his  family,  and,  returning  to  California,  brought 
with  him,  as  he  says,  "with  no  idea  that  they  would  succeed,  but 
as  a  reminder  of  home,"  fifty  peach  and  a  few  apple  and  pear  trees. 
To  his  surprise,  the  trees  grew  well  in  1852,  and  the  next  year 
blossomed  and  bore  some  of  the  best  peaches  he  ever  saw.  The 
pears  also  bore  some  fine  fruit  the  same  year. 

Besides  the  introduction  of  grafted  trees  which  have  been  men- 
tioned, there  were  others  in  1852,  for,  at  a  fair  held  in  San  Francisco 
in  1853,  there  were  several  kinds  of  apples,  grown  by  Isaac  A. 
Morgan,  of  Bolinas,  on  trees  planted  the  previous  year.  Apples 
were  also  shown  from  Napa.     David  Spence,  of  Monterey,  showed 


EARLY     GARDENS     OF     DWARF     TREES 


51 


the  first  almonds  grown  in  California.  During  the  winter  of  1852-53 
the  distribution  of  grafted  trees  must  have  extended  widely  over 
the  State.  Five  dollars  for  a  small  tree  was  frequently  paid  at  the 
nursery  of  Meek  &  Lewelling,  in  Milwaukee,  Oregon,  and  the  trees 
were  carried  overland  into  the  mining  districts  of  California,  as  well 
as  brought  to  San  Francisco  for  distribution  through  the  valleys. 

Fruit  Gardens,  not  Orchards. — It  is  interesting  to  note  that  much 
of  the  pioneer  effort  was  expended  upon  fruit  gardens  rather  than 
fruit  orchards.  Two  ideas,  at  least,  led  in  this  direction.  One  was 
the  popular  thought,  which,  however,  was  very  early  found  to  be 
erroneous,  that  frequent  and  copious  irrigation  was  essential  to  the 
growth  of  fruit  in  this  dry  climate.  Another  was  the  ambition, 
which  was  correct,  both  from  a  horticultural  and  commercial  point 
of  view,  to  secure  the  fruit  just  as  soon  as  possible,  foi  the  double 
purpose  of  determining  what  was  adapted  to  the  novel  conditions, 
and  to  secure  the  magnificent  prices  which  fruit  commanded  in  the 
market.  For  these  ends  dwarfing  stocks  naturally  suggested  them- 
selves, and  were  employed  to  an  extent  which  seerrts  wonderful 
when  it  is  remembered  that  now  hardly  a  fruit  tree  in  the  State  is 
worked  upon  a  dwarfing  stock.  Very  early,  say  from  '52  to  '58, 
at  San  Jose,  Oakland,  Stockton  and  Sacramento,  small  areas,  which 
would  now  only  be  considered  respectable  house  lots,  were  turned 
to  great  profit  with  dwarf  pear  and  apple  trees.  The  place  of  Mr. 
Fountain,  near  Oakland,  was  called,  in  1857,  ''The  finest  orchard 
of  dwarf  trees  in  the  State."  It  consisted  of  three  acres  set  with 
one  thousand  six  hundred  apple  and  pear  trees,  all  dwarf  from 
root  grafts,  two  years  old,  and  four  feet  high,  and  most  of  them  in 
good  bearing.  He  started  the  branches  from  the  ground,  pruning 
severely,  and  heading  in  during  the  winter.  He  claimed  that 
dwarfing  gave  him  better  and  larger  fruit,  and  from 'two  to  three 
years  sooner  than  with  standard  trees.  He  did  not  irrigate,  but 
plowed  frequently,  four  inches  deep,  up  to  the  first  of  June. 

But  though  these  dwarf-tree  gardens  were  formally  declared 
"to  be  the  fashion,"  and  though  the  list  of  stock  of  one  Sacramento 
nurseryman,  in  1858,  included  ninety-five  standard  and  eight  thou- 
sand and  sixty-eight  dwarf  pear  trees  for  sale,  the  foundations  of 
the  greater  orchards  were  early  laid  upon  the  basis  of  standard 
trees.  Thus  the  Briggs'*orchard,  of  one  thousand  acres,  on  the 
moist  land  of  the  Yuba,  was  planted  with  trees  sixteen  feet  apart 
each  way,  and  Mr.  Lewelling,  and  other  early  planters  on  the  rich 
lands  of  central  Alameda  county,  adopted  about  the  same  distance. 

Quite  in  contrast,  too,  with  the  prevalence  of  dwarf  trees,  and 
contemporaneous  with  it,  was  the  grand  plan  upon  which  the 
pioneer  of  pioneers,  General  Sutter,  laid  out  his  orchard  on  Hock 
Farm,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Feather  River,  eight  miles  from  its 
junction  with  the  Yuba,  of  which  the  following  description  was 
written  about  the  time  the  trees  were. coming  into  bearing: 


52  CALIFORNIA    FKUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Several  acres  were  set  apart  for  an  ornamental  fruit  orchard,  the  trees 
and  shrubs  being  so  arranged  as  to  present  a  unique  landscape  garden, 
nearly  every  article  in  vi^hich  is  productive  of  fruit.  The  arrangement  of 
the  fruit  trees  is  peculiar,  a  large  portion  of  them  being  set  on  either  side 
of  the  broad  avenues  opening  through  the  extensive  grounds  in  various 
directions,  imparting  to  the  whole  an  air  of  picturesque  beauty  seldom 
seen. 

But  neither  the  narrow  dwarf-tree  garden  plan  nor  the  broad 
landscape-garden  plan  has  survived.  Neither  of  them  harmonized 
with  the  commercial  idea  of  orcharding — large  production  and 
economy  of  cultivation,  and  both  are  now  but  curiosities  of  the 
early  horticulture  of  California. 

Irrigation  Abandoned. — The  early  abandonment  of  dwarf  trees 
suggests  also  the  early  abandonment  of  irrigation  in  the  valleys  of 
Northern  California — as  early  as  1856.  Facilities  which  had  been 
secured  for  irrigation  of  orchards  were  allowed  to  go  unused, 
because  it  was  seen  that  it  was  better  not  to  use  them.  One  case 
is  reported  in  Napa  county  where  means  to  furnish  the  orchard 
with  thirty  thousand  gallons  of  water  per  day  were  allowed 
to  lie  idle.  The  substitution  of  cultivation  for  water,  of 
course,  attended  this  reform.  The  announcement  of  a  prac- 
tice, in  1856,  ''to  plow  deep,  dig  wide  and  deep  holes  for  plant- 
ing, and  work  the  ground  from  February  to  July,  allowing  no  grass 
or  weeds  to  grow  among  the  trees,"  shows  that  the  thorough  and 
clean  culture,  for  which  California  is  famous,  is  not  a  recent  idea 
in  our  practice.  Even  the  abandonment  of  the  plow,  and  almost 
weekly  use  of  the  cultivator,  was  the  practice  of  some  growers  in 
the  San  Jose  district  before  1860.  In  fact,  the  descriptions  of  orchard 
management  in  that  day  include  nearly  the  whole  variety  of  meth- 
ods which  now  prevail.  The  experience  of  the  two  decades  has 
shown  that  irrigation  facilities  are  more  valuable  even  for  deciduous 
fruits  than  was  once  thought  possible.  This  proposition  will  be 
discussed  in  the  chapter  on  irrigation. 

Early  Wisdom  and  Enterprise. — It  is  evident  to  anyone  who 
studies  the  records,  that  California  was  very  fortunate  in  numbering 
among  the  early  settlers  so  many  men  with  horticultural  tastes,  skill, 
and  experience.  The  rapidity  with  which  fruit  trees  were  multi- 
plied, and  the  confidence  with  which  these  early  comers  entered 
upon  the  nursery  business,  shows  their  training.  Although  there 
were  many  trees  brought  here  from  the  East  and  from  Europe,  they 
constituted  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  plantings  of  the 
first  few  years,  but  the  orchards,  with  the  exception  of  a  very  small 
number  of  trees  introduced  to  furnish  grafting  and  budding  stock, 
were  the  product  of  the  soil.  When  this  is  borne  in  mind,  it  becomes 
all  the  more  wonderful  how  so  much  could  be  done  in  a  new 
country,  in  a  distant  part  of  the  world,  in  so  very  short  a  time.  It 
was  an  observation  which  was  put  upon  record  as  early  as  1856, 


BEGINNINGS     OF     FRUIT      SHIPMENT  KO 

that  ''some  varieties  of  fruit  are  much  improved  by  change  to  this 
State,  and  some  are  not  benefited."  The  test  seems  to  have  been 
that  if  a  variety  was  not  better  than  at  the  East,  it  should  be 
discarded. 

The  First  Oversupply. — The  wonderful  stimulus  given  to  the 
fruit  interest  by  the  results  attained  in  growth  and  in  marketing, 
soon  induced  larger  plantings  than  the  demand  warranted.  In 
1857  it  was  publicly  stated  that  ''there  are  single  farms  in  this 
State,  containing  each  over  half  a  million  fruit  trees  in  orchard  and 
nursery — one  person  owning  enough  trees,  when  fully  matured,  to 
produce  as  much  fruit,  other  than  grapes,  as  will  be  sold  this  year 
throughout  our  State.  The  day  is  not  far  distant  when  fruit  will 
be  an  important  crop  for  raising  and  fattening  swine."  This  was, 
to  a  certain  extent,  a  statement  of  a  croaker,  for  plantations  con- 
tinued, rare  varieties  were  brought  from  the  East,  the  South,  and 
from  Europe ;  the  growth  of  some  fruits  continued  to  be  very 
profitable,  and  the  nursery  business,  confined  to  fewer  hands,  was 
profitable  also.  The  idea  that  quality  rather  than  size  should  be 
striven  for,  led  to  more  discrimination  in  propagation  and  better 
treatment  of  trees. 

The  decade  from  1858  to  1868  was  one  of  quiet  in  the  fruit 
interest  of  California.  Many  of  the  too  hastily  and  carelessly 
planted  trees  died  from  lack  of  proper  cultivation  and  pruning,  and 
the  borer  wrought  sad  havoc.  In  1860  and  1861  there  was  serious 
depression.  It  is  recorded  that  peaches  were  worth  but  one  cent  a 
pound,  and  many  were  allowed  to  go  to  waste  as  not  worth  gather- 
ing. The  flood  of  1862  destroyed  many  trees  along  the  Sacramento 
River,  and  replanting  was  slow  until  prices  began  to  improve,  as 
they  did  soon  afterward.  The  rapid  development  of  the  mining 
mterest  in  Nevada,  and  the  construction  of  roads  across  the  Sierras, 
opened  the  way  for  the  disposition  of  much  fruit  growth  in  the  foot- 
hills and  in  the  region  around  Sacramento. 

The  imports  of  dried  and  canned  fruits  were  large,  and  growers 
were  exhorted  to  take  steps  to  secure  this  trade  for  themselves. 
Something  was  done  in  this  direction,  for  by  1867  the  local  product 
of  canned  fruit  was  equal  to  the  demand.  Drying  did  not  advance 
so  fast;  for  two  years  later  there  were  imports  of  six  thousand 
barrels  of  dried  apples,  while  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  bushels 
of  the  fruit  were  rotting  under  the  trees  in  our  orchards. 

The  decade  under  review  was  also  notable  for  the  first  appear- 
ance of  cured  raisins  and  prunes  at  the  State  fair  of  1863.  The 
raisins  were  from  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  grape,  and  the  report 
states  that  so-called  raisins  exhibited  previous  to  that  time  were 
merely  dried  grapes.  Dr.  J.  Strentzel,  of  Martinez,  was  the  first 
exhibitor  of  Muscat  raisins,  and  he  exhibited  also  dried  grapes  of 
four  varieties  to  show  the  contrast  between  a  raisin  and  a  dried 


54  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO    GROW     THEM 

grape.  J.  R.  Nickerson,  of  Placer  county,  exhibited  the  dried  prunes, 
which  were  of  the  German  variety. 

Though  this  decade  was  one  of  uncertainty  and  doubt,  there 
were  rich  lessons  of  experience  learned,  and  the  foundations  for 
coming  greatness  were  well  laid.  Many  of  our  leading  lines  of 
production  trace  their  beginnings  to  this  period,  and  their  later 
developments  have  been  beyond  any  anticipations  then  cherished. 

The  New  Era. — Another  era  in  California  may  be  marked  as 
beginning  with  the  year  1869,  because  then  the  first  fresh  fruits 
were  sent  East  over  the  newly-opened  overland  line.  The  first  sea- 
son's shipments  amounted  to  thirty-three  tons  of  pears,  apples, 
grapes,  and  plums ;  in  1870  seventy  car-loads,  or  about  seven  hun- 
dred tons,  were  sent. 

The  Eastern  shipment  of  fresh  fruits  began  its  new  era  with  the 
year  1886,  when  the  first  full  train  load  of  fifteen  cars  of  fresh  fruit 
from  deciduous  trees  went  overland.  Shipping  train  loads  of 
oranges  from  Southern  California  began  at  an  earlier  date. 

During  the  present  decade  shipments  of  fruit  and  fruit  products 
have  increased  until  a  very  large  aggregate  in  weight  and  value  has 
been  attained.  The  volume  of  shipments  beyond  State  lines  is 
shown  by  the  statement  on  the  next  page  compiled  from  the  records 
of  the  State  Board  of  Trade. 

The  Fruit  Interest  in  1910. — The  fruit  interests  of  California 
now  constitute  the  greatest  single  industry  of  California  and  the 
fruit  output  of  California  is  far  greater  than  that  of  any  other  State 
in  the  Union.  Notable  progress  has  been  secured  in  planting,  in 
the  growth,  preparation  and  marketing  of  the  product,  in  the  contest 
with  injurious  insects  and  plant  diseases,  and,  in  fact,  in  all  things 
which  contribute  to  success.  It  is  true  that  there  are  problems  still 
unsolved,  and  there  have  been  grievous  losses  to  individuals  who 
have  proceeded  upon  too  great  expectations  or  have  erred  in  loca- 
tion for  various  fruits.  Such  mishaps  will  be  less  frequent  in  the 
future.  At  present  there  is  a  disposition  to  proceed  more  cautiously 
and  to  profit  by  the  lessons  which  have  been  learned,  many  of  which 
will  be  mentioned  in  their  proper  places  in  later  chapters. 

Some  dimensions  of  the  present  fruit  interests  may  be  sug- 
gested by  the  following  statistics  which  have  been  carefully  com- 
piled from  reports  of  the  supervisors  of  the  counties  submitted  to 
the  State  Agricultural  Society  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  1905. 
These  reports  are  published,  unfortunately,  without  summaries,  in 
the  Report  of  the  Society  for  1908.  The  figures  for  a  few  counties 
which  did  not  comply  with  the  law  are  supplied  from  other  sources. 

The  total  acreage  in  1898  was  542,399;  since  that  year  there 
has  been  a  gain  of  nearly  seventy  per  cent. 


RECORDS    OF    OVERLAND    SHIPMENT 


65 


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CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


It  is  interesting  to  estimate  the  total  value  of  the  annual  products 
of  California  trees  and  vines,  using  the  best  data  and  judgment 
available.  Valuation  has  advanced  more  than  pro  rata  with  in- 
creased acreage  of  improved  market  demand,  due  to  better  handling 
and  distribution. 


Number  and  Acreage  of  Fruit  Trees  and  Vines  In  California,  1908. 


Fruit.  Bearing.  Non -bearing. 

Apple   2,298,454  653,642 

Apricot 2,304,807  616,792 

Cherry 765,866  125,411 

Pear   1,743,671  274,259 

Peach   8,433,314  4,481,696 

Nectarine 84,946  7,659 

Plum    1,672,417  240,734 

Prune    8,499,369  761,289 

Quince    43,148  5,354 

Figt    258,788  233,463 

Olive 1,252,367  398,810 

Lemon 1,320,447  237,339 

Orange 8,368,897  1,696,022 

Almond 1,200,301  165,111 

Walnut    755,637  248,893 

Grapes,  acres   247,272  83,726 

Berries,  acres 12,658  2,019 

Totals 39,002,4291  10,146,474$ 

t  Effective  acreage  probably  considerably  less. 
t  Acreage  of  grapes  and  berries  omitted. 


Total. 

Acreage. 

2,952,096 

39,301 

2,921,599 

-38,688 

891,277 

11,883 

2,017,930 

22,423 

12,915,010 

143,500 

92,605 

1,024 

1,913,151 

21,257 

9,270,658 

110,275 

48,502 

285 

492,251 

6,563 

1,651,177 

22,051 

1,557,786 

17,302 

9,065,919 

100,702 

1,365,412 

18,707 

1,004,530 

25,113 

320,998 

14,677 

48,159,103 

914,749 

Valuation  of  a  Year's  Fruits  and  Fruit  Products. 


Kinds.  Pounds. 

Fresh  deciduous 322,448,000 

Dried  deciduous 267,696,000 

Citrus  fruits  1,080,000,000 

Raisins 140,000,000 

Nuts   21,775,000 

Canned  fruits 170,270,000 

Olives  and  olive  oil 

Wine 294,944,184 

Brandy 14,000,000 


*  An  estimate  upon  meager  data. 
t  Basis  of  20c  per  gallon. 
t  Basis  of  60c  per  gallon. 


Price  per  lb. 

Value. 

2c 

$  6,448,960 

6c 

16,061,460 

2c 

21,600,000 

3c 

4,200,000 

10c 

2,177,500 

5c 

8,513,500 

1,850,000' 

2y2ct 

7,373,604 

8cJ 

1,120,000 

$69,345,024 

These  amounts,  which  are  averages  of  several  recent  years,  are 
of  available  surplus  for  distant  shipment.  They  do  not  include 
the  local  consumption  by  two  millions  of  fruit-loving  people  in 
California. 


FRUIT    INTEREST    IN     STATE    DEVEL,OPMENT  c^ 

INFLUENCE    OF    THE    FRUIT    INDUSTRIES    UPON 
CALIFORNIA    DEVELOPMENT 

Enlistment  in  California  fruit  growing  has  proved  exceedingly 
satisfactory  to  tens  of  thousands  of  people  in  the  various  v^ays 
along  which  they  have  approached  it.  The  fruit  districts  are  full 
of  cottage  homes  sheltering  families  of  those  who  have  begun  with 
small  investments  and  have  made  a  good  livelihood,  and  often  con- 
siderably more,  from  a  few  acres  of  fruits  grown  largely  without 
expenditure  for  hired  labor.  The  study  of  the  needs  of  the  tree  or 
vine  and  ministering  to  them  by  personal  effort  has  brought  new 
health  and  new  incentive  to  the  worn  and  weary  who  have  taken 
up  outdoor  life  and  activity  in  California  fruit  growing  with  a  wise 
choice  of  location,  land  and  fruits,  for  obviously  in  all  investments 
one  must  be  wise  as  well  as  willing. 

In  large  operations  hundreds  have  notably  succeeded  by  pur- 
chasing good  land  in  large  tracts  at  low  rates  and  making  ample 
investment  for  its  development  and  improvement.  Some  of  the 
most  delightful  of  our  towns  and  villages  have  arisen  as  a  direct 
result  of  such  employment  of  capital.  Well  established  communi- 
ties, well  churched  and  schooled,  well  provided  for  in  local  trade 
and  transportation  and  widely  known  citizens,  have  followed  invest- 
ment money  and  devoted  effort  in  colony  enterprises. 

Hundreds,  also,  have  purchased  large  tracts  of  wild  land  and 
have  developed  fine  estates  for  their  own  personal  gratification, 
with  thriving  orchards  of  all  kinds  of  fruits,  rich  pastures  tenanted 
with  improved  livestock,  parks,  gardens  and  buildings  comparable 
with  the  estates  of  the  European  nobility,  except  that  California 
conditions  favor  freedom  and  variety  in  outdoor  effort  unknown  in 
Europe,  and  command  proportional  interest  and  enthusiasm. 
Estates  for  winter  residences  in  California  are  exceptionally  desir- 
able, not  only  because  of  natural  advantages  and  greater  possibili- 
ties of  development,  but  because  of  the  advanced  standing  of  the 
State  financially  and  socially. 

All  of  these  lines  of  effort,  then — home-making  in  a  small  way, 
colony  enterprise  and  private  estate  development — have  yielded  on 
the  whole  great  satisfaction  and  success.  Fruit  growing  has  been 
the  central  idea  in  nearly  all  of  them,  but  it  is  obvious  that  activity 
in  any  productive  line  begets  opportunity  for  other  lines,  and  so  all 
branches  of  agriculture  have  advanced  and  the  diversification  is 
highly  desirable.  Opportunities  in  manufacture,  trade  and  profes- 
sional effort  of  all  kinds  have  been  quickly  seized  and  developed 
with  much  originality  and  success.  Fruit  growing  has  created  them 
all  and  has  in  turn  been  advanced  by  all,  for  every  accumulation 
of  capital  promotes  it.  Successful  toilers  in  all  lines  become 
planters.    The  ancestral  delight  of  the  race,  to  sit  beneath  one's  own 


gg  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

vine  or  fig  tree,  is  nowhere  more  enthusiastically  manifested  than 
in  California,  and  nowhere  else  does  the  emotion  of  comfort  in 
ownership  yield  such  profound  and  protracted  satisfaction. 

THE    OUTLOOK    OF    THE    INDUSTRY 

The  outlook  for  California  fruits  and  fruit  products  involves 
considerations  of  much  economic  interest.  Though  the  volume  is 
already  large  and  there  may  be  experienced  now  and  then  tem- 
porary dullness  or  depression  in  this  line  or  that,  the  business  is 
on  the  whole  brisk  and  profitable.  There  is  such  a  wide  range  in 
the  fruits  grown  and  the  products  made  from  them,  and  such 
changes  in  local  conditions  in  the  many  purchasing  States  and 
foreign  countries  with  which  Californians  deal,  that  there  must  be 
some  fluctuations  in  the  values  of  some  of  the  supplies  offered  in 
distant  market.  The  result  is  that  first  one  fruit  and  then  another 
one  seems  to  be  more  or  less  profitable.  The  fact,  however,  that 
all  are  increasing  in  volume  and  the  total  traffic  brings  each  year 
more  money  to  the  State,  is  a  demonstration  of  the  standing  of  the 
collective  output.  Each  year  new  markets  are  found,  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  and  the  capacity  of  old  centers  of  distribution  is  shown 
to  be  greater  than  anticipated.  There  is  every  reason  to  expect  that 
the  products  can  be  profitably  multiplied.  There  have  been  secured, 
largely  through  co-operative  efforts  of  growers,  so  many  improve- 
ments in  handling  and  transportation  that  distant  shipment  has 
become  more  safe  and  profitable  and  distribution  far  wider.  It  is 
reasonable  to  believe  that  further  improvement  in  movement  and 
reduction  of  cost  will  be  realized  and  the  per  capita  consumption 
in  the  populous  parts  of  our  own  country  proportionally  advanced. 
In  spite  of  all  that  wintry  States  can  do  for  local  supplies,  Cali- 
fornia can  find  open  markets  before  and  after  the  short  ripening 
season  of  the  Eastern  States  for  her  early  and  late  fruits,  and  can 
use  her  own  midseason  fruits  in  the  drying  and  canning  industries, 
though  it  is  a  fact  that  in  the  height  of  the  Eastern  fruit  season  a 
considerable  quantity  of  California  fruit  will  command  the  highest 
prices  because  of  its  exceptional  size,  beauty  and  keeping  qualities. 
The  citrus  fruits,  so  long  as  they  are  allowed  to  remain  under  the 
favoring  tariff  which  now  exists,  will  continue  to  supply  an  Amer- 
ican product  of  exceptional  quality  and  freshness,  while  prunes, 
nuts,  raisins  and  wines  will  not  only  do  this,  but  will  push  forward 
into  the  trade  of  Europe,  as  they  are  now  beginning  to  do  in  a  most 
vigorous  manner.  A  very  significant  report  was  made  by  one  of  the 
United  States  Consuls  in  France  recently  that  our  canned  and  dried 
fruits  were  appearing  on  the  shelves  of  all  the  provision  shops  of 
the  smaller  French  towns  and  were  being  freely  sold  without  reduc- 
ing the  prices  of  the  locally  grown  fruit.  Practically  the  same 
thing  could  be  said   of    points  in   Germany  and    other   European 


THE     FRUIT     OUTLOOK 


59 


countries.  The  fact  is  that  European  countries  can  not  grow  fruit 
enough  to  supply  their  own  people  and  fruit  has  been  largely  a 
luxury.  California  dried  fruits  are  being  welcomed  by  the  great 
middle  classes  and  are  likely  to  become  a  staple  of  their  diet.  This 
explains  the  ultimate  disposition  of  the  large  amounts  now  going 
direct  from  California  to  Europe. 

California's  exports  of  high-class  food  supplies  to  European 
countries  are  likely  to  reach  values  like  those  of  the  wheat  and 
barley  which  we  are  now  sending  to  that  part  of  the  world.  The 
development  of  adjacent  territory  on  the  American  continent  and 
other  Pacific  countries  may  shape  the  future  of  California  as  a  fruit 
producing  State  in  a  way  which  can  at  present  only  be  dreamed 
about.  It  should  be  remembered  that  California  has  a  unique  char- 
acter from  a  horticultural  point  of  view.  Not  only  does  the  State 
have  a  monopoly  of  semi-tropical  conditions  of  the  United  States 
(excepting  small  parts  of  the  Gulf  States  and  Arizona),  but  Cali- 
fornia has  command  of  the  whole  of  northwest  America  and  the 
whole  of  northeast  Asia,  not  only  in  the  supply  of  semi-tropical 
fruits,  but  in  early  ripening  of  hardy  fruits  as  well. 

California  does  not  grow  tropical  fruits,  as  has  already  been 
conceded  in  Chapter  I.  They  must  come  from  the  islands  and  the 
tropical  south  coast  countries.  Semi-tropical  fruits  are,'  however, 
vastly  more  important  in  commerce  than  tropical,  and  a  region 
which  successfully  combines  northern  orchard  fruits  with  the  whole 
semi-tropical  class  commands  the  fruit  trade  of  all  accessible  popu- 
lous regions  which  have  limited  fruit  capabilities.  There  are  now 
four  such  regions  with  the  kind  of  population  which  makes  for 
industrial  advancement — Southern  Europe,  South  Africa,  parts  of 
Australia  and  California.  As  already  shown,  we  are  competing 
successfully  with  South  Europe  in  the  capacious  markets  of  North 
Europe.  South  Africa  and  Australia  are  unfortunate  in  lying  in 
the  southern  hemisphere,  which  is  mostly  ocean  wastes,  and  they 
are  handicapped  by  tropic  crossing  in  their  northern  shipments, 
although  the  fact  of  opposite  seasons  may  help  them,  and  also  us, 
m  avoiding  competition  of  trade  which  both  desire.  California  will 
soon  be  less  than  half  as  far  sea  from  European  and  Atlantic  coast 
ports  as  at  present,  but  California  in  the  future  will  have  less 
occasion  for  such  distant  recourses.  Prophets,  far-seeing  in  world 
courses,  declare  that  the  Pacific  ocean  is  to  be  the  arena  for  com- 
merce greater  than  the  world  has  yet  seen,  and  the  Pacific  coast 
countries  are  to  contain  the  greater  part  of  the  world's  population. 
This  greatest  quartosphere  with  its  superlative  opportunities  and 
activities  will  have  California  as  its  treasure  house  of  fruits  and 
fruit  products.  During  the  long  winter  the  citrus  fruits  will  afford 
tonic  and  refreshment,  and  before  hardy  fruits  bloom  in  northern 
climes  the  same  fruits  will  appear  from  the  early  ripening  districts 
of  California.     In  this  traffic  California  will  not  only  be  practically 


QQ  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THRM 

without  a  competitor,  but,  sitting  beside  the  sea,  there  will  also  be 
every  advantage  of  water  transportation  and  the  sustaining  ocean 
temperatures  for  the  fruits  in  transit.  California  dried  and  canned 
fruits  will  render  acceptable  diet  even  through  the  most  Arctic 
stretches  along  which  development  may  advance  in  North  America 
and  North  Asia,  while  a  succession  of  fresh  fruits  will  flow  to  all 
Pacific  ports  throughout  the  year.  California,  too,  will  be  the  winter 
residence  for  all  the  North  Pacific  millionaires  and  the  haven  of  rest 
and  recuperation  for  all  who  are  worn  by  Arctic  cold  or  tropic  heat 
throughout  the  great  circle  of  the  Pacific  ocean.  Here  the  arts  will 
flourish,  education  attain  its  highest  achievements  and  culture  pre- 
vail. Then  fruit  growing  both  as  a  commercial  enterprise  and  as  a 
home  delight  will  attain  value,  volume  and  perfection,  of  which 
present  achievements  are  but  a  faint  foreshadowing. 


PART  TWO:    CULTURAL 

CHAPTER  VII 

CLEARING    LAND    FOR    FRUIT 

The  greater  part  of  the  orchard  and  vineyard  area  of  this  State 
was  naturally  almost  clear  for  planting.  The  removal  of  large  trees, 
which  paid  the  cost  of  the  work  in  firewood,  or  the  grubbing  out  of 
willows  on  some  especially  rich  bottom  land,  was  about  the  extent 
of  clearing  which  our  earlier  planters  had  to  undertake,  and  many 
of  them  perhaps  never  had  to  lift  an  axe.  Still  there  has  always 
been  some  clearing  done,  here  and  there,  even  since  the  earliest 
days,  especially  upon  hill  lands,  the  peculiar  value  of  which  for 
some  fruits  is  generally  recognized. 

The  lands  which  need  clearing  are  in  the  main  the  foot-hill  slopes 
of  the  Coast  Range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  In  the  south  there  is 
besides,  sometimes,  the  debris  of  the  desert  flora  to  clear  away  when 
water  is  secured  and  the  rich  wilderness  is  subdued.  This  work  is, 
however,  so  easily  accomplished  that  it  hardly  rises  to  the  dignity 
of  ''clearing,"  as  understood  by  the  Eastern  mind. 

It  is  not  possible  in  this  connection  to  enumerate  all  of  the  great 
variety  of  shrubs  and  trees  which  the  settler  lays  low  in  his  clearing. 
The  grand  trees  which  figure  most  largely  in  lumbering  operations 
are  not  met  with  as  a  rule  in  foot-hill  clearings.  The  trees  which 
the  settler  encounters  are  rather  the  degraded  valley  growths,  which, 
though  assuming  grand  proportions  in  the  valleys,  become  "scrubs" 
amid  the  harsher  environment  of  the  hillsides.  This  is  notably  true 
of  the  oaks  and  of  some  other  trees. 

Chamisal  and  Chaparral. — Of  true  shrubs  to  be  removed,  it  will 
only  be  possible  to  name  a  few  of  the  most  abundant.  The  common 
manzanita  (Arctostaphylos  manzanita)  occurs  on  dry  ridges  every- 
where, both  on  the  coast  and  at  great  elevations,  sometimes  only 
growing  a  few  inches  from  the  ground,  sometimes  rising  eight  or 
ten  feet.  Next  to  this,  perhaps,  the  two  terms  which  the  land  clearer 
has  most  to  use  are  ''chaparral"  and  "chamisal."  To  distinguish 
between  them  it  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  term  chamisal 
properly  applies  to  the  shrub  Adenostoma  fasciculatum  var.  obtusi- 
folium,  which  is  abundant  on  dry  soils  in  the  Coast  Ranges  and  more 
rarely  in  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  often  covering  extensive 
areas  with  dense  and  almost  impenetrable  growth,  producing  an 
eflfect  on  the  landscape  like  that  of  the  heaths  of  the  Old  World. 

61 


-  g2  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Another  species,  A.  sparsifolium,  with    narrow,  scattered    leaves,  is 
sometimes  abundant  on  the  mountains  east  of  San  Diego. 

By  chaparral  is  generally  meant  shrubs  of  several  species  of 
Ccanothiis,  forming  dense  thickets  and  giving  its  name  to  certain 
soils  on  which  it  most  abounds,  both  in  the  Sierra  foot-hills  and 
the  hillsides  of  the  Coast  Range,  where  it  is  known  as  California 
lilac.  The  genus  includes  the  ''flat  brushes,"  as  they  are  called, 
from  their  trailing  on  the  ground,  or  low,^  horizontal  shoots. 

Other  Small  Growths. — Shrubs  of  frequent  occurrence  also  are 
the  poison  oak  (Rhus  divcrsiloha) ,  chiefly  on  the  north  sides  of  hills 
m  all  parts  of  the  State,  but  most  abundant  in  the  Coast  Ranges, 
and  other  species  of  Rhus  which  are  not  poisonous ;  the  hazel  nut 
(Corylus  ro strata),  which  has  been  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  wild 
fruits ;  the  buckthorns,  several  species  of  rhammus,  well  distributed  on 
the  hillsides  and  mountains  of  the  State. 

In  some  parts  of  the  State  there  are  also  large  areas  of  sage- 
brush or  wormwood  made  up  of  several  species  of  Artemisia,  sage 
or  chia,  two  species  of  Salvia,  and  the  famous  white  and  black  sages 
of  the  bee-keepers,  which  are  species  of  Audihertia,  occurring 
chiefly  on  the  mountains  of  Southern  California.  Add  to  these  the 
spireas,  the  azaleas,  the  rhododendrons,  the  sweet-scented  shrubs 
(Calycanthus),  etc.,  and  include  nearly  all  the  wild  fruit  trees, 
bushes  and  vines  mentioned  in  a  previous  chapter,  and  one  will 
gain  the  idea  that  though  California  is  widely  considered  a  bare 
State,  the  land  clearer  has  a  host  of  plants  confronting  him  and 
disputing  his  right  to  the  soil. 

Cost  of  Clearing. — The  cost  of  clearing  on  the  foot-hill  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast  Ranges  is  too  variable  to  admit 
of  estimates  except  such  as  may  be  made  on  the  spot  by  experi- 
enced persons.  The  cost  varies,  of  course,  according  to  the  density 
of  the  growth  of  trees  and  underbrush,  and  the  rate  of  wages  to 
be  paid.  Though  in  some  cases  higher  cost  is  reached,  probably 
as  a  rule  the  expense  of  clearing  will  be  from  $5.00  to  $30.00  per 
acre,  less  whatever  the  firewood  might  be  worth.  In  exceptional 
cases,  where  there  is  a  large  growth  and  a  good  wood  market  near 
by,  the  wood  may  pay  the  expense  or  more;  even  the  roots  of 
chaparral  sometimes  sell  in  our  cities  at  $3.00  or  $4.00  per  cord. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  charcoal  can  be  produced  to  advantage; 
in  fact,  there  are  now  orchards  upon  land  which  was  secured  in 
the  first  instance  for  the  charcoal  to  be  made  upon  it.  Usually, 
however,  the  clearing  is  an  item  of  expense  and  must  be  reduced 
as  much  as  possible  by  working  in  the  most  econoniical  and  ef- 
fective way. 

Though  in  most  cases  of  clearing  by  the  actual  settler  himself 
the  problem  is  merely  one  of  muscle  and  persistence,  some  few 
hints  may  be  given  from  the  experience  of  others  which  may  be 


METHODS     OP    LAND     CLEARING  .  gg 

useful.  Spare  time  during  the  summer  and  fall  can  often  be  used 
to  advantage  with  a  sharp  axe  in  trimming  up  the  smaller  trees, 
which  are  large  enough  to  yield  fencing  material,  and  getting  out 
posts  from  the  redwoods  and  oaks,  and  rails  and  pickets  from  the 
pines.  By  thus  using  the  waste  material  the  settler  can  often  get 
out  enough  fencing  material  to  inclose  his  land  and  thus  save 
considerable  expense.  Brush,  too,  which  can  not  be  made  use  of, 
can  be  lopped  off — in  short,  all  the  sharp  axe  work  can  be  done  in 
a  dry  time.  The  actual  clearing,  however,  should  be  done  in 
winter,  when  the  ground  is  wet  and  soft,  and  digging  is  easy  or 
"snaking  out"  is  possible. 

Partial  and  Thorough  Clearings. — Orchards  are  planted  on  both 
partially  and  thoroughly  cleared  land.  By  the  former  practice 
clearing  enough  is  done  to  give  space  for  the  tree  holes,  the  debris 
is  burned  up,  and  the  trees  planted.  In  this  kind  of  work  the 
stumps  are  left  to  be  taken  out  at  a  convenient  season,  the  object 
being  to  get  fruit  trees  to  growing  as  soon  as  possible.  Where 
one  is  working  with  little  more  than  his  own  muscle,  and  has  no 
capital,  this  sort  of  planting  is  better,  perhaps,  than  not  planting 
at  all,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  subsequent  work  will 
be  done  at  a  great  disadvantage,  and  as  cultivation  is  likely  to  be 
very  imperfect,  it  would  be  a  question  whether  in  the  end  anything 
would  be  gained  by  such  a  plan.  The  encumbered  character  of 
the  ground  will,  of  course,  prevent  the  use  of  the  horse  in  cultiva- 
tion until  most  of  the  stumps  are  removed.  Aside  from  this, 
decaying  stumps  and  roots  in  the  soil  often  kill  the  young  trees; 
especially  is  this  the  case  with  old  oak  stumps. 

Clearing  land  for  orchard  or  vineyard  is  a  very  different  thing 
from  clearing  for  pasture,  as  is  done  in  the  redwood  region  of  the 
northwest  Coast  Ranges  of  the  State,  where  the  stumps  are  un- 
touched; the  trees  not  taken  by  the  lumberman  are  girdled  and 
left  a  prey  to  decay  and  storms,  and  the  brush  slashed  and  burned 
every  few  years  to  prevent  it  from  completely  taking  possession 
of  the  land.  Clearing  for  fruit  should  be  thorough,  everything 
which  will  interfere  with  good  cultivation  removed;  roots  grubbed 
so  that  as  little  shooting  up  as  possible  is  secured;  the  ground 
evened  up  to  obviate  standing  water,  and,  where  needed,  arrange- 
ments made  for  irrigation  and  drainage,  as  will  be  considered  later. 

Removal  of  Trees. — The  first  operation  in  clearing  will  be  the 
removal  of  the  trees.  This  can  be  partly  done  in  the  dry  season 
if  one  has  unemployed  time.  In  such  case  the  tree  is  felled  and 
worked  up  into  fire-wood  and  the  stump  left  for  subsequent  treat- 
ment when  the  ground  is  moist.  Unless  there  is  idle  time  to 
employ,  the  whole  work  can,  however,  be  better  done  in  the  winter, 
for  then  the  top  of  the  tree  may  be  made  to  help  pull  out  its  own 
roots.    This  is  done  sometimes  by  digging  out  the  soil  and  cutting 


54  •  CALIP^ORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

off  the  main  lateral  roots  below  the  depth  to  which  the  plow  will 
reach.  By  thus  reducing  its  anchorage  the  tree  will  topple  over, 
or  may  be  pulled  over  with  a  team  and  tackle,  and  it  will  usually 
lift  out  its  stump  quite  effectively. 

A  Steam  Puller. — An  arrangement  for  tearing  out  trees  without 
digging  has  been  used  to  some  extent  in  Santa  Cruz  county,  which 
is  said  to  handle  redwood  trees  up  to  four  feet  in  diameter  success- 
fully. It  consists  of  a  portable  engine  and  a  ''puller,"  which  is  a 
windlass  operated  by  steam,  from  which  a  wire  cable  is  carried  to 
the  tree  which  is  to  be  pulled  down.  A  strong  chain  is  put  around 
the  tree  at  a  distance  above  the  ground  proportioned  to  its  diam- 
eter in  such  a  way  as  to  give  necessary  leverage.  The  immensely 
strong  hook  at  the  end  of  the  cable  is  attached  to  this  chain  and 
the  cable  is  slowly  wound  upon  the  reel.  The  coil  begins  to  grow 
taut,  a  dull  creak  and  strain  are  heard  as  the  roots  begin  to  be 
torn  from  the  earth.  Two  chains  are  used,  a  second  tree  being 
prepared  while  the  first  is  falling,  that  no  time  may  be  lost.  The 
cable  is  detached  from  the  falling  tree,  and  a  horse  draws  it  from 
amid  the  debris  of  fallen  foliage  to  the  next  victim.  The  extraction 
of  roots  by  this  method  of  pulling  is  said  to  be  very  complete,  and 
the  earth  is  loosened  to  a  considerable  depth. 

Powerful  traction  engines,  manufactured  for  hauling  combined 
harvesters  and  steam  plows,  have  also  been  very  successfully  used 
for  the  removal  of  large  trees  in  land  clearing. 

Horse-Power  Stump  Pullers. — The  use  of  horse-power  devices 
for  tree  felling  and  stump  extraction  has  increased  considerably 
of  late.  The  one  which  has  achieved  good  results  is  a  local  invention 
called  the  "California  Stump  Puller."  It  is  simply  a  specially- 
designed  capstan  worked  by  one  horse,  with  a  wire  cable  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  an  improved  snatch  block,  chains, 
and  a  drafthook  to  unite  the  cable  with  the  chains.  Power  is 
applied  to  the  capstan  with  a  sweep.  It  is  calculated  that  with 
this  device,  properly  adjusted,  one  horse  is  enabled  to  produce  an 
effect  equal  to  the  capacity  of  60  horses  without  it,  and  that  a  1,200- 
pound  horse  which  can  move  a  dead  weight  of  one  and  a  half  tons 
for  a  short  distance  can  move  a  dead  weight  of  90  tons  with  the 
devices  employed  in  the  machine.  It  is  so  rapidly  adjustable  that 
on  one  trial  in  Napa  county  eighteen  stumps  were  pulled  in  eight- 
een minutes,  long  roots  coming  clear  out  of  the  ground  with  each 
stump. 

The  Use  of  Powder. — Another  means  for  the  removal  both  of 
stumps  and  of  growing  trees  which  has  come  into  quite  wide  use 
during  the  last  few  years,  is  high  explosives,  which  have  vastly 
cheapened  the  clearing  of  lands  where  either  large  trees  or  stumps 
have  to  be  removed.     Full  instructions  for  the  use  of  powder  are 


REMOVING     SHRUBS     AND     BRUSH  gg 

furnished  by  the  agents  in  San  Francisco,  and  they  often  send  an 
expert  to  start  the  work  and  give  instruction  if  there  is  much  to 
be  done.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  cost  of  handling  trees 
and  stumps  with  explosives  is  less  than  one-fifth  that  by  hand 
grubbing,  and  the  ratio  of  saving  increases  as  the  trees  are  larger, 
as  powder  is  cheaper  than  muscle. 

Removing  Shrubs  and  Brush. — In  the  case  of  removmg  shrubs 
of  a  suniewhat  tall  growth,  the  top  is  made  to  help  out  the  roots. 
This  is  done  either  with  a  good  strong  rope  or  a  cham.  To  do 
this  requires  two  men  and  a  pair  of  horses,  and  two  chains,  each 
ten  or  twelve  feet  long.  A  chain  should  be  placed  around  the  bush 
some  distance  above  the  ground,  to  give  leverage.  If  the  bush  is 
not  removed  at  the  first  pull,  start  the  horses  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. While  the  driver  is  unfastening'  the  chain  from  the  chaparral, 
the  second  man  can  place  the  other  chain  around  another  bush, 
and  the  one  who  gets  through  his  work  first  should  at  once  assist 
the  other.  In  this  way  the  horses  are  kept  in  constant  employ- 
ment, and  neither  of  the  men  need  lose  a  moment's  time.  This 
work  should  be  done  when  the  ground  is  thoroughly  wet. 

Where  manzanita  grows  somewhat  upright,  as  it  does  on  the 
hills  north  of  the  bay,  the  same  methods  of  extraction  can  be 
employed  with  it,  first  slashing  off  enough  to  allow  adjusting  the 
rope  or  chain  a  few  feet  above  the  ground.  Where  it  grows  lower, 
as,  for  example,  on  the  hills  of  Santa  Clara,  the  manzanita  brush 
is  gone  over  with  a  roller  so  as  to  break  it  down,  and  then  the 
land  is  burned  over.  The  roller  should  be  of  the  ordinary  farm 
pattern,  but  rigged  with  a  tiller  (header  fashion)  so  that  the  horses 
can  push  the  roller  and  walk  over  the  flattened  brush.  The  only 
object  of  the  rolling  is  to  smash  the  brush  down  so  that  it  will 
burn  readily.  When  the  brush  is  got  rid  of  in  this  way,  the  plow  is 
trusted  to  get  rid  of  the  roots.  The  plow  should  be  of  the  pattern 
known  as  "prairie  breaker,"  without  coulter.  Horses  should  be 
shod  with  a  plate  of  sheet  iron  between  the  shoe  and  hoof  to 
prevent  snagging,  and  not  less  than  four  of  them  used.  Much 
of  the  Santa  Clara  county  vine  belt  was  cleared  in  that  way.  Of 
course  this  method  only  answers  for  the  lighter-rooted  growths; 
tough-rooted  chaparral,  oak,  holly,  etc.,  must  be  grubbed  out,  unless 
the  roots  are  snaked  out  by  the  tops,  as  has  been  described. 

Marketable  Products  of  Clearing. — Whether  any  money  can  be 
made  from  the  results  of  clearing  depends  altogether  upon  local 
markets  for  wood  and  charcoal  and  the  cost  of  transportation  to 
them.  From  clearings  near  large  towns  enough  can  be  sometimes 
had  to  pay  for  the  work  and  hauling,  and  along  railways  wood  can 
often  be  shipped  with  profit.  This  can  only  be  learned  by  local 
inquiries. 


QQ  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Charcoal  Burning. — Charcoal  can  usually  be  sold  to  advantage, 
and  wood  can  sometimes  be  profitably  disposed  of  in  this  way 
when  it  can  not  be  marketed  for  fuel.  A  considerable  acreage  of 
unprofitable  fruit  trees  has  been  disposed  of  in  this  way  recently. 
Charcoal  is  made  from  most  kinds  of  wood,  and  sometimes  stumps 
and  large  roots  are  charred.  A  simple  process  of  charcoal  burning 
is  given  by  an  experienced  burner  as  follows : 

To  burn  a  pit  of  charcoal,  the  prime  necessity  is  to  perform  the  process 
of  combustion  with  the  least  possible  contact  with  air.  Select  a  suitable 
place  not  too  far  from  the  dwelling,  because  the  operation  must  be 
watched  from  time  to  time  by  night  as  well  as  by  day.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  dig  much  of  a  ''pit"  in  the  ground.  Choose  hard  limbs  of  pine,  spruce 
or  whatever  wood  is  most  available  of  that  kind.  Dry,  dead  limbs,  if  not 
decayed,  take  for  choice.  Set  them  up  wigwam  fashion,  close  together, 
fitting  them  as  well  as  they  will  allow,  the  apex  forming  the  chimney.  Be 
careful  to  keep  that  chimney  free,  because  the  fire  should  be  there  applied 
to  brisk  "kindling"  as  far  down  as  possible.  Build  round  and  round,  tak- 
ing the  precaution  to  lay  three  or  four  straight  pieces,  three  or  four  inches 
in  diameter,  along  the  ground  from  the  outside  to  the  center.  These  may 
have  to  be  withdrawn  to  promote  the  draught. 

The  wood  all  being  in  place  it  is  now  required  to  cover  it  thoroughly. 
In  the  absence  of  turf  or  sods,  it  must  be  thatched  with  leafy  green 
boughs,  or  anything  that  will  prevent  the  earth  or  dirt  that  is  now  heaped 
on  from  running  through.  Pack  this  soil  covering  carefully,  exclude  air  as 
far  as  possible,  except  when  the  port-holes  referred  to  near  the  ground 
are  needed.  The  direction  of  the  wind  will  determine  which  ones  are  to 
be  opened.  When  the  fire — after  a  few  hours,  more  or  less,  according  to 
the  materials — has  got  a  good  hold,  close  also  the  chimney.  Visit  the  pit 
regularly  night  and  day;  lessen  or  increase  the  draught  as  may  seem 
needed;  and  in  a  week  or  teji  days  the  two  or  three  cords  of  wood  should 
be  turned  into  good  hard  coal.  When  uncovered,  water  or  dirt  should  be 
thrown  upon  coal  that  is  too  lively  when  spread  out  on  the  ground. 

Cutting  to  Kill  Brush. — Just  when  to  cut  to  kill  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  growth  and  of  the  season.  One  conclusion 
seems  to  be  that  with  deciduous  growths  the  best  time  to  cut  is 
when  they  have  just  made  their  most  vigorous  growth,  and  this  is 
in  the  summer — but  the  month  to  be  chosen  for  the  work  will 
depend  upon  the  location,  though  August  is  generally  selected  as 
the  best  time. 

In  the  case  of  evergreens,  the  cutting  should  be  just  before 
the  coldest  weather,  in  which  they  are  the  nearest  dormant.  Ever- 
greens, however,  diflfer  much  in  tenacity  of  life,  for  while  most 
kinds  are  easily  killed,  the  California  redwood  will  endure  almost 
any  abuse  with  axe  or  fire  and  still  spring  up  repeatedly  and  per- 
sistently for  years. 

The  Use  of  Sheep  on  Sprouts. — On  sprouting  brush,  there  is, 
perhaps,  no  cheaper  or  more  efifective  means  of  repression  than 
sheep  and  goats.  They  are  used  after  the  top  growth  is  cleared 
away  instead  of  grubbing,  if  one  can  wait,  for  by  their  persistent 
cutting  down  of  growth,  many  small  stumps  and  roots  will  decay 
enough  in  a  year  or  two  to  be  plowed  out  with  a  strong  team  and 
plow. 


PREPARING    LAND    P^OR    FRUIT 


67 


Burning  of  the  Debris. — However  the  trees  and  underbrush 
may  be  wrenched  from  the  soil,  fire  is  the  final  cleaner.  Where 
trees  are  to  be  worked  up  into  fire-wood,  it  should  be  done  as  soon 
as  they  are  felled,  for  the  work  is  much  less  than  after  they  become 
dry  and  hard.  If  it  is  not  designed  to  break  the  land  the  first 
winter,  the  wood  is  left  to  season  and  it  becomes  lighter  and  easier 
to  handle.  The  brush  and  roots,  if  no  use  is  to  be  made  of  them, 
can  be  left  to  lie  on  the  clearing  to  dry  out  during  the  following 
summer,  and  after  the  first  rains  of  the  following  fall  the  whole 
area  can  be  burned  over.  Such  stumps  as  do  not  burn  with  the 
brush  must  be  gathered  in  piles  and  re-fired.  Burning  before  the 
first  rain  should  not  be  attempted,  unless  it  be  in  exceptional  situa- 
tions, because  of  the  danger  of  communicating  fire  to  the  surround- 
ing country,  which  is  a  standing  danger  in  our  dry  climate.  Under 
the  present  law  it  becomes  necessary  to  secure  permission  from  the 
State  Forester  at  Sacramento  before  starting  field  fires  in  the  dry 
season.     After  the  rain,  clean  up  the  ground  perfectly. 

First  Crop  on  a  Clearing. — It  is  the  opinion  of  some  clearers 
m  the  redwood  region  that  the  soil  is  not  fit  for  fruit  trees  the  first 
year  after  the  original  growth  is  removed,  and  they  grow  a  field 
crop  the  first  year.  They  claim  that  peas  are  the  best  corrective 
of  "redwood  poisoning,"  and  fortunately  in  the  upper  redwood  dis- 
trict they  have  a  climate  well  suited  to  the  pea.  Whether  their 
theory  is  right  or  not,  their  practice  is  of  advantage,  because  they 
get  a  better  cultivation  and  aeration  of  the  soil,  and  kill  out  much 
of  the  sprouting  from  the  old  roots,  which  is  usually  quite  per- 
sistent in  the  moister  parts  of  the  State.  Usually  the  tree  and  vine 
planter  is  in  such  haste  to  realize  from  his  labor  that  he  does  not 
allow  the  first  year  to  go  for  any  side  issue. 

Surface  Leveling  and  Draining. — There  is  often  occasion  to 
clear  the  land  of  stone  and  rocks.  The  latter  should  be  blasted  out 
of  the  way  so  that  the  land  may  be  clear  for  the  plow  and  culti- 
vator. Once  in  a  while  one  will  come  upon  a  stone  wall  inclosing 
an  orchard  in  this  State,  as  trim  and  true  a  wall  as  the  most  thrifty 
New  England  farmer  can  boast,  but  walls  are  not  common.  Our 
valley  orchard  lands  are,  as  a  rule,  naturally  as  free  from  stone 
as  they  are  from  underbrush,  but  on  the  hills  it  is  different.  Prob 
ably  the  best  way  to  dispose  of  much  of  the  stone  is  to  dig  trenche* 
in  the  natural  water  runs,  put  in  stone,  cover  with  small  brush, 
and  then  with  soil  deep  enough  so  the  plow  will  not  reach  the 
brush.  This  disposes  of  the  stone  for  all  time,  and  at  the  same 
time  helps  to  drain  the  soil.  Concerning  other  treatment  of  the 
land  after  the  rubbish  is  removed,  P.  W.  Butler  writes  as  follows : 

When  water  runs  are  wide,  lateral  ditches  should  be  cut  extending 
entirely  through  the  moist  areas.  If  during  the  rainy  season  a  run  is 
likely    to    have    more    water    than    can    be    conveyed    properly    through    a 


gg  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

covered  trench,  it  should  be  left  open  and  graded  so  that  a  team  can  cross 
it,  and  for  fifteen  feet  on  each  side  sow  to  red-top.  In  this  way  the  land 
can  be  utilized  that  would  be  worthless  for  trees,  and  the  red-top,  that 
can  be  grown  at  a  profit,  will  take  the  place  of  unsightly  weeds,  that  would 
otherwise  grow  at  the  point  that  can   not  be   cultivated. 

To  distribute  the  work  more  evenly  through  the  tirst  year  buildings 
can  be  erected,  a  well  dug,  and  the  trenching  done  in  the  dry  season,  while 
all  the  grubbing,  leveling,  plowing  and  planting  must  be  done  the  follow- 
ing season,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  sufficiently  moistened.  All  depres- 
sions where  water  would  stand  should  be  filled,  and  all  flat  places  should 
be  graded  until  water  will  readily  flow  ofif,  and  not  be  retained  so  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground  as  to  cause  it  to  become  soured.  This  leveling  can 
be  best  done  by  one  man  and  a  pair  of  horses.  Plow  the  adjacent  elevated 
land  and  scrape  into  the  places  to  be  tilled.  The  land  is  now  ready  for 
plowing  and  should  be  done  thoroughly,  subsoiling  to  as  great  a  depth  as 
the  removal  of  the  stumps  will  allow.  It  is  now  well  to  go  over  the 
ground  again  with  the  scraper  and  level  all  the  most  elevated  points  so 
they  can  be  readily  reached  by  water  in  irrigating.  Then  cross-plow  as 
deeply  as  possible  without  again  subsoiling,  harrow  and  drag,  and  the 
ground   will  be   ready   to   plant. 

Mr.  Butler  writes  with  reference  to  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  where  irrigation  must  be  practised.  Where  irrigation  is 
not  used,  leveling,  or  rather  grading,  may  be  unnecessary,  but  it  is 
often  quite  desirable  that  there  may  be  no  depressions  to  retain 
surplus  water.  The  life  of  the  trees  and  ease  of  cultivation  may 
demand  this  unless  the  soil  should  be  light  and  deep  enough  to 
allow  free  drainage. 


CHAPTER     VIII 
NURSERY    OPERATIONS 


^^  vigor.  This  is  the  verdict  of  all  the  visiting  horticulturists,  and  has 
been  formally  declared  by  the  victories  of  California  tree  growers 
at  the  World's  Fairs  held  in  this  country,  w^here  the  highest 
premiums  were  awarded  to  Californians  in  nearly  all  classes  in 
which  they  exhibited  since  1885. 

The  quality  of  the  trees  which  can  be  purchased  at  our  nurseries, 
and  the  very  reasonable  rates  at  which  they  are  sold,  make  it  little 
worth  while  for  the  orchard  planter  to  try  to  grow  his  own  trees. 
In  fact,  the  investment  called  for  to  purchase  a  good  assortment 
of  well-grown  trees  will  be  one  of  the  best  which  the  orchard 
planter  can  make.  The  professional  grower,  if  he  is  honest  and 
enterprising,  can  give  the  purchaser  the  advantage  of  his  experi- 
ence and  skill  in  the  choice  of  stocks  suited  to  his  soil,  varieties 
of  fruit  adapted  to  his  situation,  and  be  of  assistance  to  him  in 
other  ways  connected  with  his  enterprise ;  and  such  helps  to  an 
inexperienced  planter  or  to  a  newcomer  are  very  valuable.  There 
may  be,  however,  some  reader  who  is  distant  from  established  nur- 
series, or  possessed  of  limited  means,  who  may  like  to  use  his 
spare  time  in  growing  his  own  trees,  and  to  such  suggestions  are 
oflfered.  There  will,  however,  be  very  much  which  can  be  learned 
only  by  actual  experience. 

In  the  selection  of  location  for  a  commercial  nursery  there  are 
matters  involved  which  it  is  not  proposed  to  discuss.  Attention 
will  be  paid  rather  to  matters  connected  with  what  may  be  called 
a  farm  nursery.  The  first  point  will  be  the  selection  of  a  small 
piece  of  ground  which  ofifers  proper  soil,  exposure,  and,  in  some 
parts  of  the  State,  facilities  for  irrigation. 

Proper  Soil  for  Nursery. — The  soil  should  be  a  mellow  loam, 
easy  of  cultivation  and  not  disposed  to  crust  and  crack.  In  all 
respects  what  one  would  choose  as  a  rich,  kind  garden  soil  will 
answer  well  for  the  nursery.  The  soil  should  be  moist,  but  thor- 
oughly drained,  either  naturally  or  artificially,  for  time  and  labor 
will  be  largely  wasted  on  a  water-logged  soil.  In  this  respect  a 
soil  which  might  yield  fair  crops  of  some  shallow-rootmg  vege- 
tables would  not  always  be  suitable  for  young  trees,  which,  to  do 
Avell,  must  have  favorable  conditions  to  send  the  roots  to  consider- 
able depth.  Good  spots  are  often  found  in  the  rich  loam  along  the 
banks  of  creeks,  as  in  such  situations  one  finds  generally  a  deep 
alluvium,  well  drained  by  the  creek.     But  such  situations,  if  liable 

69 


70 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


to  overflow,  should  be  rejected  because  standing  water  is  not  good 
for  trees,  and  because  the  soil  will  be  apt  to  be  soaked  with  water 
and  inaccessible  just  at  the  time  when  the  trees  should  be  lifted  for 
transplanting  to  orchard. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  find  an  ideal  nursery  spot  on  every 
ranch,  but  still  trees  may  be  well  grown  on  less  favorable  places 
if  attention  is  given  to  correcting  natural  defects.  For  example, 
if  the  soil  be  naturally  heavy,  it  may  be  improved  somewhat  by 
repeated  plowing  and  cultivation  during  the  year  before  starting 
the  trees.  If  it  be  an  adobe,  its  mechanical  condition  may  be 
greatly  improved  by  the  application  of  a  top  dressing  of  lime  at  the 
rate  of  six  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds  of  lime  to  the  acre. 
For  this  purpose  "lime  waste,"  which  contains  both  lime  and  wood 
ashes,  can  be  had  cheaply  at  the  kilns.  Old  plaster  which  may 
have  been  left  from  house  repairs  is  excellent.  Even  builders' 
lime  would  not  be  very  expensive,  for  but  little  would  be  required 
for  so  small  a  plot  of  land  as  a  farm  nursery  would  need  to  cover. 
The  lime  will  increase  the  amount  of  plant  food  in  a  heavy  soil  as 
well  as  render  it  more  friable.  Another  way  in  which  a  small  area 
of  heavy  soil  may  be  improved  is  by  the  addition  of  sand.  A  few 
loads  of  sand,  if  it  can  be  had  near  by,  will  remove  the  tendency 
to  crack,  and  will  act  as  mulch  to  prevent  evaporation  of  moisture. 
If  the  soil  be  very  loose  and  subject  to  too  rapid  drying  out,  the 
remedy  will  be  moderate  irrigation  during  the  summer,  but  it 
should  cease  early  enough  to  allow  the  young  trees  to  ripen  their 
wood  before  the  frosts  of  autumn.  Mulches  of  various  light,  fine 
materials,  rotted  straw  and  the  like,  may  be  used  to  advantage 
among  the  young  seedlings  in  preventing  drying  out  of  the  soil, 
if  the  plot  is  to  be  hand-worked,  but  such  materials  are  apt  to  be 
in  the  way  of  neat,  thorough  work  with  the  horse.  A  mulch  of 
sand,  if  available,  is  not  open  to  this  objection. 

In  choosing  soil  for  a  nursery,  a  piece  of  land  which  has  bfeen 
in  cultivation  for  garden  or  field  crops  is  to  be  preferred  over  a 
newly-cleared  piece.  It  is  often  the  case  that  soil  from  which  old 
stumps  or  shoots  have  recently  been  removed  has  become  soured 
from  the  processes  of  decay  in  the  dead  wood.  Although  the  de- 
posits of  humus  from  decay  of  woody  fiber  tends  to  enrich  the  soil, 
afterwards  certain  acids  are  formed  if  the  land  lies  without  culti- 
vation. These  are  not  favorable  to  the  growth  of  young  roots, 
and  a  crop  to  which  as  much  time  is  given  as  a  crop  of  young  trees, 
should  not  be  placed  upon  it.  This  evil  quality  in  the  soil  is 
removed  by  cultivation  and  aeration,  or  may  be  corrected  by  the 
application  of  lime.  This  state  of  soil  is  most  complained  of  m 
connection  with  old  stumps  and  roots  of  oak  trees. 

Situation  and  Exposure. — Warmth  in  the  soil  is  necessary  to  a 
good  growth,  and  a  good  year's  growth  is   essential   to  the  pro- 


PREPARATION  OF  NURSERY  GROUND  fj-^ 

duction  to  a  satisfactory  tree.  Drainage  contributes  notably  to 
the  warmth  of  the  soil.  Exposure  is  also  of  importance.  Plenty 
of  sunshine  and  protection  from  cold  winds  are  to  be  secured. 
Sometimes  a  little  elevation  is  desirable.  It  would  be  a  serious 
mistake  to  seek  moist,  low  land  if  the  piece  lies  at  the  bottom  of  a 
little  valley  or  depression  where  the  cold  air  settles  during  the 
night  and  frosts  are  frequent.  In  such  cases  choose  higher  ground. 
Of  course,  in  broad,  open  valleys  there  is  not  this  objection,  for 
such  seasonable  frosts  as  may  be  expected  there  are  not  injurious 
to  deciduous  nursery  stock.  The  greatest  nurseries  in  the  State 
are  m  the  open  valleys,  not  on  the  lowest  ground,  however,  in  all 
cases,  but  on  what  would  be  called  good,  rich  valley  land.  There 
are,  however,  situations  in  the  thermal  belts  in  which  the  tempera- 
ture does  not  fall  low  enough  to  check  growth  of  deciduous  trees 
and  cause  the  leaves  to  drop.  In  such  cases  it  has  been  found  de- 
sirable to  select  lower  and  colder  ground  for  the  nursery  of 
deciduous  trees. 

Preparation  or  Nursery  Ground. — The  best  preparation  for  nur- 
sery ground  is  the  growth,  the  previous  season,  of  a  cultivated  or 
hoed  crop.  This  will  secure  frequent  working  of  the  soil,  thorough 
pulverization  of  the  clods,  etc.  The  produce  of  the  hoed  crop 
should  thus  pay  the  cost  of  putting  the  land  in  good  condition,  at 
least.  Where  the  retention  of  moisture  is  an  object,  as  it  really  is 
in  some  parts  of  the  State  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  sometimes 
small  and  no  facilities  for  irrigation  provided,  it  will  perhaps  pay 
better  in  the  end  to  keep  the  land  in  bare  fallow  during  the  previous 
summer;  but  there  must  be  frequent  and  thorough  cultivation, 
keeping  the  surface  always  mellow,  or  more  moisture  will  be  lost 
by  evaporation  than  a  hoed  crop  would  require  for  its  growth. 
Properly  cultivated  fallow  soil  will  have  moisture  within  a  few 
inches  of  the  surface,  while  unworked  soil  adjoining  will  be  baked 
hard  and  dry  to  a  depth  of  several  feet.  During  the  winter  imme- 
diately preceding  planting,  the  green  stufT  should  be  allowed  to 
grow  for  a  time,  but  should  be  plowed  under  before  it  gets  high 
enough  to  interfere  with  perfect  turning  of  smooth  furrows.  The 
decay  of  this  green  crop  is  of  advantage  to  the  soil.  Another  plow- 
ing in  the  spring,  and  a  thorough  harrowing,  will  leave  the  ground 
in  good  condition  to  receive  the  pits  or  root  grafts,  as  the  case 
may  be.  In  this  plowing  for  nursery  there  should  be  deep  work 
done  and  subsoiling,  as  will  be  more  fully  set  forth  under  the  head 
of  preparing  land  for  orchard,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

Growth  of  Seedlings  for  the  Nursery. — The  two  chief  ways  of 
producing  fruit  trees  are,  first,  from  seedlings  grown  on  the  spot; 
second,  from  buds  and  root  grafts  upon  stock  imported  from  the 
East  or  from  a1)road.     First,  as  to  the  growth  of  seedlings : 

It  is  usual  to  take  seeds  from  sources  where  they  can  be  collected 


72 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


with  the  least  trouble.  Apple  seeds  are  washed  out  from  the 
pomace  of  the  cider  press ;  apples  and  pears  from  the  coring  and 
peelings  of  canneries  and  drying  establishments ;  pits  of  the  stone 
fruits  are  derived  from  the  same  source.  Supplies  can  usually  be 
purchased  from  such  establishments  at  a  moderate  cost.  The 
trouble  is  that  from  such  supplies  one  is  apt  to  get  seeds  and  pits 
from  all  varieties,  possessing  different  degrees  of  health  and  vigor. 
There  is  just  as  much  to  be  gained  from  selecting  the  seed  from 
Avhich  to  grow  good  strong  stocks  for  fruit  trees  as  there  is  in 
selecting  good  garden  or  field  seed.  One  can  generally  get  good 
peach  pits,  for  it  is  easy  to  have  the  order  filled  when  the  cannery 
is  running  on  strong-growing  yellow  varieties,  for  these  are  believed 
to  be  most  vigorous,  and  yet  some  claim  much  preference  for  pits 
from  vigorous  seedling  trees,  and  make  extra  efforts  to  secure 
them.  Wherever  it  is  possible,  and  if  one  is  only  to  produce  a 
small  lot  of  trees,  it  is  practicable  to  select  from  the  fruit  the  seeds 
for  planting.  Not  only  is  there  great  difference  in  the  strength 
of  different  varieties,  but  in  dividual  trees  vary  greatly.  If  one  is 
taking  seed  from  an  old  orchard  to  start  his  nursery  with,  he  can 
take  pains  to  get  his  seed  from  his  strongest  trees,  and  thus  secure 
also  that  which  is  probably  best  adapted  to  his  locality. 

Apple  and  Pear  Seedlings. — For  a  small  lot  of  apple  and  pear 
trees  the  seed  can  be  best  sown  in  boxes.  Select  plump  pips  and 
keep  in  moist  sand,  from  the  time  they  are  taken  from  the  fruit 
until  sowing.  Fill  the  boxes,  which  should  be  there  or  four  inches 
deep,  with  good  garden  mold,  cover  the  seed  about  half  an  inch, 
and  then  cover  the  soil  lightly  with  chaff  or  fine  straw  to  prevent 
the  surface  from  drying  out.  Be  sure  that  the  boxes  have  cracks 
or  holes  in  the  bottom  for  drainage,  and  the  whole  is  kept  moist 
l)ut  not  wet.  When  the  seedlings  have  grown  to  the  height  ot 
three  inches,  they  can  be  set  out  in  the  nursery  rows  as  one  would 
set  out  cabbage  plants. 

Cherry  Seedlings. — There  are  different  ways  of  handling  pits 
of  stone  fruits  to  prepare  them  for  setting  out  in  open  ground, 
which  will  be  described.  The  cherry  is  grown  from  pits  of  two 
wild  varieties;  one  is  commonly  called  the  ''Black  Mazzard."  It 
is  the  common  wild  cherry  of  the  East,  and  is  the  original  type  ot 
what  are  known  as  the  Heart  and  Bigarreau  types  of  cherries. 
The  other  is  the  "Mahaleb,"  a  European  wild  species,  which  is 
used  in  the  East,  where  it  thrives  better  than  the  Mazzard,  as  it  is 
hardier  stock.  In  this  State  the  Mahaleb  does  not  seem  to  have 
much  dwarfing  effect,  as  trees  on  that  stock  in  this  State  over 
twenty-five  years  old  are  twenty-five  inches  in  diameter  of  trunk. 
The  Mahaleb,  however,  ripens  its  wood  earlier,  and  for  this  reason 
may  be  valuable  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  State.  It  is  also  freer 
Irom  root  trouble  by  extremes  of  witness  and  drouth  in  the  soil 


GROWING     SEEDLINGS     FROM      PITS 


73 


and  is  largely  used  on  low  lands.  The  Mazzard  is,  however,  chiefly 
used  in  California.  Cherry  stones  are  sometimes  taken  from  the 
fully-ripened  fruit,  dried  for.  two  or  three  days,  the  stones  cracked 
carefully  and  planted  at  once  in  good  soil  and  kept  properly  moist. 
They  will  germinate  soon  and  make  a  growth  of  a  foot  or  so  the 
first  season.  Such  stocks  are  taken  up  for  grafting  in  the  winter 
and  set  out  in  nursery  row  the  next  spring.  A  better  way  of  treat- 
ing cherry  is  that  given  by  W.  W.  Smith,  of  Vacaville : 

The  fruit  of  the  Mazzard  should  be  allowed  to  get  perfectly  ripe  on 
the  tree,  then  gathered  and  let  lie  in  a  heap  for  three  or  four  days,  so  that 
they  may  be  partially  or  wholly  freed  from  the  pulp  by  washing  them  in 
water.  They  should  then  be  spread  out  in  the  shade  and  stirred  frequently 
for  about  twenty-four  hours.  This  will  give  the  outside  of  the  pit  time  to 
dry  sufficiently  to  prevent  molding,  while  the  kernel  itself  will  remain 
fresh  and  green.  They  should  then  be  placed  in  moist  (not  wet)  sand 
and  kept  so  until  the  rains  set  in  in  the  fall,  when  they  can  be  planted  in 
drills,  in  good,  rich,  mellow  soil  prepared  the  previous  spring  and  kept 
clean  of  weeds  through  the  summer,  ready  for  the  purpose.  They  should 
never  be  allowed  to  get  perfectly  dry;  and  the  reason  for  it  is  that  we  have 
but  little  or  no  freezing  and  thawing  weather  in  this  country  to  cause  the 
pits  to  open;  but  if  they  are  kept  constantly  moist  it  answers  the  same 
purpose  as  freezing.  The  seeds  of  the  Mahaleb  cherry  will  sprout  with 
less  difficulty,  but  the  same  rules  for  keeping  the  Mazzards  will  apply  to 
them. 

Other  stock  for  the  cherry  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
that  fruit. 

Citrus  Fruits. — The  propagation  of  citrus  fruits  will  be  de- 
scribed in  detail  in  Chapters  XXXII,  XXXIII  and  XXXIV. 

The  Larger  Stone  Fruits. — In  handling  pits  of  the  larger  stone 
fruits,  apricot,  peach,  plum,  etc.,  the  chief  requisite  is  to  prevent 
drying  and  great  hardening  of  the  pit.  Some  plant  in  the  fall  and 
trust  to  natural  conditions  to  start  the  seedling  in  the  spring,  but 
this  interferes  with  the  cultivation  of  the  ground,  and  leaves  the 
seedling  to  grow  in  soil  which  has  perhaps  been  puddled  by  heavy 
winter  rains.  There  must  also  be  much  hand  work  done  to  clear 
the  rows  from  weeds.  It  is  much  better  to  keep  the  pits  from 
drying  by  covering  with  sand  moderately  moist,  hasten  the  sprout- 
ing by  appropriate  treatment  towards  spring,  and  then  plant  out 
in  thoroughly  prepared  soil,  and  they  will  make  a  satisfactory 
growth.  The  following  method,  by  D.  J.  Parmele,  of  Vacaville, 
has  given  good  results : 

Keep  the  pits  out  of  the  sun  until  the  rains  commence  in  the  fall,  then 
put  them  into  a  box  about  a  foot  deep  with  openings  at  the  bottom  for 
drainage,  and  scatter  sand  or  fine  earth  through  them,  putting  about  two 
inches  on  top,  and  place  them  under  the  eaves  of  a  building  on  the  south 
side,  where  they  will  get  well  soaked  every  time  it  rains.  If  there  should 
be  a  long  dry  spell  during  the  winter,  water  them  a  little.  About  March 
they  will  open  and  sprout.  Then  take  a  plow  and  open  a  deep  furrow  in 
loose,  mellow  ground,  and,  with  a  hoe,  pull  about  two-thirds  of  the  dirt 
back  into  the  furrow,  breaking  the  clods,  and  making  it  fine,  the  same  as 
you  would  if  you  expected  to  plant  onion  seed  there.  Drop  the  sprouted 
pits  in  straight  line,  and  cover  two  inches.  On  account  of  the  extra  work 
in  preparing  the  ground,  the  trees  will  be  large  enough  to  bud  in  July. 


74  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Another  way  is  to  spread  out  the  pits  on  a  smooth  piece  of 
ground  and  cover  with  sacks,  and  over  these  a  layer  of  straw  three 
or  four  inches  thick  to  retain  moisture.  The  pits  may  be  planted 
out  as  soon  as  they  crack  open,  although  no  harm  wilf  be  done  if 
they  are  allowed  to  lie  until  the  sprouts  are  well  out. 

Another  method  which  has  been  especially  recommended  for 
treatment  for  almonds  is  the  following:  Lay  boards  upon  the 
ground  and  cover  them  with  an  inch  of  sand ;  spread  on  this  a 
layer  of  almonds  and  then  another  inch  of  sand,  and  bo  on.  Keep 
the  pile  wet,  and  in  three  weeks  of  warm  weather  they  will  burst 
open.  Plant  in  drills  one  inch  deep  and  put  over  them  a  light  coat 
of  rotten  straw. 

If  from  any  cause  the  pits  have  become  quite  dry,  they  should 
be  soaked  in  water  two  or  three  days  before  planting. 

Nut  Tree  Seedlings. — In  growing  nut-tree  seedlings,  much  the 
same  methods  are  followed  as  with  pits  of  stone  fruits.  There  are 
methods  described  in  detail  by  California  growers  which  should  be 
given.  As  has  been  said,  the  nuts  may  be  planted  at  any  time 
after  ripening,  in  the  milder  parts  of  the  State,  if  the  grower 
will  undertake  the  greater  care  and  cultivation.  On  some  light 
soils  where  the  rainfall  is  not  excessive,  this  is  not  much  trouble. 
Felix  Gillet,  of  Nevada  City,  gives  this  as  his  method : 

The  nuts  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  gathered,  though  in  Nevada  City 
it  is  too  cold  to  plant  them  in  the  fall,  for  the  frost  in  winter  would  surely 
lift  the  nuts  right  out  of  the  ground.  For  keeping  and  sprouting  walnuts, 
I  throw  into  the  bottom  of  a  box  one  inch  deep  of  sand,  then  a  layer  of 
nuts;  put  in  another  inch  of  sand,  and  another  layer  of  nuts,  and  so  on  to 
one  or  two  inches  from  the  top.  Then  water  well  with  a  sprinkler  and 
water  again  during  the  winter  whenever  the  sand  get's  too  dry.  The  sand 
has  to  be  pretty  well  saturated  with  water,  especially  from  the  first  of 
January  down  to  planting  time,  which  is  in  February,  March,  or  April, 
according  to  localities.  The  latter  part  of  March  or  first  week  in  April  is 
best  for  Nevada  City.  The  nuts  are  planted  in  drills  and  covered  to  a 
depth  of  two  to  three  inches. 

In  propagating  chestnuts  it  is  always  better  to  select  for  seed  the 
largest,  finest,  and  healthiest  nuts;  in  the  fall  or  beginning  of  winter  the 
nuts  have  to  be  planted  in  a  box  of  damp  sand,  by  layers,  the  box  being 
kept  in  a  cellar.  The  nuts  may  be  stored  in  a  hole  in  the  open  ground,  a 
layer  of  chestnut  leaves  being  first  thrown  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  on 
top  of  that  a  layer  of  nuts,  then  another  layer  of  leaves,  and  so  on  to  the 
top,  which  has  to  be  properly  covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  earth 
so  as  to  prevent  the  frost  injuring  the  nuts.  In  February  or  March, 
according  to  location,  the  nuts  are  taken  out  and  planted  in  drills  to  a 
depth  of  three  to  four  inches;  less  for  smaller  seed  like  American  chest- 
nuts. 

In  growi^ng  seedlings  of  English  walnuts,  Mr.  J.  Luther  Bowers 
of  Santa  Clafa>4^as  shown  that  water-soaking  of  nuts  may  make 
it  unnecessary  to^iindertake  storage  in  damp  sand,  if  the  nuts  are 
of  the  last  crop.     He  describes  the  method  as  follows : 

"The  nuts  should  be  large  and  thin  shelled  and  should  be  of  last  year's 
crop.  To  ascertain  this,  break  a  few  and  split  the  kernel  open  at  the  germ 
end,  or  the  point  where  the  root  starts.     If  the  meat  of  the  kernel  shows  a 


HOW     THK     WAl^NUT     SKlilDLING     STARTS 


75 


76  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

clear  color  they  are  of  last  year's  crop,  but  if  the  flesh  shows  any  dis- 
coloration they  are  old  and  will  not  germinate.  I  have  often  got  hold  of 
ci  lot  that  were  mixed,  old  and  new  together.  Never  risk  a  lot  of  this  kind, 
for  failure  will  follow.  After  the  nuts  have  been  selected  place  them  in 
some  kind  of  tin  vessel;  a  five-gallon  oil  can,  with  the  top  removed,  is  just 
the  thing.  Then  cover  them  with  hot  water  at  not  over  no  degrees  F. 
Let  them  remain  in  this  water  for  24  hours  and  plant  at  once,  keeping 
them  in  the  water  all  the  time.  Do  not  let  them  become  the  least  bit  dry, 
and  be  sure  the  soil  is  moist,  and  put  every  nut  in  with  the  sharp  point 
exactly  straight  down.  The  root  starts  from  this  point  and  will  go 
straight  down,  and  if  not  molested  will  the  first  year  be  about  three  times 
the  length  of  the  top;  that  is,  if  the  top  grows  one  foot,  the  straight  tap 
root  will  be  three  feet  or  more  long,  and  will  be  from  three-fourths  to  an 
inch  thick  where  it  grew  out  of  the  nut,  tapering  both  up  and  down." 

Imported  Seedlings. — A  very  large  proportion  of  some  kinds 
of  the  cherry,  pear  and  apple  trees  produced  in  this  State  are 
worked  upon  imported  seedling  stocks.  These  stocks  are  cheap, 
convenient  to  handle,  and  are  therefore  popular.  It  is  easy  enough 
to  grow  peach,  almond,  apricot,  and  Myrobalan  seedlings,  but  small 
seeds,  like  apple  and  pear,  often  do  not  show  up  well  in  the  spring, 
especially  if  the  soil  is  of  a  kind  that  crusts  over  with  rain  and 
sunshine.  Therefore  our  nurserymen  import  these  seedlings  in 
the  winter,  plant  them  out,  as  has  already  been  described,  and  bud 
in  the  following  summer,  grafting  the  next  spring  where  the  buds 
fail.  If  the  seedlings  are  large  when  received,  they  are  often  root- 
grafted  at  once,  and  then  one  summer  in  the  nursery  gives  a  tree 
suitable  for  planting  out.  These  stocks  are  of  better  budding  size 
during  their  first  summer  than  California  seedlings,  which  are  apt 
to  overgrow. 

Myrobalan  plum  seedlings  were  formerly  imported  to  a  large 
extent,  but  are  now  chiefly  home-grown,  and  seedlings  are  used 
instead  of  cuttings,  which  formerly  were  employed  largely.  This 
stock  has  secured  great  favor  for  plums  and  prunes,  and  in  some 
situations,  for  the  apricot,  as  it  is  hardier  against  extremes  of 
drouth  and  moisture. 

Prof.  Newton  B.  Pierce,  of  Santa  Ana,  has  discovered  in  Cali- 
fornia upon  imported  seedlings  a  serious  root-fungus  which  kills 
all  kinds  of  orchard  trees  in  Europe,  and  he  advises  the  use  of 
home-grown  seedlings  to  escape  this  danger. 

Fruit  Trees  from  Cuttings. — It  is  feasible  to  grow  a  number  of 
kinds  of  fruit  trees  from  cuttings,  but  it  is  not  desirable  in  many 
cases  to  do  it.  Trees  grown  from  a  graft  or  bud  in  a  seedling  root 
are  much  better.  The  root  system  of  a  seedling  is  naturally 
stronger  and  more  symmetrical.  The  roots  from  a  cutting  start 
out  at  the  bottom  and  spread  out  horizontally  and  irregularly. 
This  style  of  a  root  system  is  expressively  named  *'duck-foot  roots," 
and  they  do  not  give  the  tree  a  deep,  strong  hold  on  the  soil.  Trees 
can,  however,  be  multiplied  very  fast  from  cuttings.  Notable  in- 
stances of  this  are  the  Myrobalan  plum  and  the  Leconie  pear. 
Cuttings   of  deciduous   trees   should  be   taken   from   weH-matured 


PJLANTING     SKlilDLlNGS     IN     NURSKRY  77 

wood  of  the  previous  season's  growth,  and  planted  in  rows  and  in 
well-prepared  soil,  as  has  already  been  described  for  the  sowing 
of  fruit  tree  seeds.  The  cuttings  should  be  taken  before  the  sap 
begins  running  in  the  winter.  A  cuttings  about  ten  inches  long, 
four-fifths  of  its  length  buried  in  the  ground,  will  answer.  Be 
sure  that  the  ground  is  firmed  well  at  the  base  of  the  cutting,  but 
keep  the  surface  loose.  Small  wood  is  better  than  large,  though, 
of  course,  the  extreme  ends  of  twigs  should  be  rejected  usually. 
Cultivation  of  cuttings  is  the  same  as  that  of  seedlings,  and  bud- 
ding, when  the  cuttings  are  to  be  used  as  stocks,  is  also  governed 
by  the  same  rules. 

The  orange  and  lemon  can  be  grown  from  cuttings,  but  the 
work  is  done  during  the  summer  while  the  ground  is  warm.  Cut 
from  wood  one  or  two  years  old ;  set  in  open  ground  with  partial 
shade  and  give  plenty  of  water  (dry  ground  is  death  to  their  tender 
roots),  but  be  sure  that  there  is  free  escape  for  surplus  water. 
Cuttings  started  in  the  warm  weather  and  given  partial  shade  and 
plenty  of  irrigation  are  very  apt  to  succeed.  This  method  of  grow- 
ing these  fruits  is  not,  however,  in  wide  use  or  favor. 

The  propagation  of  the  grape,  olive  and  fig  from  cuttings  will 
be  considered  in  the  chapters  on  those  fruits. 

Planting  Out  in  Nursery. — For  planting  out  in  nursery,  the 
term  "spring"  is  given  as  the  proper  time,  but  in  California  it  must 
be  remembered  that  spring  is  not  any  definite  division  of  the  year. 
"Spring  weather"  comes  from  the  first  of  February  to  the  first  of 
May,  according  to  the  latitude  or  elevation  or  exposure  resulting 
from  local  topography.  Cherries  may  be  ripe  in  Vaca  Valley 
before  fruit  trees  put  out  leaves  in  Modoc  county;  and  between 
these  extremes  there  are  advents  of  spring  in  other  places  accord- 
ing to  the  situation.  These  facts  are  more  fully  set  forth  in  the 
chapter  on  climate.  Spring  must  be  detected  in  the  behavior  of 
vegetation  and  not  by  the  calendar.  When  the  tree  buds  swell  and 
the  leaves  appear,  spring  has  come  for  that  locality.  But  whether 
one  can  plant  his  nursery  then  or  not  will  depend  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil  and  the  condition  of  the  rainfall  for  that  season. 
This  varies  much  from  year  to  year.  As  a  rule,  however,  in  most 
parts  where  fruit  is  grown  at  present  in  large  quantities,  the  heavy 
cold  rains  will  be  over  by  the  first  of  February,  and  then  nursery 
operations  can  commence  if  the  soil  is  in  good  condition.  If  not, 
the  planter  must  wait  until  the  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work 
nicely.  There  will,  of  course,  be  heavy  rains  after  the  first  of 
February;  but  they  will  only  necessitate  cultivation  to  loosen  the 
soil,  if  the  nursery  ground  is  well  situated  for  drainage,  and  if  it 
is  not  it  should  not  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Supposing  the  ground  has  been  deeply  plowed  and  thoroughly 
harrowed,  as  has  been  already  described,  the    laying  out  of    the 


yg  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

ground  is  the  next  operation.  Everything  should  be  done  with  a 
view  to  the  use  of  the  horse  in  cultivation.  The  rows  should  be 
laid  out  as  straight  as  possible.  Some  use  a  plow  furrow ;  some  an 
arrangement  like  a  corn-marker,  with  two  cultivator  teeth  set  four 
feet  apart;  some  stretch  a  line,  to  get  the  pits  or  root  grafts  as 
true  to  it  as  possible,  and  some  trust  to  the  furrow  for  straightness. 
No  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  means  to  be  employed ;  the  result 
must  depend  upon  the  eye  and  skill  of  the  individual.  Some  people 
can  hardly  shoot  a  straight  line  with  a  gun.  Each  must  do  the 
best  he  can  in  this  respect. 

There  is  difference  in  practice  as  to  distance  between  the  rows 
in  nursery.  The  usual  distance  is  four  feet,  but  others  claim  that 
it  is  better  to  make  the  rows  six  feet  apart,  especially  where  no 
irrigation  is  practiced,  as  this  gives  the  young  trees  more  room, 
and  if  the  ground  is  kept  thoroughly  cultivated,  as  it  should  be, 
it  gives  the  roots  a  greater  supply  of  moisture  to  draw  upon.  In 
growing  a  small  lot  of  trees,  where  there  is  plenty  of  land,  it  is,  of 
course,  desirable  to  give  them  every  advantage  in  the  way  of 
facilities  for  growth,  but  on  the  other  hand,  an  overgrown  tree  is 
not  desirable.    Thrift  and  strength  must  be  sought  rather  than  size. 

At  the  ends  of  the  rows  spaces  of  about  twelve  feet  should  be 
left  as  turning-ground  for  the  horse  when  cultivating,  and  as  a 
roadway.  The  length  of  nursery  rows  depends  upon  the  taste  of 
the  grower.  It  is  convenient  to  have  alleys  wide  enough  for  a 
horse  and  cart  at  intervals  of  one  hundred  to  three  hundred  feet, 
but  in  small  nurseries  the  head-lands  would  probably  give  all  the 
access  required. 

^.^  The  depth  for  planting  seeds  and  pits  must  be  regulated  by 
the  size  of  the  seed  and  the  character  of  the  soil,  as  is  always  laid 
down  by  the  authorities,  and  in  this  State  another  condition  must 
be  made,  and  that  is  the  climate  or  weather  conditions  prevailing 
in  the  locality.  Where  the  rainfall  is  generally  light  and  the  soil 
loose,  seed  must  be  planted  deeper  than  where  good  spring  showers 
are  to  be  expected.  In  fine  soils  seeds  must  be  planted  shallower 
than  in  coarse,  even  with  the  same  rainfall.  Judgment  and  experi- 
ence must  dictate  in  this  matter,  and  if  a  man  has  no  experience, 
he  is  pretty  apt  to  get  it. 

During  the  spring  months  the  cultivator  must  be  used  as  often 
as  may  be  required  to  keep  the  weeds  from  getting  too  high,  or  the 
soil  from  becoming  to  densely  packed  by  heavy  rains,  but  the 
ground  should  never  be  worked  when  too  wet.  It  requires  some 
watchfulness  and  promptitude  to  use  the  cultivator  just  at  the  right 
time. 

Nursery  Irrigation. — In  parts  of  the  State  where  the  rainfall 
is  adequate,  cultivation  thorough,  the  soil  sufficiently  retentive, 
and  atmospheric  conditions  favorable,  the  seedling  will  make  its 


USE     OF     WATER     IN     THE     NURSERY  79 

growth  without  irrigation,  and  many  nurseries  are  on  ground  not 
provided  at  all  with  irrigation  facilities.  In  other  parts  of  the  State 
irrigation  is  necessary.  Water  should  be  applied  sparingly,  and 
yet  enough  to  keep  the  seedling  in  healthy  growing  condition.  This 
IS  shown  by  the  leaves,  which  should  not  drop  or  curl.  Excessive  irri- 
gation should  be  guarded  against,  because  a  soft,  excessive  growth 
is  very  undesirable.  Water  is  a  good  thing,  and  in  some  cases  a 
very  necessary  thing,  but  the  use  of  it  should  be  wisely  regulated. 
At  budding  it  is  necessary  that  the  sap  should  be  free  and  the  bark 
slip  easily.  To  foster  this  condition  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to 
give  a  watering  a  few  days  before  budding  commences.  Water 
should  be  applied  by  running  it  through  shallow  furrows  between 
the  rows,  and  the  cultivator  should  follow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
dry  enough  to  work  freely. 


CHAPTER    IX 

BUDDING    AND    GRAFTING 

If  the  nursery  ground  has  been  well  worked  and  the  seed  prop- 
erly handled,  the  growth  of  the  seedling  will  be  strong  and  rapid. 
If  an  early  start  was  had  and  other  conditions  favorable,  some 
kinds  will  be  ready  for  budding  in  June,  and  the  production  of  what 
are  called  "June  buds,"  as  will  be  described  presently.  In  ordinary 
practice,  however,  budding  will  come  later,  and  the  budding  season 
extends  from  July  to  October.  The  weight  of  the  budding  of 
deciduous  trees  is  generally  done  in  August  and  September. 

BUDDING 

The  process  of  budding,  as  employed  on  all  the  common  fruit 
trees,  is  very  simple.  It  consists  in  lifting  the  bark  and  inserting 
a  bud  from  another  tree  in  such  a  way  that  the  inner  bark  of  the 
bud  shall  come  in  contact  with  the  layer  of  growing  wood  in  the 
stock,  and  then  it  will  be  quickly  knit  to  it  by  the  new  cell-growth 
if  the  bark  is  closed  around  the  inserted  bud  closely  enough  to 
prevent  the  air  from  drying  the  two  surfaces  at  the  point  of  contact. 

In  the  engraving  1  is  the  cutting  or  "bud  stick"  from  the  tree 
of  the  kind  into  which  it  is  desired  to  transform  the  seedling.  This 
cutting  is  usually  made  from  the  growth  of  the  present  season, 
which  has  well-formed  budfe  at  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  although 
in  some  cases  older  dormant  buds  may  be  used,  as  will  appear  in 
the  discussions  of  the  different  fruits.  If  buds  are  desired  to 
mature  early,  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  growing  shoots  from  which 
they  are  to  be  taken.  Suckers  and  so-called  "water  sprouts"  should 
not  be  used,  but  rather  well-formed  wood  from  the  branches  of 
the  tree.  It  is  requisite  that  the  buds  be  taken  from  a  vigorous, 
healthy  tree  of  the  variety  desired.  Bud  sticks  can  be  carried  or 
sent  considerable  distances  if  packed  in  damp  moss  or  other  mate- 
rial to  prevent  drying,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  enclose  too 
much  water  or  decay  will  be  promoted.  Fresh  shoots  in  tight  tin 
boxes  without  wet  packing  are  safer  and  carry  very  long  distances. 
Sealing  the  ends  with  grafting  wax  is  also  a  good  precaution 
against  drying  out. 

Budding  knives  can  be  bought  at  all  seed  stores  and  cutlery 
establishments.  They  have  a  thin,  round-ended  blade  at  one  end 
of  the  handle,  and  at  the  other  end  the  bone  is  thinned  down,  or  a 
bone  blade  inserted.  The  former  is  for  cutting  and  the  latter  for 
lifting  the  bark  of  the  stock  into  which  the  bud  is  to  be  placed. 
Armed  with  a  bud  stick  and  such  a  knife,  the  "budder"  starts  in 

80 


BUDDING    FRUIT     TREES 


81 


upon  a  row  of  seedlings.  Bending  the  seedling  over  a  little  and 
holding  it  between  his  left  arm  and  his  left  leg,  he  reaches  down 
for  a  smooth  place  on  the  bark  as  near  the  ground  as  convenient 
to  work,  and  makes  a  horizontal  cut,  and  from  that  a  perpendicular 
cut  downwards  towards  the  roots,  as  shown  at  3,  in  the  engraving, 
with  the  bark  slightly  lifted  and  ready  for  the  insertion  of  the  bud. 
Next  he  cuts  from  his  bud  stick  a  bud,  as  shown  at  2.  This  carries 
with  it,  on  the  back,  a  small  portion  of  the  wood  of  the  bud  stick 
as  well  as  the  bud  and  bark.  It  was  once  claimed  that  this  wood 
should  be  carefully  dug  out,  but  in  budding  most  kinds  of  trees  it 
is  not  necessary ;  in  fact  it  may  be  better  to  leave  it  in ;  such  at 
any  rate  is  the  general  practice.  The  point  of  the  bud  is  now 
inserted  at  the  opening  at  the  top  of  the  slit  in  the  bark  of  the 
stock  and  pushed  down  into  place,  as  shown  in  figure  5.  To  handle 
the  bud  the  part  of  the  leaf  stem  which  is  left  on  is  of  material 
assistance.  Nothing  remains  now  but  to  apply  the  ligature  which 
is  to  hold  down  the  bark  around  the  bud. 

.  There  are  various  ways  of  tying  in  the  bud.  Any  way  will  do 
which  holds  down  the  bark  closely,  but  not  too  tightly.  Different 
materials  are  also  used,  soft  cotton  twine,  stocking  yarn,  strips  of 
cotton  cloth,  candle  wicking,  etc.  The  last-named  is  perhaps  the 
best  material,  on  all  accounts,  although  strips  of  cheap  calico  bear 
evenly  upon  the  bark  and  do  very  good  work.  The  use  of  twine 
is  speedy,  but  the  strands  bearing  upon  a  narrow  surface,  and  not 
being  elastic,  they  are  apt  to  do  injury  by  cutting  into  the  bark 
unless  carefully  watched  and  loosened.  The  fiber  from  basswood 
bark  was  formerly  largely  used,  but  has  given  place  to  the  other 
materials  named,  which  are  more  handily  obtained.  The  buds  must 
be  examined  about  a  week  or  ten  days  after  insertion,  and  the  lig- 
ature loosened,  for  otherwise  it  will  cut  into  the  rapidly-growing 
stock.  Sometimes  trees  are  badly  injured  by  neglect  in  this 
particular. 

In  making  June  buds,  where  immediate  growth  of  the  bud  is 
desired,  some  growers  make  a  hard  knot  with  the  cord  around  the 
stock,  above  the  bud,  and  then  use  the  loose  ends  to  tie  the  bud. 
When  the  binding  around  the  bud  is  loosened,  the  hard  knot 
remains  on  the  stock,  girdles  it,  and  forces  the  sap  into  the  bud. 
Thin  wire,  known  to  nurserymen  as  ''label  wire,"  is  also  used  for 
this  purpose. 

In  going  through  the  nursery  row,  all  seedlings  which  are 
large  enough  are  budded  at  once.  In  going  through  the  row  again 
to  look  to  the  bands,  if  the  bud  is  seen  to  be  fresh  looking,  it  is 
considered  to  have  ''taken."  In  stocks  where  the  first  bud  has 
dried  up,  another  is  inserted  lower  down.  Sometimes  seedlings 
which  were  too  small  to  hold  a  bud  at  the  first  working  over  are 
given  a  bud  later  in  the  season,  or  left  for  taking  up  for  root  graft- 
ing in  the  winter. 


82 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


A  Stick  of  bud  wood.       2     Cutting  the  bud. 


3    Vertical  incision. 


5     Inserting  the^d.  5     Inserted  bud  ready 

for  tying. 


7    Waxed  cloth  ready 
for  twisting. 


Waxed  cloth  tightly 

twisted.  9    Bud  staked  and  tied. 


GRAFTING    FRUIT    TREES 


83 


In  nursery  practice  the  budder  does  not  stop  to  tie  his  budSj 
but  is  followed  in  the  row  by  another  man,  who  carries  the  tying 
material,  and  does  this  part  of  the  work. 

The  common  method  of  budding  thus  described  is  used  on  all 
common  orchard  fruits.  Special  styles  of  budding  for  special  fruits 
will  be  described  in  the  chapters  treating  of  those  fruits. 

Usually  the  budded  trees  are  allowed  to  stand  in  the  nursery 
row  with  no  other  treatment  that  year  than  the  insertion  and  care 
of  the  bud,  the  latter  remaining  dormant  until  the  next  spring. 
Then,  as  soon  as  the  sap  begins  to  swell  the  buds  on  the  stock,  the 
top  is  cut  off  down  to  about  two  inches  above  the  bud,  and  all 
growth  is  kept  off  except  that  of  the  inserted  bud.  When  that  has 
grown  out  about  twelve  inches,  the  stub  is  cut  off  to  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  or  less  from  the  bud,  and  the  wood  is  quickly 
grown  over  by  the  bark.  As  there  are  apt  t(h  be  dormant  buds  on 
the  stock  below  the  inserted  bud,  the  trees  have  to  be  examined 
from  time  to  time,  and  all  such  suckers  removed.  This  is  the  com- 
mon practice  with  budded  trees.  Exceptions  will  be  noticed  pres- 
ently in  connection  with  definitions  of  different  kinds  of  trees 
known  to  the  trade. 

Spring  Budding. — What  has  been  said  in  reference  to  budding 
applies  to  the  use  of  dormant  buds.  It  is  also  possible  to  work 
with  what  is  called  a  "pushing  bud."  This  process,  as  described  by 
a  distinguished  French  authority,  consists  of  retarding  the  growth 
of  the  buds  on  the  scions  by  burying  them  in  the  ground  until  the 
sap  it  starting  well  in  the  stock  in  the  spring,  and  then  putting 
them  in,  trimming  off  the  top  of  the  stock  so  as  to  force  the  bud 
into  growth.  In  this  way  the  grower  of  a  rare  variety  may  secure 
trees  for  planting  out  the  following  winter,  or  he  may  secure  a 
stock  of  buds  for  fall  budding,  and  thus  multiply  his  stock  of  a 
desirable  variety  very  rapidly.  A  modification  of  this  method  con- 
sists in  taking  buds  in  the  spring  when  they  have  grown  out  even 
half  an  inch,  and  inserting  them  by  the  usual  method  of  lifting  the 
bark,  when  the  sap  is  flowing  well  in  the  stock.  Then  cut  off 
about  half  the  stock,  so  as  not  to  give  the  bud  too  much  sap  at 
first,  and  afterward,  when  it  is  seen  to  have  taken  well,  the  balance 
of  the  stock  is  cut  off  near  the  bud.  This  method  gives  a  tree 
the  first  season  and  saves  a  year  over  dormant  budding.  Shade 
and  protection  from  dry  wind  are  desirable. 

GRAFTING 

The  next  process  of  propagation  to  be  considered  is  that  by 
grafting.  Its  success  as  with  budding,  consists  in  bringing  the 
growing  wood  (inner  bark  or  alburnum)  of  the  scion  into  contact 


84 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW     THEM 


with  the  same  layer  of  the  stock.  It  can  be  applied  to  any  part 
of  the  tree,  from  the  topmost  branch  to  the  lowest  root,  as  is  the 
case  when  new  trees  are  made  from  scions  and  root  fragments. 
Thus  grafting  pertains  both  to  the  production  of  young  trees  for 
planting  out  and  to  the  transformation  of  old  trees  bearing  worth- 
less fruit  into  producers  of  choice  varieties. 

Grafting  for  the  production  of  young  trees  is  first  in  order. 
Instead  of  budding  the  seedling  during  the  first  summer  of  its 
growth,  it  may  be  allowed  to  complete  its  season's  growth,  and 
drop  its  leaves.  When  thus  dormant  the  young  trees  are  taken 
from  the  ground,  the  roots  rinsed  ofif  with  water  if  the  ground  is 
wet  and  sticky,  or  merely  shaken  free  from  clinging  earth  if  in  a 
dry  time.  Enough  trees  are  dug  at  once  to  graft  at  a  sitting.  The 
grafting  can  be  done  at  the  work-bench  in  the  tool-house  or  barn, 
and  if  one  is  pressed  with  other  daylight  work,  it  may  be  done  by 
lamplight  at  the  kitchen  table,  if  the  housewife  can  be  conciliated 
for  the  muss  it  will  make. 

Care  of  Scions. — The  scions  should  be  previously  selected,  and 
whether  taken  from  trees  on  the  place  or  brought  from  near  or 
distant  sources  away  from  the  farm,  should  have  been  placed  as 
soon  as  procured  in  moist  earth  on  the  north  side  of  the  house  or 
other  building,  where  they  will  keep  cool  and  damp  until  one  is 
ready  to  use  them.  At  the  East  and  in  parts  of  this  State  where  the 
ground  is  apt  to  freeze,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  scions  in  the  cellar 
with  their  butts  covered  with  moist  sand,  but  over  most  of  the  area 
of  the  State  nothing  more  is  needed  than  to  put  down  in  the  earth 
at  the  base  of  a  tree  or  on  the  north  side  of  a  building,  with,  per- 
haps, a  box  or  barrel  inverted  over  them  to  keep  out  mice  and 
other  intruders.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  them  dry  up.  If  it 
is  desirable  for  any  reason  to  keep  scions  dormant  long  into  the 
spring  or  summer,  of  course  storage  in  a  cool  cellar  is  better,  for 
in  the  open  ground  the  scions  will  burst  into  leaf  after  a  warm  spell 
of  spring  weather. 

In  selecting  wood  for  scions,  as  for  bud  sticks,  never  take  water 
shoots  or  suckers  that  start  from  the  body  of  the  tree  and  push  up 
through  the  older  branches,  but  always  give  the  preference  to 
sound,  fully-matured  wood,  at  the  ends  of  the  lower  or  nearly  hori- 
zontal branches.  Careful  experiments  have  shown  that  trees 
grown  from  such  scions  are  more  likely  to  take  on  a  low,  spreading 
habit  than  those  from  the  central  or  upper  branches.  The  scions 
should  be  tied  in  bundles  with  a  stout  cord;  and  a  piece  of  a 
shingle,  with  the  name  of  the  variety  written  plainly  and  deeply 
thereon,  should  be  tied  in  with  each  bundle. 

Grafting  Wax. — In  grafting,  a  good  grafting  wax  is  requisite. 
The   ingredients   are   mixed   in  -  different   proportions   by   different 


HOW     TO     MAKE     GKA^^PING     WAX 


85 


growers.     A  few  recipes  which  are  known  to  give  good  results  are 
as  follows : 

Two  lbs.  mutton  tallow;  2  lbs.  beeswax;  4  lbs.  resin. 
Two  and  one-fourth  lbs.  resin;  2  lbs.  beeswax;  ^  of  a  lb.  tallow. 
One  lb.  mutton  tallow;  2  lbs.  beeswax;  4  lbs.  resin. 
Two  lbs.  resin;  2  lbs.  beeswax;  Y^  lb.  tallow,  and  a  little  linseed  oil. 
Two    lbs.    resin;    i    lb.    beeswax,    2^4    lbs.    linseed    oil;    4    tablespoonfuls 
turpentine. 

One  lb.  beeswax;  5  lbs.  resin;   i  pint  linseed  oil;  i  oz.  lampblack. 
One  lb.  beeswax;  5  lbs.  resin;  i  pint  linseed  oil;   i  pint  flour. 

All  these  mixtures  are  made  with  the  aid  of  gentle  heat,  and 
during  grafting  the  wax  must  be  kept  warm  enough  to  apply  easily 
with  a  small  brush.  To  do  this  the  wax  dish  may  be  kept  on  a 
hot  brick,  to  be  changed  for  a  fresh  one  as  it  cools,  or,  better,  still, 
is  to  heat  the  wax  in  an  old  fruit-can  or  something  of  that  kind, 
inside  another,  which  is  partly  full  of  warm  water.  A  more  capa- 
cious heater  can  be  made  by  removing  the  top  of  a  five-gallon  oil 
can  and  making  a  hole  for  draft  on  one  side  near  the  bottom.  A 
slow  fire  can  be  kept  going  to  heat  the  wax  pot  which  is  suspended 
from  a  rod  across  the  top.  A  wire  handle  makes  this  outfit  porta- 
ble. The  wax  should  not  be  so  hot  as  to  run  too  easily,  but  just 
right  to  spread  well. 

Grafting  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  use  of  strips  of  waxed 
cloth  or  waxed  paper,  the  latter  being  quite  good  enough  for  grafts, 
which  are  low  enough  to  be  protected  by  a  ground  covering;  also 
for  root  grafts.  This  waxed  paper  is  made  by  spreading  a  thin  coat 
of  wax,  with  a  brush,  upon  tough,  thin  wrapping  paper,  cutting  up 
the  paper,  when  cold,  with  a  sharp  knife,  on  a  board,  into  strips 
about  an  inch  wide.  Waxed  cloth  is  made  by  dipping  cheap  cotton 
cloth  into  hot  wax,  pulling  the  pieces  between  the  edges  of  two 
boards  to  take  out  as  much  wax  as  possible,  and  when  the  cloth  is 
cold,  tearing  it  up  into  half-inch  strips  for  small  grafts  or  wider 
strips  for  larger  grafts.  When  grafting  is  going  on  in-doors,  these 
strips  hanging  near  the  stove  are  kept  in  good,  soft  condition  for 
use. 

There  are  grafting  preparations  which  do  not  require  heating, 
but  remain  in  a  semi-fluid  state,  and  then  become  very  hard  by 
contact  with  the  air.  The  following  is  a  popular  French  prep- 
aration : 

Melt  one  pound  of  resin  over  a  gentle  fire.  Add  to  it  one  ounce  of 
beef  tallow,  and  stir  it  well.  Take  it  from  the  fire,  let  it  cool  down  a  little, 
and  then  mix  it  with  a  tablespoonful  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  after  that 
add  about  seven  ounces  of  very  strong  alcohol.  The  alcohol  cools  it  down 
so  rapidly  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  put  it  once  more  on  the  fire,  stirring 
in  constantly.     Great  care  is  necessary  to  avoid  igniting  the  alcohol. 

This  wax  is  easily  prepared,  and  when  well   corked  will   keep 
for  six  months.     It  is  put  on  the  wounded  part  of  the  tree,  very 


86 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


thin,  and  soon  becomes  as  hard  as  stone.  Thus  it  is  valuable  not 
only  for  grafting,  but  for  covering  the  scars  caused  by  removing 
limbs  in  pruning.  When  bench  grafting  is  done  by  nurserymen, 
of  course  all  appliances  are  arranged  for  the  speediest  work,  and 
wonderful  results  are  attained  by  one  man  and  a  helper,  even  as 
many  as  three  thousand  root  grafts  of  apple  in  ten  hours.  We  are, 
however,  merely  discussing  home  practices. 

Cleft  Grafting. — Where  various-sized  stocks  are  to  be  used,  as 
will  be  the  case  with  a  bunch  of  home-grown  seedlings,  different 
styles  of  grafting  must  be  used.  Where  the  stock  is  much  larger 
than  the  scion,  as  is  apt  to  be  the  case  with  California  seedlings, 
the  cleft  graft  will  be  simplest.  Cut  off  the  top  smoothly  above  the 
root  crown  and  then  split  the  top  of  the  stock,  as  shown  in  the 
engraving.  Then  prepare  the  scion  by  whittling  it  to  wedge-shape 
at  the  lower  end.  Open  the  slit  in  the  stock  with  a  little  wedge  and 
insert  the  scion  so  that  its  inner  bark  matches  with  the  inner  bark 
of  the  stock,  something  as  shown  in  the  second  figure.  It  does  not 
matter  whether  the  outside  of  the  scion  is  flush  with  the  outside 
of  the  stock  or  not;  the  vital  point  is  to  get  the  growing  layers, 
just  inside  the  barks,  in  contact  with  each  other,  and,  to  be  sure  of 
this,  it  may  be  well  to  give  the  scion  a  slight  diagonal  pitch,  for  if 
the  barks  cross  each  other,  this  desirable  contact  is  sure  to  be 
made.  It  is  well  to  make  the  side  of  the  wedge  of  the  scion  which 
goes  nearer  to  the  center  of  the  stock  a  little  thinner  than  the 
outside. 

A  scion  for  a  root  graft  is  cut  longer  than  for  use  in  the  top  of 
the  tree,  for  in  planting,  the  point  of  grafting  is  placed  a  little 
way  under-ground.  Such  scions  are  usually  cut  with  four  or  five 
buds.  After  the  scion  is  in  place,  it  only  remains  to  wrap  it  closely 
with  a  piece  of  the  waxed  cloth  or  paper,  in  such  a  way  that  all  the 
cut  surfaces  are  covered,  extending  the  wrapper  a  little  below  the 
split  in  the  root.  Paint  over  the  wrapper  with  warm  wax  put  on 
with  the  brush,  put  a  little  on  the  top  of  the  scion,  and  the  graft  is 
complete. 

Side  Grafting. — Another  method  which  prevents  splitting  the 
stock  is  the  side  graft,  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure.  It  con- 
sists in  bending  the  stock  to  one  side  and  cutting  in  diagonally 
with  a  thin-bladed,  sharp  knife,  a  little  more  than  half-way  through 
the  stock.  Into  this  open  cut  insert  the  scion  so  that  the  inner 
barks  touch;  then  allowing  the  stock  to  straighten  up,  holds  the 
scion  firmly.  Covering  with  a  wax  band  drawn  tight  makes  a 
good  job,  and  such  grafts  make  as  good  growth  as  the  buds  set 
the  previous  summer.  This  method  can  be  used  with  stems  or 
branches  up  to  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  is  essentially  the  same,  as 
will  be  mentioned  later,  as  a  side  graft  for  working  over  old  trees. 
In  this  style  of  grafting,  a  stub  of  three  inches  or  more  may  be  left 


VARIOUS    FORMS     OF    GRAFTING 


87 


Cleft  Graft. 


Bark  Graft. 


Saddle  Graft. 


Whip  Graft. 


Side  Graft. 


88 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


above  the  graft,  and  to  this  the  graft  can  be  tied  to  prevent  blow- 
ing out  if  it  makes  a  strong  growth.  Afterward  the  stub  is  cut 
back  with  a  sloping  cut  and  waxed  or  painted  to  prevent  checking. 
Whip  Grafting  in  the  Stem. — Grafting  above  the  root  or  in  the 
stem  of  the  stock  when  stock  and  scion  are  about  the  same  size,  is 
done  by  tongue  or  whip  grafting.  The  accompanying  sketch  shows 
a  whip  graft  in  the  stem  of  the  stock.  Grafts  up  to  an  inch  in 
diameter  can  be  made  in  this  way,  but  it  is  generally  used  for 
smaller  wood.  Care  must  be  taken  to  secure  proper  contacts  of  the 
inner  barks  at  least  on  one  side  of  the  stock.  After  pushing  the 
parts  together,  a  wax  band  holds  them  firmly  in  place,  or  the  joint 
may  be  simply  tied  and  painted  over  with  wax. 

A  Root  Graft. — When  the  root  stock  and  the  scion  are  about  the 
same  size,  the  tongue  graft  is  also  used,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  In 
making  this  both  the  stock  and  scion  are  given  a'  sloping  cut  of 
about  the  same  length,  and  a  secondary  cut  made  in  each.  When 
the  two  are  put  together,  the  wood  "tongues  in,"  or  interlocks  as 
shown  in  the  engraving.  The  object  of  this  is  to  make  more  points 
of  contact  for  the  inner  barks  of  root  and  scion,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  interlock  the  two  more  firmly.  In  putting  the  two  together, 
if  the  stock  is  slightly  larger  than  the  scion,  be  sure  to  put  the 
scion  so  that  the  inner  bark  contact  is  made,  and  this  will  bring 
the  scion  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  center.  Bind  with  the  wax  band, 
and  paint  with  wax  as  in  the  case  of  the  former  graft. 

In  large  nursery  practice  expert  grafters  have  come  of  late 
years  to  make  this  root  graft  without  wax,  merely  tying  in  the 
graft.     For  amateur  work  at  home  it  is  much  safer  to  use  the  wax. 

Grafting  in  the  root,  where  the  root  is  much  larger  than  the 
scion,  may  be  done  without  splitting  the  root  by  cutting  or  sawing 
out  a  triangular  piece  on  the  side  of  the  root,  cutting  the  scion  to  fit 
and  trusting  to  a  strong  band  to  hold  it  in  place.  This  graft  is  illus- 
trated in  the  chapter  on  propagating  the  grape.  It  also  works 
well  with  root  grafting  the  walnut,  and  is  used  by  some  in  ordinary 
top  grafting  on  other  trees. 

Planting  out  Root  Grafts. — This  root  grafting  can  be  done  in 
the  winter  before  it  is  time  to  plant  out,  and  the  grafts  can  be  made 
a  few  at  a  time,  as  convenient.  The  grafts,  then,  as  fast  as  pre- 
pared, should  be  bedded  in  moist  sand  in  the  cellar,  and  will  make 
their  contact  firm,  and  even  start  to  growing  a  little.  In  planting 
out  in  the  nursery  rows  be  sure  the  earth  is  firmed  well  around  the 
root,  otherwise  many  will  be  lost.  Plant  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart 
in  the  rows.  Keep  the  weeds  down  and  the  soil  well  cultivated  and 
loose  on  the  surface,  and  the  first  season's  growth  will  give  a  tree 
fit  for  planting  out  in  orchard  in  the  coming  winter.  For  irrigation 
the  rules  already  given  for  the  growth  of  seedlings  for  budding 
will  apply. 


KINDS    OF    NURSERY    TRKES 


PRUNING   TREES    IN    NURSERY 


89 


As  for  other  treatment  of  the  trees  (either  from  bud  or  root 
graft)  in  nursery  during  the  first  year,  there  is  some  difference  of 
opinion  and  practice.  If  the  young  tree  will  be  content  to  make 
a  straight  switch  with  good  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  but  no 
laterals  thrown  out,  it  will  be  in  the  best  possible  shape  for  planting 
in  the  orchard,  and  gives  the  planter  a  chance  to  make  the  head  at 
whatever  height  suits  him,  and  to  secure  uniformity  through  the 
orchard.  All  trees  will  not,  however,  be  content  with  this  growth, 
but  will  push  out  laterals  all  along  the  stem.  Even  in  this  case 
some  let  the  whole  growth  go  for  the  planter  to  treat  as  he  thinks 
best.  Another  plan  is  to  go  over  the  nursery  when  the  young  stock 
is  about  two  feet  high  and  pinch  back  the  laterals  part  way,  but 
retaining  the  leaves  nearest  the  stem  to  shade  the  stem.  This 
pinching  back  is  done  from  the  ground  up  to  a  height  of  one  to 
one  and  a  half  feet,  and  above  that  the  growth  is  left  to  take  its 
natural  course,  to  be  cut  as  desired  when  the  head  of  the  tree  is 
formed.  Pinching  back  develops  buds  near  the  stem  and  gives  the 
planter  a  better  chance  to  head  the  tree  lower  if  he  likes.  Another 
practice  which  prevails  to  some  extent,  is  to  pinch  off  the  terminal 
bud  when  the  young  tree  has  reached  a  height  of  about  two  and  a 
half  or  three  feet  in  the  nursery.  This  soon  forces  a  growth  of  lat- 
eral branches,  which  are  in  turn  pinched  after  they  have  grown  out 
a  couple  of  feet.  The  result  is  the  formation  of  a  head  on  a  nursery 
tree  the  first  year,  and  when  such  trees  are  planted  in  orchard  they 
are  merely  cut  back  on  the  laterals,  leaving  the  head  as  formed  in 
the  nursery.  Such  trees  are  difficult  to  handle  in  packing,  and  take 
much  room  in  shipment.  There  may,  however,  be  an  advantage  in 
such  practice  for  the  home  grower  if  he  is  situated  in  parts  of  the 
State  where  the  greatest  season's  growth  is  attained.  Orchard 
planters  generally,  however,  prefer  a  June  bud  or  a  yearling  of 
moderate  growth,  without  laterals. 

CLASSES    OF    NURSERY    STOCKS 

The  several  classes  of  stock  which  are  to  be  had  from  nurseries 
are  as  follows : 

Root  Grafts. — These  are  seedling  roots,  or  pieces  of  them,  on 
which  scions  of  the  desired  variety  have  been  grafted  on  the  bench 
and  the  junction  healed  over  in  the  cellar.  No  growth  has  yet 
started  in  the  scion.  If  the  tree  planter  wishes  this  kind  of  stock, 
he  should  plant  it  out  in  nursery  row  in  the  spring  and  remove 
the  trees  to  orchard  the  following  winter. 

June  Buds. — For  multiplying  varieties  very  fast,  buds  are  kept 
dormant  in  a  cool  place ;   or,  by  pinching  off  the  top  shoots  of  the 


90  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

current  year  are  forced  to  mature  buds  very  early.  These  buds 
art  put  into  seedling  stocks  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible.  After 
budding,  the  top  of  the  stock  is  girdled  with  knife  or  cord,  or  partly 
cut  away,  and  growth  is  forced  on  the  bud  so  as  to  give  a  small 
tree  at  the  end  of  the  first  summer.  This  method  of  propagation  is 
growing  in  popularity  in  this  State,  especially  in  the  foot-hill  dis- 
tricts, where  small  trees  are  preferred  for  transplanting. 

Dormant  Buds. — Trees  are  sold  in  dormant  bud  when  they  are 
lifted  from  the  nursery  and  sent  out  before  any  growth  has  started 
on  the  inserted  bud.  The  bud  should  be  seen  to  be  the  color  of 
healthy  bark.  Such  trees  should  only  be  used  when  yearlings  are 
not  to  be  had  and  gain  in  time  is  very  important.  Care  must  be 
constantly  taken  that  growth  starts  from  the  right  bud,  and  that  it 
be  protected  from  breaking  off  by  wind  or  animals.  A  considerable 
percentage  of  loss  is  usual  and  extra  dormant  buds  should  be 
planted  in  nursery  row  to  fill  vacancies. 

Yearling  Trees. — These  are  trees  which  have  made  one  season's 
growth  from  the  bud  or  graft.  Two-year-olds  have  made  two 
seasons'  growth,  and  so  on.  The  proper  way  to  count  the  life  of 
a  tree  is  from  the  starting  of  growth  in  the  bud  or  graft,  for  this 
point  is  really  the  birth  of  the  tree. 


WORKING   OVER   OLD   TREES 

Another  operation  which  may  be  properly  considered  as  a 
branch  of  propagation  is  the  working  over  of  old  trees.  There  is 
much  of  this  being  done  every  year  in  this  State.  The  old  seedling 
fruits  in  the  older  settled  parts  of  the  State  are  being  made  toj^ear 
improved  varieties ;  trees  of  varieties  illy  adapted  to  prevailing  con- 
ditions are  changed  into  strong  growing  and  productive  sorts ;  trees 
are  changed  from  one  fruit  to  another,  when  affinity  permits.  This 
will  be  mentioned  in  the  discussion  of  the  different  fruits.  Still 
another  reason  for  working  over  is  to  secure  more  valuable  and 
marketable  varieties.  Sometimes  a  mixed  orchard  is  made  to  bear 
a  straight  line  of  one  sort  which  is  in  demand,  or  when  the  grower 
finds  he  has  too  many  trees  of  a  single  kind,  which  give  him  more 
fruit  than  he  can  conveniently  handle  when  it  all  ripens  at  one  time, 
he  works  in  other  varieties  so  as  to  get  a  succession  of  varieties 
adapted  to  his  purpose,  and  thus  secures  a  longer  working  season 
in  which  to  dispose  of  them.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  large 
orchards  of  apricots,  peaches,  and  plums,  when  the  grower  depends 
upon  drying  his  crop.  Information  concerning  the  successive  ripen- 
ing of  varieties  can  be  gained  from  the  special  chapters  on  the 
different  fruits.  For  all  of  these  reasons,  and  others  which  need  not 
be  enumerated,  the  work  of  the  propagator  is  continually  going  on 


RENOVATING    OLD    TREES 


91 


even  in  our  large  bearing  orchards.  As  with  young  trees,  so  with 
old,  transforming  the  character  of  the  tree  is  done  both  by  budding 
and  grafting. 

Budding  Old  Trees. — One  way  to  prepare  an  old  tree  for  bud- 
ding is  to  cut  back  the  branches  severely  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  winter,  which  has  the  effect  of  forcing  out  new  shoots  around 
the  head  of  the  tree,  and  in  these  the  buds  of  the  desired  variety 
are  set  in  the  summer,  just  as  is  done  in  budding  nursery  stock, 
except  that  the  budding  should  be  done  rather  earlier  because  the 
sap  does  not  run  as  late.  When  the  shoots  are  budded,  those  being 
selected  which  are  situated  so  as  to  give  the  best  symmetry  to  the 
new  head,  the  shoots  not  budded  are  broken  a  foot  or  so  from 
where  they  emerge  from  the  old  wood,  and  are  allowed  to  hang 
until  pruning-time.  At  the  winter  pruning  the  budded  branches 
are  topped  off  a  little  above  the  bud  and  when  the  new  shoot  starts 
it  is  often  loosely  tied  to  the  stub  of  the  old  branch  to  prevent 
breaking  out  in  the  wind.  When  it  gets  strength,  the  stub  is  cut 
away  smoothly  to  allow  the  wound  to  heal  over. 

Another  way  is  to  insert  the  buds  in  the  old  bark  at  points 
where  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  new  branches  start.  This  is  some- 
times done  by  lifting  the  bark,  as  in  ordinary  budding,  and  slipping 
the  bud  under,  sometimes  by  what  is  called  shield  or  plate  budding, 
which  consists  in  removing  a  piece  of  the  old  bark  entirely  and 
putting  in  its  place  a  piece  of  bark  of  the  desired  variety,  having 
upon  it  a  dormant  bud.  With  plate  budding  it  is  necessary  to  be 
careful  to  have  the  inserted  bark  just  the  size  of  the  bared  spot, 
and  to  wrap  it  more  closely  than  when  the  bud  is  slipped  under 
the  bark  of  the  stock.  In  all  cases  in  budding  old  trees,  care  must 
be  taken  to  get  fully-matured  buds,  and  it  is  well  to  take  them 
from  large  shoots,  which  have  a  thicker  and  firmer  bark  than  may 
be  used  in  budding  nursery  stock.  It  is  also  desirable  to  be  very 
sure  that  the  buds  are  taken  not  only  from  a  tree  of  the  desired 
variety,  but  from  a  healthy,  vigorous  tree  of  that  variety. 

In  selecting  buds,  also,  one  must  be  sure  that  he  gets  leaf  buds, 
and  not  fruit  buds  only.  In  taking  buds  from  some  kinds  of  bear- 
ing trees,  of  course,  he  may  sometimes,  to  get  well-ripened  buds,  be 
obliged  to  take  both  fruit  and  leaf  buds  together.  This  will  work 
well  if  care  is  taken  not  to  rub  off  the  leaf  bud.  It  is  rather  easier, 
however,  to  work  with  buds  from  young  trees  not  yet  in  bearing 
if  one  can  be  sure  that  these  trees  are  of  the  desired  variety. 

Grafting  Old  Trees. — Old  trees  are  also  renewed  by  grafting. 
This  is  most  generally  done  by  the  old  process  of  "top  grafting." 
The  main  stem  or  the  larger  branches  are  cut  square  off,  and  the 
scions,  usually  two,  but  four  or  more  if  in  the  trunk,  are  shaped  and 
set  into  clefts  in  the  stock  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  It  is  better 
to  use  limbs  above  the  main  fork,  or  head  of  the  tree,  than  to  graft 


92  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

HI  the  trunk,  if  the  old  trees  are  of  good  size.  The  following  de- 
scription, which  the  writer  borrows  in  part  from  some  unknown 
source,  will  serve  to  guide  novices  in  the  matter : 

The  outfit  necessary  for  doing  the  work  consists  of  a  small,  fine  saw, 
a  regular  grafting  knife,  or  a  pocket-knife  with  a  long,  straight,  sharp 
blade,  wax,  light  mallet,  and  a  hard-wood  narrow  wedge.  After  selecting 
the  limb  to  be  grafted,  saw  it  off — your  own  judgment  will  guide  you  as 
to  best  point,  but  before  the  saw  gets  quite  through  the  limb,  cut  the 
bark  on  the  under  side  of  the  limb  to  prevent  the  liability  of  peeling  down. 

Next  split  the  stub  with  knife  and  mallet  and  insert  the  wedge  in  the 
center  of  the  cleft  to  hold  it  open.  It  is  usual  to  cut  the  scion  with  two 
buds,  but  sometimes  better  results  are  had  by  using  scions  with  but  a 
single  bud.  Whittle  the  scion  wedge-shape,  so  that  it  fits  nicely  down  into 
the  cleft.  To  do  this,  hold  it  in  the  left  hand  with  the  bud  at  the  ball  of 
the  thumb,  then  cut  the  side  toward  you;  as  will  be  natural,  turn  it  over, 
and  cut  opposite  side  in  the  same  way,  making  the  wedge  a  very  little 
thinner  on  the  edge  opposite  the  bud  than  the  other.  This  will  insure  a 
firm  pressure,  at  the  points  where  the  bark  of  scion  and  stock  meet. 

When  set,  the  bud  of  the  scion  will  be  on  line  with  the  outer  long 
portion  of  the  graft.  The  point  to  be  closely  observed  in  adjustment  is  to 
have  the  inner  or  sap  bark  of  the  scion  connected  with  the  same  of  the 
stock.  If  a  trifle  too  far  in,  or  too  far  out,  the  work  will  be  a  failure. 
Some  people  set  the  graft  a  little  out  at  the  top  and  a  little  in  at  the 
bottom,  so  as  to  be  sure  of  a  connection  at  the  crossing-point,  but  there 
will  be  firmer  hold  if  there  is  a  union  the  whole  length.  Our  rule  has  been 
to  have  the  wood  of  the  scion  come  exactly  parallel  with  the  surface  of 
the  stock,  and  we  seldom  fail  in  getting  firm  adhesions  and  solid  limbs, 
after   years   of   growth. 

After  the  scion  are  set,  and  two  should  be  put  into  one  limb  if  large, 
carefully  withdraw  the  wedge  and  apply  the  wax,  so  that  every  part  of  the 
wood  and  bark  cut  and  split  is  well  coated.  In  doing  this  use  extreme 
care  not  to  move  the  scions  at  all  from  their  sittings.  If  the  pinch  of  the 
stock  is  seen  to  be  severe,  a  small  wedge  may  be  left  in  the  center  to  save 
the  scions  from  crushing.  If  there  is  a  large  cleft,  it  may  be  filled  with 
damp  clay  before  waxing  over.  "^^ 

Most  grafting  over  of  old  trees  is  done  by  this  method,  using 
one  or  another  of  the  wax  preparations  described  upon  a  preceding 
page.  If  the  cut  surface  of  the  stock  and  the  split  is  thoroughly- 
waxed  over  as  low  as  the  bark  is  spilt,  there  is  usually  little  trouble 
with  the  growth  of  the  scion  and  the  healing  over  of  the  stock.  In 
the  warmer  valleys  in  the  interior,  the  sun  is  often  hot  enough  to 
melt  the  wax  and  cause  it  to  run  and  bare  the  wood  surfaces.  This 
is  prevented  by  dusting  the  wax  thoroughly  with  brick-dust  well 
powdered ;  but,  by  a  little  experimenting  with  the  recipes  already 
given,  one  can  secure  a  wax  which  will  stand  any  heat  likely  to  be 
encountered. 

For  grafting  over  trees  by  working  upon  the  limbs,  the  neatest 
and  surest  work  can  be  done  by  methods  of  grafting  which  do  not 
require  the  splitting  of  the  stock.  There  are  various  ways  of  doing 
this.  One  method  is  shown  in  the  engraving  on  the  next  page,  and 
consists  in  cutting  the  scion  as  shown,  and  inserting  it  beneath  the 
raised  bark  and  then  binding  well  with  waxed  bands,  the  preparation 
of  which  has  already  been  described. 


TIMES    FOR    GRAFTING 


93 


Another  method  is  an  application  of  what  the  French  call  oblique 
side  grafting.  It  consists  of  making  an  oblique  cut  downward 
through  the  bark  of  the  stock  and  for  a  distance  into  the  wood, 
using  a  chisel  and  mallet  or  even  a  strong  knife.  A  saw  and  knife 
are  also  used  for  making  this  cut,  as  well  be  described  in  the  chapter 
on  the  peach.  A  small  form  of  side  graft  has  already  been  shown 
earlier  in  this  chapter.  In  it  the  scion  is  held  in  with  a  wax  band. 
Some  growers  remove  the  top  of  the  stock  with  a  sloping  cut  about 
half  an  inch  above  the  scion,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  and  wrap 
the  waxed  band  well  around  and  over  all  the  exposed  surfaces. 
Others  do  not  remove  the  whole  of  the  limb  until  the  scion  has 
started  well  into  growth,  and  then  they  cut  down  and  pare  the  stock 
and  cover  with  a  band  or  with  a  wax  that  will  not  run  in  the  sun. 

Several  ingenious  devices  have  been  patented  by  Californians 
for  securing  uniformity  in  the  incision  in  the  stock  and  in  shaping 
the  scion,  but  it  is  so  easy  to  succeed  with  ordinary  tools  that  such 
inventions  have  never  come  into  wide  use.  Machines  for  the  bench 
grafting  of  vines  have,  however,  been  successfully  employed  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  are  not  generally  used. 

TIMES    FOR   GRAFTING    IN    CALIFORNIA 

There  is  nothing  particularly  new  about  the  methods  or  means 
employed  for  grafting  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  California,  but  the 
time  at  which  the  operation  can  be  successfully  done,  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  scion,  are  different  from  those  held  to  be  necessary  in 
other  climates.  It  is  not  at  all  requisite  that  the  scions  should  be 
carefully  stored  away  to  keep  them  in  a  dormant  condition,  nor 
that  the  grafter  should  haste  to  do  his  work  in  just  such  a  state 
of  sap-flow  in  the  spring  time.  It  was  early  discovered  that  graft- 
ing could  be  successfully  done  with  growing  scions,  and  that  scions 
could  be  cut  from  one  tree  and  set  in  another  nearly  at  any  time 
the  grafter  desired.  Grafting  is  therefore  possible  much  later  ir^ 
the  season  than  is  prescribed  elsewhere,  and  it  is  also  possible  to 
begin  earlier.  In  one  of  the  largest  apple  and  pear  orchards  in  the 
State  it  is  common  to  graft  in  December.  The  absence  of  freezing 
weather  saves  the  graft  from  injury.  As  our  trees  start  their  flow 
of  sap  early,  and  often  when  the  ground  is  too  wet  for  comfortable 
orchard  work,  it  is  the  practice  of  many  to  get  their  grafting 
and  pruning  done  before  the  heavy  mid-winter  rains  begin.  The 
practice  of  most  growers  is,  however,  to  conform  somewhat  nearly 
to  traditional  methods,  to  do  most  of  the  grafting  in  the  spring 
months,  and  to  use  dormant  scions,  the  growth  of  which  is  retarded 
by  heeling  them  in  on  the  north  side  of  a  building,  or  keeping  them 
in  sand  in  the  cellar,  as  the  grower  chooses.  Of  course  it  should  be 
understood  that  there  are  parts  of  the  State  where  the  winter  con- 
ditions are  more  nearly  like  those  at  the  East,  and  practice  has  to 
conform  to  them. 


94 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


As  to  whether  it  is  better  to  remove  the  whole  top  of  the  tree 
and  graft  all  the  limbs  in  one  year,  there  is  some  difference  of 
opinion.  The  prevailing  practice  is  to  graft  over  part  of  the  limbs 
one  year  and  the  balance  the  following  year;  or  else  to  leave  part 
of  the  top  to  shade  the  bark  and  take  part  of  the  sap  flow  until 
the  grafts  start  out  well,  and  then  cut  it  away.  When  a  large 
amount  of  grafting  is  to  be  done,  the  limbs  may  be  cut  off  during 
the  weeks  preceding  grafting.  In  this  case,  the  cut  should  be  made 
a  foot  or  two  above  the  grafting  point  and  a  second  cut  be  made  at 
this  point,  when  ready  to  put  in  the  scions. 

Whenever  old  bark  is  exposed  by  cutting  back  for  grafting, 
thorough  protection  against  sunburn  must  be  provided.  Jhe  sim- 
plest way  to  do  this  is  to  cover  the  exposed  bark  with  good  white- 
wash. By  using  thirty  pounds  of  lime,  four  pounds  tallow,  and  five 
pounds  of  salt  with  enough  water  to  make  it  flow  well,  a  tenacious 
whitewash  can  be  secured. 

What  has  been  said  thus  far  relates  especially  to  the  working 
over  of  old  trees  of  common  deciduous  fruits.  Though  much  the 
same  method  will  succeed  with  some  of  the  semi-tropical  fruits  and 
with  nut  trees,  the  discussion  of  their  propagation  and  grafting  over- 
will  be  deferred  to  the  chapters  devoted  to  them,  and  this  will  also 
give  opportunity  to  describe  methods  especially  adapted  to  these 
fruits. 


CHAPTER  X 
PREPARATION  FOR  ORCHARD  PLANTING 

The  two  essentials  in  preparing  land  for  trees  or  vines  are  deep 
and  thorough  cultivation,  and  provision  for  drainage,  unless  the 
situation  is  naturally  well  drained.  Drainage  will  be  considered  in 
connection  with  irrigation  in  another  chapter.  In  this  place,  how- 
ever, by  way  of  emphasis,  it  may  be  remarked  that  high  land  is 
not  necessarily  well  drained,  although  the  general  feature  of  the 
surface  may  be  an  incline,  nor  is  low  land  necessarily  wet,  although 
the  surface  may  be  apparently  level.  For  horticultural  purposes 
the  drainage  of  the  land  must  be  considered  on  the  hillside  as  well 
as  in  the  valley,  for  reasons  which  will  be  more  fully  set  forth  in 
the  chapter  on  drainage. 

The  preparation  of  land  for  fruit  planting  should  begin  with 
grading.  In  irrigated  orchards  this  is  essential  for  the  equal  distri- 
bution of  water.  Even  where  irrigation  is  not  anticipated,  it  is  of 
decided  advantage  to  smooth  down  hummocks  and  fill  sags  which 
are  likely  to  collect  water  in  the  rainy  season.  As  has  been  shown 
in  Chapter  III,  this  can  be  done  on  most  California  soils  without 
danger  of  uncovering  a  sterile  subsoil.  Some  intimation  of  the 
method  of  grading  is  given  at  the  close  of  Chapter  VII.  In  prep- 
aration for  the  irrigated  orchard,  and  irrigation  is  now  widely 
employed  even  in  regions  where  formerly  rainfall  was  the  sole  reli- 
ance, it  is  important  that  accurate  grading  should  be  done  and  the 
use  of  the  surveyor's  level  and  grade  stakes  will  be  found  very 
desirable.     All  moving  of  soil  should  precede  the  general  plowing. 

For  the  planting  of  orchard  or  vineyard  the  land  must  be  put  in 
as  good  tilth  as  possible,  and  extra  expenditure  to  secure  this  will 
be  amply  repaid  in  the  after-growth  of  the  trees  and  vines.  If  prac- 
ticable, it  will  be  all  the  better  to  have  the  process  of  preparation 
begin  a  year  before  the  trees  or  vines  are  to  be  set.  This  is  true 
either  with  newly-cleared  land,  as  has  been  described,  or  with  old 
grain  or  pasture  land  which  is  to  be  used,  leaving  the  surface  rough 
during  the  winter,  facilitates  the  access  of  air  to  the  lower  layers 
of  the  soil,  and  in  a  certain  sense  may  be  said  to  sweeten  and  enliven 
it.  Following  in  the  furrow  with  a  sub-soil  plow  is  very  desirable, 
either  at  the  first  plowing  or  later.  Such  treatment  of  old  grain 
land  breaks  up  the  old  hard-pan,*  which  has  probably  been  formed 


*  In    this    connection    the    term    means    "plow-sole."      Treatment    of    true    hard- 
pan  will  be  described   in   the  next  chapter. 

95 


m 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     THFM 


by  years  of  shallow  culture.  The  preparation  should  continue  dur- 
ing the  following  summer,  and  can  often  be  made  both  thorough 
and  profitable  by  the  growth  of  a  summer  ''hoed  crop,"  the  culture 
of  which  will  kill  out  many  weeds  and  secure  good  pulverization  of 
the  soil.  If  no  summer  crop  is  grown,  the  land  should  be  kept  in 
cultivation  by  plowing  the  weeds  under  as  long  as  the  surface  soil 
retains  moisture  enough  to  start  them.  A  special  advantage  of  such 
summer-fallow  in  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  apt  to  be  short  is 
that,  prevention  of  evaporation,  the  trees  or  vines  set  the  following 
winter  will  have  a  good  part  of  the  rainfall  of  two  seasons  to  grpw 
with,  and  the  result  will  often  be  very  noticeable.  If  there  are  sup- 
plies of  manure  available,  as  is  often  found  in  old  corrals  on  oui 
grain  or  stock  farms,  it  is  better  to  gather  and  apply  this  the  winter 
before  the  planting  of  the  trees.  If  this  work  is  not  done,  then  it 
should  be  left  until  after  the  trees  are  planted,  and  then  be  spread 
upon  the  surface  during  the  winter,  and  plowed  in  after  it  has  been 
in  part  leached  into  the  soil  by  the  rains.  Applicaticfn  should  be 
made  evenly  all  over  the  surface  and  not  massed  around  the  roots 
of  the  trees,  unless  it  is  to  be  applied  as  a  mulch  to  the  surface 
after  the  spring  cultivation  is  over,  as  will  be  considered  later. 

If  it  is  thought  desirable  to  plant  the  land  immediately  after 
breaking  up,  put  in  the  plows  as  early  in  the  fall  as  it  is  possible  to 
do  deep  work,  that  is,  to  plow  to  a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  inches, 
or  more.  Harrow  thoroughly.  If  it  is  still  early,  cross-plow  for 
fruit.  Thorough  and  deep  breaking  up  as  soon  as  practicable  to 
plow  in  the  fall,,  and  also  deeply  when  the  land  pulverizes  well,  and 
follow  in  the  furrow  with  the  subsoil  plow,  working  to  a  depth  of 
fourteen  inches  or  more.  For  this  kind  of  work  good  teams  are 
needed,  and  the  plow  should  be  sharp  and  bright.  If  the  work  is 
hard  for  the  team,  set  the  plow  so  as  to  take  less  land,  but  do  not 
sacrifice  the  depth.  Harrow  again  thoroughly,  and  the  land  is  ready 
for  the  trees  or  vines. 

Avoiding  Dead  Furrows. — Unless  dead  furrows  can  be  used  to 
advantage  for  surface  drainage  in  case  of  heavy  rain-storms,  it 
will  be  of  decided  convenience  in  laying  ofif  to  have  the  field  free 
from  them.  This  can,  of  course,  be  secured  by  beginning  the  final 
plowing  at  a  line  in  the  center  of  the  field,  turning  all  furrows  in- 
wards. In  this  case,  too,  if  a  right-hand  plow  is  used,  the  team  will 
always  turn  on  unplowed  land,  and  thus  avoid  trampling  upon  and 
packing  the  loose  soil.  The  slight  ridge  in  the  center  of  the  field 
formed  by  the  first  two  furrows  can  be  easily  leveled  by  a  couple 
of  back  furrows,  and  when  properly  harrowed  the  field  will  be  found 
sm-ooth  as  a  floor  for  staking  out  for  planting. 


WAYS     OF     LAi^ING     OUT     ORCHARDS 


97 


u.... 

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.,   .J..,.-..U-..,...K. ..!«.-.... !<--.. ....i.,...t- U., 

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i^-i;:bi^i!:i::^jf..;....u u  j.  .U.....U..; 

•  /^  i  /:"■>.   \         '*K  :  ; 

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i...M"i^l--J-..':Wi^^ 1^4v4^...uJ 

i...u.LL.L::a^..  .U:i.!:i-..,.uL..W;:v.u.i 

%.  ^^  4-  %.  ^  «.  ^  •*.  ^ 

'4^^  ^L.C  ^^  't.  t. 

^  <L  t.  e^  C  C  -^  4.  ^l 


Trees  planted  on  the  square  system.  The  Triangular  or  alternate  system. 


1  \        1  • 


-i<- 


V-J--V |->-+-^- 


M/ 


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4.       ^        >^       %.       C 
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i.    fL.   C  4^  4^    C 


The  Hexagonal  or  Septuple  system. 


1-. l;^,_4,f_— 4?. U 1. 

j  \    1  Nj,  j  \i,    \  '■■•i.    \  \l    I 

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ir %• ''::U....';h ■■■k 4 

f  M-   'y\\r   \  '--t-   :  '■.!-  :  't  ; 

u ;;:-i. ;:i.....:;.L i-l, :.i 

^  «»  ^   ^   c 

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^  c  4_   %.  c 

^  ^  ^  <%.  ^-  c 

^    %=    4_    C    %. 

^    C    4-    '^L    C^„4- 

The  Quincunx  system. 


98  CALIP^ORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

LAYING   OUT   FOR   PLANTING   IN    SQUARES 

It  is  very  desirable,  both  for  convenience  in  cultivation  and  for 
the  beauty  of  the  orchard,  that  the  trees  should  stand  in  straight 
lines,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  attain  that  end.  Most  orchards 
and  vineyards  in  this  State  are  laid  out  in  squares;  that  is,  the 
rows  of  trees  or  vines  are  all  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  as  shown 
in  the  accompanying  sketch.  This  is  the  simplest  arrangement; 
and  by  some  of  our  largest  planters  is  held  to  be  the  best.  It  is  true 
that  the  trees  are  not  equidistant  from  each  other  in  all  directions, 
and  that,  theoretically  at  least,  there  is  a  portion  of  the  ground 
unused — supposing  that  the  roots  occupy  a  circle,  as  do  the 
branches.  Practically,  however,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the 
hungry  roots  of  well-grown  trees  or  vines  leave  any  portion  of 
the  soil  unvisited. 

There  are  also  forms  of  double  squares  and  alternating  squares 
available  for  planting  at  long  distances,  with  growths  between, 
which  are  ultimately  to  be  cut  out,  or  for  vines  between  fruit  trees. 
Such  mixed  planting  is,  however,  but  little  practiced  in  California. 

VARIOUS    WAYS    OF    MARKING    FOR    SQUARES 

Marking  With  a  Plow. — This  method  was  used  in  laying  off 
some  large  orchards  in  the  Sacramento  Valley.  A  common  two- 
horse  turning  plow  is  rigged  with  a  "marker" — a  light  wooden  bar 
extending  at  right  angles  from  the  beam,  the  bar  being  as  long  as 
the  desired  distance  between  the  rows  of  trees.  On  the  end  of  this 
bar  a  crosspiece  is  fastened  perpendicularly,  so  that  it  scratches 
along  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  line  of  the  first  furrow 
has  to  be  designated  by  a  flag  stake,  to  which  the  plowman  proceeds. 
When  this  is  done,  the  team  is  turned  and  sent  back  along  the  next 
row,  the  location  of  which  has  been  fixed  by  the  marker,  and  so  on 
for  the  length  of  the  field,  the  marker  being  turned  each  time  to 
indicate  the  next  furrow.  Following  the  same  course  the  other  way 
of  the  field  leaves  the  trees  to  be  planted  at  the  intersection  of  the 
furrows. 

Measure  and  Sight. — Another  method  which  is  quite  commonly 
used  and  answers  a  good  purpose  in  small  plantings  is  the  combi- 
nation of  measure  and  sight.  The  sighting  stakes  are  usually  plas- 
terers' laths  pointed  at  one  end  and  whitewashed  to  make  them  more 
visible  to  the  eye.  In  the  use  of  these  it  is  necessary  to  measure  the 
distances  and  locate  the  laths  to  mark  the  ends  of  the  rows  all 
around  the  field.  Then  locate  a  line  of  laths  across  the  field  each 
way  through  the  center,  these  laths  occupying  places  which  the  trees 
of  these  two  central  rows  will  fill.  After  these  are  in  place,  meas- 
urement can  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  job  can  be  finished  by  sight- 
ing through.     The  man  on  the  ends  of  the  rows  has  three  laths  to 


HOW    TO    FIX    DISTANCES  99 

sight  by  in  each  row,  and  the  stake  driver  places  the  stakes  as 
directed  by  the  sighter.  Good  location  can  be  done  this  way  if  a 
man  has  a  good  eye  and  patience  enough. 

Marking  Off  With  a  Wire. — A  measuring  wire  or  chain  is,  per- 
haps, the  best  means  for  getting  accurate  location  of  trees  or  vines. 
It  is  used  either  for  setting  in  squares  or  in  other  arrangement,  as 
will  be  described  presently.  Measuring  wires  are  made  of  annealed 
steel  wire  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  length 
varies  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  user.  If  it  is  desired  to  lay  ofif 
the  plantation  in  blocks  of  one  acre,  the  wire  should  be  two  hundred 
and  eight  feet  nine  inches  long,  for  that  is  approximately  the  length 
of  one  side  of  a  square  inclosing  an  acre  of  ground.  But  some  use 
a  wire  as  long  as  three  hundred  feet,  when  the  acre  measure  is  of 
no  consequence ;  and  others,  in  smaller  plantings,  make  the  wire 
just  the  length  of  the  piece  they  have  in  hand.  At  each  end  of  the 
wire  is  fixed  a  strong  iron  ring  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in 
diameter,  to  be  slipped  over  stakes;  some  use  a  larger  ring,  say 
three  inches  in  diameter,  because  it  is  easier  to  handle  in  pulling 
taut.  Along  this  wire,  patches  of  solder  are  placed  exactly  at  the 
distances  desired  between  the  rows  of  trees  or  vines,  and  to  these 
places  pieces  of  red  cloth  are  sometimes  fastened  so  that  the  points 
may  be  easily  seen.  Another  style  of  measuring  wires  is  made  of 
small  wire  cable  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  made  of 
several  strands  of  small  wire.  It  is  more  flexible  aYid  less  likely  to 
become  kinked  than  the  large*  wire,  and  can  be  easily  marked  off 
to  represent  the  distances,  at  which  rows  of  different  kinds  of  trees 
should  be  placed,  by  separating  the  strands  a  little  at  the  desired 
points  and  inserting  a  little  piece  of  red  cloth,  pressing  the  wires 
together  again  and  tying  firmly  with  a  waxed  thread  to  prevent 
slipping.  In  this  way  the  same  wire  can  be  easily  arranged  for 
planting  vines  or  for  the  trees  requiring  the  greatest  distance  be- 
tween the  rows.  Another  advantage  of  the  cable  is  that  any  stretch- 
ing can  be  taken  up  by  retwisting,  which  can  not  be  done  with  the 
stretching  of  a  single  wire.  Another  good  style  of  planting  wire  is 
made  of  2,  4  or  6-foot  links  of  No.  12  steel  wire  (including  the  diam- 
eters of  the  small  rings  turned  at  each  end  of  the  link  pieces).  As 
all  planting  will  probably  be  at  multiple  distances  of  these  link- 
lengths,  the  cloth  tags  can  be  changed  and  the  chain  thus  be  marked 
for  any  desired  distances. 

Finding  a  True  Corner. — To  use  the  measuring  wire  for  laying 
out  trees  on  the  square,  it  is  necessary  first  to  get  one  corner  true, 
and  then  a  field  of  any  size  can  be  marked  out  accurately.  Select 
the  side  of  the  field  which  is  to  serve  as  the  base  of  the  square  and 
stretch  the  wire  along  that,  say  fifteen  feet  from  the  fence,  which 
will  give  room  enough  to  turn  with  the  team  in  cultivation  or  to 
drive  along  in   picking-time.     When   the   wire    is   thus    stretched 


100  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

parallel  with  the  boundary  of  the  field,  place  a  stake  at  each  of  the 
distance  tags  on  the  wire,  and  these  stakes  will  represent  the  first 
row  of  trees  or  vines.  To  find  a  square  corner,  begin  at  the  starting 
point  and  measure  off  sixty  feet  along  this  row  with  a  tape  line, 
and  put  a  temporary  stake,  then  from  the  starting-point  measure 
off  eighty  feet  as  nearly  at  a  right  angle  with  the  first  line  as  can  be 
judged  with  the  eye,  and  run  diagonally  from  this  point  the  tem- 
porary sixty-foot  stake.  If  the  distance  between  these  stakes  is  one 
hundred  feet,  then  the  corner  is  a  right  angle.  Now,  having  the  out- 
side lines  started  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  one  can  proceed  with 
the  measuring  wire  and  lay  off  as  large  an  area  as  he  desires,  if 
care  is  taken  to  have  each  line  drawn  parallel  with  the  last,  and  all 
stakes  accurately  placed  with  the  tags  on  the  wire — providing  the 
land  is  nearly  level  or  on  a  uniform  grade.  In  locating  trees  over 
uneven  ground,  the  measurements  will  have  to  be  made  from  tree 
to  tree,  with  the  tape  line  held  as  nearly  to  a  level  as  possible. 

Rows  on  Hillsides. — Laying  off  orchard  or  vineyard  on  hillside 
too  steep  to  plow  both  ways,  there  is  advantage  sometimes  in  plac- 
ing the  rows  up  and  down  the  hill  nearly  twice  as  far  apart  as  the 
rows  along  the  face  of  the  hill.  In  planting  trees  thus  the  advantage 
to  be  gained  is  by  enabling  you  to  keep  the  team  well  up  the  hill ; 
thereby  you  are  able  to  plow  or  cultivate  the  trees  close  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  rows.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  cultivating  the  upper  side 
of  the  rows,  for.  the  plow  or  harrow  is  always  below  the  team.  If 
trees  are  planted  as  recommended,  the  team  can  be  guided  up  the  hill 
a  little  between  the  rows,  then  allowed  to  drop  down  hill  one  step, 
and  thus  one  can  cultivate  the  trees  close  on  the  lower  side.  The 
same  rule  will  apply  to  vines. 

QUINCUNX    PLANTING 

There  is  much  confusion  in  the  use  of  this  term  in  this  State. 
It  is,  in  fact,  made  to  cover  almost  every  kind  of  arrangement  which 
is  not  on  the  square.  Webster  defines  the  term  to  mean  "the 
arrangement  of  things,  especially  of  trees,  by  fives  in  a  square,  one 
being  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  square."  Trees  set  in  quincunx 
would  stand  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram.  To  locate 
them  in  this  form  it  is  only  necessary  to  proceed  as  already  described 
for  planting  in  squares,  by  fixing  upon  the  base  line  and  locating  two 
side  lines  to  it  at  right  angles.  Place  the  stakes  on  these  two  lines 
just  half  the  distance  desired  between  the  trees,  and  have  the  meas- 
uring wire  long  enough  to  reach  across  from  one  line  to  the  other. 
Near  one  end  of  the  wire  place  another  mark  just  half  way  between 
the  end  and  the  first  tree  mark;  that  is,  if  the  trees  are  to  be 
twenty-four  feet  apart  in  the  squares,  this  additional  mark  should 
be  twelve  feet  from  the  end  of  the  wire.  Now  set  the  first  row  with 
the  end  of  the  wire  at  the  corner  stake,  and  set  stakes  at  each 
twenty-four  foot  mark. 


TRIANGULAR    PLANTING  |Qj^ 

Proceed  now  to  the  first  half-way  stake,  and  instead  of  putting 
the  end  of  the  wire  at  this  stake,  put  the  twelve-foot  mark  there. 
Put  stakes  now  at  each  twenty-four  foot  mark  again  to  locate  the 
trees  in  that  row.  In  the  next  row  put  the  cud  of  the  wire  at  the 
first  stake  and  proceed  as  in  the  first  row.  Thereafter  using  the  end 
of  the  wire  and  the  twelve-foot  marks  alternately,  the  stakes  will 
be  set  in  quincunx  all  over  the  field.  If  the  midway  stakes  are  now 
pulled  out  along  the  two  side  lines,  the  remaining  stakes  show  where 
the  trees  are  to  be  placed.  This  way  of  planting  locates  about  sev- 
enty-eight per  cent  more  trees  upon  any  given  area,  but  it  brings  the 
trees  at  irregular  distances  from  each  other,  and  except  in  furnish- 
ing a  way  to  arrange  an  orchard  with  permanent  and  temporary 
trees,  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  advantage  in  it. 

PLANTING   IN    EQUILATERAL   TRIANGLES 

This  is  the  arrangement  generally  implied  when  the  term  "quin- 
cunx" is  wrongly  employed.  By  it  the  trees  are  all  equally  distant 
from  each  other,  and  thus  the  ground  divided  as  equally  as  possible. 
The  arrangement  admits  fifteen  per  cent  more  trees  to  the  acre 
than  the  setting  in  squares,  and  the  ground  can  be  worked  in  three 
different  directions.  This  arrangement  also  gives  better  facilities 
for  irrigation.  Objections  are  urged  to  it,  however,  in  that  it  does 
not  admit  of  thinning  trees  by  removal  of  alternate  rows,  as  is  some- 
times desirable,  and  that  one  has  to  take  a  zigzag  course  in  driving 
through  the  orchard. 

Hexagonal  planting  places  the  trees  as  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing sketch. 

It  is  termed  hexagonal  because,  as  the  figure  consists  of  six 
trees  inclosing  a  seventh,  a  line  drawn  through  the  encompassing 
trees  makes  a  hexagon.  It  is  also  called  septuple  planting,  because 
seven  trees  enter  into  its  figure. 

An  orchard  can  be  laid  out  in  hexagonals  by  using  the  measuring 
wire  as  described  for  quincunx  planting  with  the  distance  and  half- 
distance  marks,  except  that  the  guide  stakes  in  the  side  rows  must 
be  placed  at  different  distances  apart.  The  following  table,  show- 
ing the  distance  for  side  stakes  to  reach  desired  distance  between 
the  trees,  and  the  method  of  calculating  the  number  of  trees  to  the 
acre  by  the  square  and  hexagonal  or  sextuple  arrangement: 

Trees  set  Sextuple  Check-stakes  should  be 

10  feet  apart 8  feet  8  inches. 

12-  feet  apart 10  feet  4  2-5  inches. 

14  feet  apart 12  feet  %   inches. 

16  feet  apart 13  feet  10^^  inches. 

18  feet  apart 15  feet  7  inches. 

20  feet  apart 17  feet  4  inches. 

21  feet  apart 18  feet  2i^  inches. 

22  feet  apart 19  feet  %  inches. 

24  feet  apart 20  feet  91/2  inches. 


102 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


After  the  field  is  staked,  each  alternate  stake  in  the  check  rows  should  be 
removed.  The  following  table  will  show  the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre  by 
the  square  and  septuple  system  : 

Square  Septuple 

10  feet  apart 435 500 

12  feet  apart 302 347 

14  feet  apart 222 255 

16  feet  apart 170 1S5 

18  feet  apart 134 154 

20  feet  apart 109 125 

21  feet  apart 99 114" 

22  feet  apart 90 103 

24  feet  apart 75 86 

For  any  distance  not  given  in  the  above  table,  calculate  the  number  of 
trees  to  the  acre  by  the  square  system,  and  add  fifteen  per  cent.  This  will 
give  the  number  if  planted  septuple. 

Laying  Out  Hexagonals  with  a  Triangle. — It  is  possible  to  lay 
out  an  orchard  in  hexagonal  form  by  working  from  stake  to  stake 
with  an  equilateral  triangle  of  dimensions  equaHng  the  distance 
required  between  the  trees. 


One  corner  of  triangle — all  being  made  alike. 


Take  three  strips  of  one-by-two-inch  dry  pine  or  redwood,  and  as  long 
as  you  wish  the  distance  between  the  trees.  Cut  the  strips  the  same  length, 
and  fasten  the  corners  of  the  triangle  firmly  together  by  nailing  two  pieces  of 
pine  board  six  by  six  inches. 

If  the  long  strips  are  set  up  edgewise,  the  triangle  w'ill  be  much  stiflfer 
and  better  to  carry.  Through  the  corner  boards  bore  an  inch  hole,  making 
sure  that  the  three  sides  of  the  triangle  measure  exactly  the  same.  If  they 
do,  the  triangle  must  necessarily  be  perfect.  Then  brace  it  a  little  by  nailing 
a  lath  across  each  corner,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Now  split  out  some  three-quarter-inch  pins,  one  foot  long,  from  good, 
straight-grained  redwood.  Make  one  hundred  pins  for  each  acre  you  have  to 
lay  off. 

Three  persons  must  now  carry  the  triangle,  beginning  on  one  side  of  the 
field,  say  eight  feet  from  the  fence,  and  guided  the  first  time  through  by  a 
line  of  stakes.     Carry  the  triangle  with  its  side  to  the  line  of  guide  stakes  and 


PLANTING     ON     HILLSIDES 


103 


its  point  in.  The  head  man  and  the  inside  man  will  stick  pins,  while  the  rear 
man  will  slip  his  corner  each  time  upon  the  pin  set  by  the  head  man. 

After  the  first  time  across,  the  man  at  the  inside  point  of  the  triangle 
alone  will  set  pins,  while  the  other  two  fit  their  corners  upon  the  pins  in  the 
last  row  set.  Thus  one  row  of  pins  only  is  set  each  time  you  go  across  the 
field. 

If  the  triangle  is  exact,  and  the  first  row  of  pins  is  set  perfectly  straight, 
and  the  pins  are  always  set  perpendicularly,  everything  will  now  work  like  a 
charm  and  the  job  will  be  perfect;  and  it  is  so  simple  and  easy  that  a  man 
and  two  small  boys  can  lay  off  from  five  to  ten  acres  in  one  day.  Remember 
that  no  guide  stak-es  are  used  anywhere  after  the  first  time  through. 

The  Triangle  on  Hillside. — The  use  of  the  triangle  requires  a 
little  nicety  in  ''leveling  up"  where  the  piece  is  hilly.  By  using  a 
plumb-line  at  two  corners  of  the  triangle,  the  third  corner  resting  on 
one  of  the  stakes,  leveling  the  triangle  and  bringing  one  of  the 
plumb-lines  over  another  stake  already  set,  the  position  of  the 
other  line  would  determine  the  position  of  the  next  stake.  Thi§ 
method  has  worked  fairly  well,  even  in  places  where  the  slope  was 
sufhcient  to  give  a  fall  of  six  feet  between  the  trees,  which  were  set 
twenty  feet  apart. 

Locating  in  Triangles  with  a  Chain. — Instead  of  a  wooden  tri- 
angle, a  chain  has  been  used  in  this  way : 

First  stretch  a  chain  along  one  side  of  the  ground,  setting  by  it  the  first 
row  of  stakes.  This  forms  the  base  line.  Have  a  piece  of  chain  just  twice 
the  length  of  the  established  distance  between  trees,  with  ample  rings  on  the 
ends  and  a  joint  in  the  middle.  Put  one  of  the  rings  over  the  first  stake  and 
the  other  over  the  second  stake.  Then  take  the  joint  in  the  middle  of  the 
chain  and  stretch  it  out  reasonably  tight.  The  wire  forms  a  letter  V,  at  the 
focus  of  which  stick  a  stake.  The  point  is  indicated  with  precision  by  the 
joint  in  the  middle  of  the  chain.  Then  take  the  ring  off  the  first  stake  and 
put  it  over  the  third  stake,  leaving  the  one  on  the  second  stake  where  it  is; 
Tighten  the  chain  again,  and  another  point  is  fixed.  Thus  continue  all  the 
base  line,  shifting  the  rings  alternately,  turning  over  the  chain  as  one  turns 
a  pair  of  draughtman's  compasses  in  his  hand  when  spacing  ofif  a  line.  The 
second  row  of  stakes  being  set,  set  the  third  row,  and  so  on  through  the 
ground. 

The  suggestions  given  in  this  chapter  should  indicate  ways 
enough  to  lay  off  orchard  and  vineyard  ground  to  answer  all  needs, 
though  there  are  other  good  ways  not  mentioned.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  instructions  will  not  be  regarded  as  too  explicit.  They  are 
intended  for  the  guidance  of  the  inexperienced  planter,  and  will  nat- 
urally seem  laden  with  detail  to  those  who  have  become  familiar 
with  the  operations  by  repeated  practice. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PLANTING  THE  TREES 

After  the  field  has  been  graded,  thoroughly  tilled  and  carefully 
laid  off  as  has  been  described,  the  next  step  is  digging  the  holes  for 
the  trees.  ''How  large  shall  the  holes  be?"  He  was  a  wise  fruit 
grower  who,  when  asked  this  question,  replied,  "As  large  as  the 
field."  That  is  to  say,  it  is  much  better  to  work  the  whole  ground 
over  deeply  than  to  trust  to  deep  holes  and  shallow  working  else- 
where. Where  this  is  done,  the  tree  holes  need  only  be  large  ejlt^ugh 
and  deep  enough  to  receive  the  roots  without  folding  thenf  in  or 
cramping  them  up.  In  a  loose,  deep  soil,  however,  one  can  di^g  extra 
deep  and  broad  holes  if  he  desires,  and  will  be  repaid  by  extra 
growth  of  the  tree ;  but  in  a  close,  tenacious  soil  a  deep  hole  is  not 
only  undesirable,  but  often  positively  a  danger  to  the  tree,  unless 
drainage  of  the  holes  is  provided  artificially.  Such  holes  hold  water 
like  a  tub,  and  the  loosening  of  the  soil  deeply  facilitites  its  gather- 
ing in  the  hole.  Many  have  found  their  trees  in  such  places  dwind- 
ling and  dying  because  their  roots  were  soaking  in  water. 

Planting  on  Some  Shallow  Soils. — As  a  rule,  trees  should  have  a 
deep  soil,  and  for  these  deep,  free  loams,  California  is  famous,  but 
there  are  situations  where  very  satisfactory  growth  and  production 
can  be  had,  even  when  the  hard-pan  is  near  the  surface  and  the  soil 
would  be  called  shallow.  In  such  places  it  is  the  character  of  the 
subsoil  which  warrants  the  tree  and  vine  planter  in  making  use  of 
them.  Sometimes  the  hard-pan  is  so  thin  and  near  the  surface  that 
it  can  be  broken  through  with  a  pick  in  digging  the  tree  hole.  Other- 
wise boring  is  done.  It  is  about  forty  years  since  Mr.  James  Rutter, 
of  Florin  (on  the  ''bed  rock"  lands  near  Sacramento),  first  noticed 
that  there  were  viiies  here  and  there  which  grew  exceptionally  well 
and  bore  large  crops  of  fine  fruit.  He  found  by  investigation  that 
under  these  vines  there  were  crevices  in  the  bed-rock,  and  from 
this  he  took  the  hint  to  bore  through  this  hard-pan  in  the  bottom 
of  the  hole  where  he  placed  the  tree,  and  in  this  way  he  gained 
access  for  the  roots  to  the  subsoil  and  egress  for  the  water  through 
the  permeable  substratum.  He  bored  a  hole  two  inches  in  diameter 
into  or  through  the  bed-rock  and  rammed  well  into  it  one  and  a  half 
pounds  of  black  blasting  powder.  After  exploding  this,  he  some- 
times bored  a  three-inch  hole  about  four  feet  below  the  blast.  In- 
stead of  blasting  in  the  hole  where  the  tree  is  to  be  planted,  some 
bore  and  blast  the  hard-pan  midway  between  the  rows,  placing  the 
holes  at  "quincunx"  with  the  trees.    The  shattering  of  the  hard-pan 

104 


PREPARING     HOLES     FOR     PLANTING 


105 


between  the  trees  is  said  to  be  practicable  after  the  trees  are  grow.- 
ing,  and  may  in  certain  soils  relieve  trees  which  are  sufifering  for 
lack  of  drainage.  A  half-pound  cartridge  of  dynamite  has  been 
successfully  used  for  subsoil  blasting,  and  some  have  reported  in 
favor  of  exploding  a  quarter-pound  cartridge  quite  near  to  a  tree 
sufifering  from  standing  water,  putting  in  the  charge  during  the  dry 
season. 

There  are  many  situations  where  such  practice  would  be  bene- 
ficial, and  in  some  cases  mere  digging  or  boring  through  the  im- 
pervious stratum  avails  much.  There  are  spots  where  ''lava  crusts" 
overlie  gravel,  and  trees  have  been  well  grown  by  cutting  holes 
through  the  lava  to  the  gravel,  filling  with  good  soil  and  planting 
the  trees  in  these  holes.  Their  roots  penetrate  to  the  gravel  stratum 
and  obtain  abundant  moisture  and  nutriment.  In  certain  situations 
where  a  shallow  layer  of  soil  overlies  a  heavy  clay,  trees  have  been 
blown  over,  but  when  a  cut  has  been  made  through  the  clay,  the 
trees  have  rooted  deeply  and  have  withstood  the  winds. 

Shooting  Holes  for  Trees. — Even  where  there  are  continuous 
depths  of  dense  strata,  and  not  shallow  hard-pan  underlaid  by  free 
soils,  trees  can  often  be  successfully  grown  by  the  use  of  high  ex- 
plosives. In  his  book  on  ''Soils"  Professor  Hilgard  gives  these 
suggestions : 

A  permanent  loosening  of  dense  sub-strata  is  best  accomplished  by 
moderate  charges  (j/^  to  ^  lb.)  of  No.  2  dynamite  at  a  sufficient  depth  (3  to 
5  ft.).  The  shattering  effect  of  the  explosure  will  be  sensible  to  a  depth  of 
eight  feet  or  more,  and  will  fissure  the  clay  or  hard  pan  to  a  corresponding 
extent  sidewise.  If  properly  proportioned  the  charge  will  hardly  disturb  the 
surface;  but  if  this  be  desired,  from  i^  to  2>4  pounds  of  black  powder  placed 
above  the  dynamite  will  throw  out  sufficient  earth  to  plant  the  tree  without . 
farther  digging.  Where  labor  is  high-priced  this  proves  the  cheapest  as  well 
as  the  best  way  to  prepare  such  ground  for  tree  planting,  and  it  has  often 
been  found  that  in  course  of  time  the  loosening  begun  by  the  powder  has 
extended  through  the  mass  of  the  land  so  as  to  permit  the  roots  to  utilize  it 
fully  and  even  to  permit,  in  after  years,  of  the  planting  of  field  crop*,  where 
formerly  they  would  not  succeed. 

The  boring  for  such  blasting  is  usually  with  an  ordinary  carpen- 
ter's auger,  a  little  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  cartridge  to  be 
used ;  the  shank  of  the  auger  being  lengthened  by  the  blacksmith  to 
reach  the  depth  desired. 

It  is  becoming  more  and  more  apparent,  however,  that  for  com- 
mercial plantings  of  trees  and  vines  all  such  defective  soils  should 
be  avoided.  There  is  plenty  of  good,  deep  land  to  be  had,  and  the 
burden  of  ameliorating  poor  land  is  a  serious  handicap  in  the  com- 
petition which  has  brought  production  to  very  narrow  margins  of 
profit. 

Digging  the  Holes. — Holes  for  tree  planting  may  be  dug  at  a 
leisure  time  after  the  laying  ofif  of  the  field,  even  though  it  is  not 
designed  to  plant  the  trees  immediately,  but  our  largest  planters 


106  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

do  not  approve  the  practice.  In  such  cases  the  sides  of  the  holes 
should  always  be  freshly  pared  ofif  before  the  trees  are  put  in,  be- 
cause the  rain  and  sunshine  are  apt  to  cement  the  sides.  In  digging 
holes  the  surface  earth  should  always  be  thrown  on  one  side  and 
the  lower  soil  on  another.  The  object  of  this  is  to  have  the  top  soil 
to  place  in  direct  contact  with  the  roots  when  the  tree  is  planted,  the 
lower  soil  being  used  to  fill  up  the  hole  with. 


TREE    SETTERS 

No  matter  how  carefully  the  stakes  are  placed  in  laying  off  the 
orchard,  the  trees  will  not  easily  come  in  line  unless  some  handy 
device  is  used  for  bringing  the  stem  just  in  the  place  occupied  by 
the  stake  which  was  thrown  out  in  digging.  These  devices  are 
called  ''tree-setters,"  and  there  are  a  number  of  designs.  Two  are 
given,  either  of  which  will  give  good  results.  Take  a  piece  of  board 
one  inch  thick,  four  inches  wide,  and  five  feet  long;  bore  an  inch 
hole  in  the  center,  and  one  at  each  end  at  equal  distance  from  the 
center;    then  cut  a  piece  from  one  side  of  the  board,  marked  by  a 


[o 


Bar  for  tree  setting. 

square,  the  corner  resting  in  the  middle  of  the  center  hole.  Make 
two  stakes,  each  one  foot  long,  that  will  easily  pass  "through  the 
end  holes.  Place  the  center  of  this  board  against  the  stake,  where 
'the  tree  is  to  be  planted ;  push  the  stakes  into  the  ground  through 
the  holes  in  the  ends,  then  lift  the  board  from  position  and  proceed 
to  dig  the  hole.  When  dug,  replace  the  board  over  the  end  stakes 
in  its  former  position,  then  plant  the  tree  with  its  trunk  resting 
against  the  center  notch  in  the  board,  and  you  have  it  in  just  the 
right  place. 

Another  setter  is  in  the  form  of  a  triangle :  Take  three  pieces 
of  plain  one-inch  stuff  three  to  four  inches  wide  and  four  feet  long, 
and  nail  them  together,  forming  a  three-cornered  frame,  letting  the 
ends  project  sufficiently  to  form  a  corner,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
Next  make  a  couple  of  smooth,  hard  stakes,  well  sharpened,  and 
about  a  foot  or  sixteen  inches  in  length.  When  you  are  ready  to 
set  your  trees,  place  the  frame  flat  upon  the  ground  with  one  corner 
firmly  and  fairly  against  the  stake  which  marks  the  place  where  the 
tree  is  to  stand.  Now  in  the  other  two  corners  stick  the  stakes 
already  prepared  for  the  purpose.  This  done  pull  up  the  stake 
against  which  the  frame  was  first  placed — the  one  indicating  a  place 
for  a  tree — remove  the  frame,  being  careful  in  doing  so  not  to  move 
the  other  two  stakes,  which  must  be  left  to  be  used  while  setting 


DEVICES     FOR     SETTING  .  TREES  IQ'J 

the  tree.  After  the  hole  is  dug  and  everything  ready  for  setting  the 
tree,  again  place  the  frame  against  the  two  standing  stakes,  let  the 
tree  drop  into  the  other  corner,  which  will  help  support  it  while  the 
dirt  is  being  placed  about  the  roots ;  and  this  will  bring  the  tree 
exactly  where  the  stake  was  originally.  If  the  stakes  are  properly 
put  in  line,  so  will  be  the  trees. 

These  setters  are  described  as  they  are  used  when  the  hole  is  dug 
and  the  tree  set  at  the  same  time.  Such  is  the  ordinary  practice  in 
planting.  If  one  wishes  to  dig  the  holes  beforehand,  it  is  necessary 
to  furnish  more  stakes,  as  two  have  to  be  left  beside  each  hole  to 
mark  the  position  of  the  setter  w^hen  the  planting  is  done.  Besides 
its  use  in  bringing  a  tree  into  line,  the  tree-setter  enables  one  to 


Triangular  tree  setter. 


judge  of  the  depth  of  setting  as  compared  with  the  surface  of  the 
surrounding  ground.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  this  with  the  eye 
if  the  hole  be  a  large  one.  Where  the  measuring  wire  is  used  to 
set  the  stakes,  it  is  sometimes  stretched  across  again  after  the  holes 
are  dug,  the  tags  on  the  wire  thus  indicating  the  places  for  the  trees 
of  the  whole  row.  The  trouble  with  this  practice  is  the  bother  of 
having  the  wire  in  the  way  while  filling  and  tramping  the  earth 
around  the  roots. 

SELECTING  TREES 

In  the  purchase  of  trees  it  is  well  to  patronize  nurserymen  in 
your  own  district,  providing  they  are  honest  and  intelligent  men, 
who  keep  themselves  informed  as  they  should  about  their  business. 
The  advice  of  such  a  local  nurseryman  is  often  of  great  value  to  the 
newcomer,  for  he  will  know  by  his  experience  and  observation  much 
about  the  adaptations  of  fruits  and  varieties  thereof  to  the  region. 
If,  for  any  reason,  local  nurseries  do  not  meet  your  needs,  seek 
some  well-established  nursery  at  a  distance.  It  is  much  safer  to 
deal  directly  with  the  grower  of  the  trees  than  to  patronize  traveling 


108  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

agents.  Where,  however,  these  agents  are  the  accredited  represen- 
tatives of  well-known  establishments,  they  may  save  the  planter  time 
and  trouble  by  taking  his  order  for  him.  So-called  ''tree  peddlers," 
who  are  jobbers  in  trees  and  in  too  many  cases  send  you  refuse  trees 
which  they  pick  up  cheap  wherever  they  can,  and  label  them  to  suit, 
without  respect  to  truth  or  honesty,  should  be  resolutely  avoided, 
no  matter  what  inducements  or  blandishments  they  may  ofifer. 

The  California  legislature  of  1907,  passed  a  law  making  it  unlaw- 
ful to  sell  fruit  trees  representing  them  to  be  a  certain  kind  and  aft- 
erwards to  deliver  trees  of  a  different  kind.  To  do  this  is  a  misde- 
meanor punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  Action  may  be  begun 
at  any  time  within  seven  years  after  the  date  of  delivery  of  such 
trees.* 

It  is  desirable,  if  possible,  to  visit  the  nursery  and  see  the  stock 
which  is  to  be  furnished.  The  trees  should  have  a  good  healthy 
look,  with  clean  bark,  and  of  size  enough  to  indicate  a  good,  free 
growth.  The  matter  of  size  is  not  the  only  point  to  consider,  for 
size  of  the  top  is  not  so  desirable  as  well-matured  wood  and  plenty 
of  roots.  On  the  other  hand,  stunted  trees  are  not,  as  a  rule,  worth 
planting,  for  a  stunted  tree,  like  a  stunted  calf,  often  does  not  make 
a  good  after-growth.  There  are  cases,  however,  in  which,  by  extra 
cultivation  in  good  soil,  fine  trees  have  been  grown  even  from 
"culls"  from  the  nursery.  The  best  rule  is  to  select  trees  of  good 
medium  size,  straight  and  healthy.  In  judging  size,  however, 
one  must  take  California  and  not  Eastern  standards,  because 
our  nursery  stock,  if  well  grown,  invariably  is  of  much 
greater  size  than  Eastern.  If  the  visit  is  during  the  digging 
season,  ask  to  see  samples  of  the  roots  as  well  as  the  tops  and  do 
not  purchase  trees  unless  the  roots  are  healthy  looking  and  free 
from  knots  or  excresences.  Gnarly  and  knotty  roots  in  the  young 
tree  are  a  sure  sign  of  insect  pests  or  of  unhealthy  growth,  and 
planting  such  trees  has  occasioned  our  orchardists  immense  loss. 
Many  have  been  led  into  purchasing  poor  trees  because  they  may  be 
had  cheap.  A  tree  selected  merely  because  it  is  cheap  may  prove 
the  most  expensive  thing  a  man  can  put  in  the  ground. 

Guarding  Against  Insects. — The  top  of  the  tree  should  be  care- 
fully examined  to  discover  scale  insects  if  there  be  any.  For  this 
purpose  a  hand-magnifier  should  be  used.  Such  a  glass  should 
always  be  in  the  fruit  grower's  pocket.  One  can  be  bought  at 
any  optician's  for  a  dollar  or  two,  which  will  fold  into  its  case  so  as 
to  be  carried  without  scratching.  Our  nurserymen,  by  forsaking  old 
infested  locations  and  obtaining  new  ground,  now  sell  much  cleaner 
trees  than  they  did  years  ago.  But  still  it  is  well  to  be  always  on 
the  watch  for  pests.  Disinfection  of  nursery  stock  is  now  officially 
provided.  Details  of  treatment  will  be  given  in  the  chapter  on 
injurious  insects. 

*  statutes  and  amendments  to  the  Codes,   1907;   Chap.   229. 


TRli^ATMENT     OF     YOUNG    TREES  ]^Q9 

TAKING    TREES    FROM    THE    NURSERY 

Trees  should  be  carefully  taken  from  the  nursery  rows  so  as  to 
obtain  a  good  amount  of  small  branching  roots.  In  lifting  from  the 
home  nursery,  digging  with  well-sharpened  spades,  which  will  sever 
the  long  roots  cleanly,  is  perhaps  the  best  method.  In  the  large 
nurseries  tree-diggers  are  generally  used.  They  have  two  revolving 
coulters,  which  cut  through  the  surface  soil  each  side  of  the  trees, 
and  a  sharp,  curved  blade,  which  is  drawn  through  the  ground  under 
the  trees,  loosening  the  soil  and  severing  the  long  roots  cleanly. 
The  tree  is  then  easily  lifted,  and  has  generally  a  much  better  root 
system  than  by  the  old  style  of  "ploughing  out,"  which  broke  off 
so  many  of  the  small  roots  and  lacerated  the  larger  ones.  Whether 
the  taproot  should  be  retained  or  not  is  not  worth  discussing  on 
theoretical  grounds.  As  a  matter  of  fact  and  practice,  the  taproot 
cuts  no  figure  at  all  in  California  orchard  planting,  although  the 
discussion  of  the  question  was  formerly  very  warm  in  this  State, 
and  is  still  occasionally  heard.  It  is  important,  however,  that  the 
planter  should  have  as  many  small  lateral  roots  as  he  can  get.  The 
small  fibrous  roots  are  usually  of  little  account,  as  they  seldom  sur- 
vive transplanting,  and  it  is  better  to  clip  them  away,  if  the  time 
can  be  afforded,  as  they  often  prevent  the  proper  close  contact  of 
the  soil  with  the  larger  roots.  Cutting  back  all  roots  to  short  stubs 
at  the  base  of  the  stem  has  succeeded  in  some  instances  in  California 
on  moist  low  lands,  but  longer  roots  are  far  safer  in  the  deep  drying 
of  the  surface  layer  which  is  to  be  expected  in  this  State. 

The  roots,  after  lifting,  should  not  be  permitted  to  dry.  Hence, 
in  hauling  from  the  nursery  to  the  farm,  the  trees  should  be  well 
covered  with  wet  straw  and  old  sacks,  or,  if  shipped  from  the  nur- 
sery to  distant  points,  should  be  well  packed.  The  best  way  to  pack 
trees  is,  undoubtedly,  to  box  them  in  with  wet  straw,  but  it  costs 
less  and  they  usually  carry  well  considerable  distances  if  carefully 
bundled  with  tules  (dry  reed  stems),  the  roots  packed  in  wet  straw, 
and  the  packing  and  covering  bound  down  tight  with  ropes  to 
prevent  drying  out. 

Attention  should  be  paid  to  hauling  away  trees  from  the  railway 
stations  as  soon  as  possible  after  arrival.  It  is  not  uncommon  for 
shipments  to  lie  on  the  station  platforms  for  days,  often  when  a 
desiccating  north  wind  is  blowing.  Such  treatment  soon  takes  the 
life  out  of  the  rootlets,  and  often,  no  doubt,  the  nurseryman  is 
blamed  for  failure  of  trees  which  have  suffered  some  such  neglect 
as  this,  either  from  transportation  companies  or  from  the  purchasers. 

Heeling  In. — On  arrival  at  the  farms,  trees  should  be  "heeled  in" 
as  soon  as  possible ;  even  if  it  is  the  intention  to  plant  at  once,  heel 
them  in  just  the  same,  for  delays  arise  often  in  the  most  unexpected 
manner.  To  heel  in,  dig  a  trench  or  plow  a  deep  furrow,  or  a  double 
furrow,  in  light,  moist,  but  well-drained  soil ;  put  in  the  trees  singly 


no  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW     THEM 

side  by  side,  removing  all  the  packing  material  carefully  from  the 
roots,  laying  the  tops  all  one  way,  and  then  shovel  the  earth  over 
the  roots  until  they  are  well  covered  with  loose  soil,  and  be  sure 
that  the  soil  sifts  down  well  between  the  roots.  Ordinarily  this 
treatment  will  hold  the  trees  in  good  condition  for  a  considerable 
time  if  need  be.  If,  however,  they  have  become  dry  before  arrival, 
the  bundles  should  be  thoroughly  drenched  with  water  before  heel- 
ing in.  In  extreme  cases,  where  the  top  shows  drying  by  shrinking 
and  shriveling  of  the  bark,  the  trees  should  be  drenched,  and  then 
they  should  be  covered  root  and  top  with  earth  for  two  or  three 
days,  when,  if  the  trouble  has  not  gone  too  far,  the  bark  will  recover 
its  smoothness  and  plumpness.  It  should  be  very  seldom,  however, 
that  a  lot  of  trees  is  allowed  to  get  into  such  condition  by  neglect. 
In  heeling  in  it  will  be  found  a  great  convenience  and  a  safeguard 
against  possible  confusion  by  loss  of  labels,  if  each  variety  as  taken 
from  the  packing  is  placed  by  itself  in  the  trench.  Nurserymen  gen- 
erally attach  a  label  to  each  small  bundle,  if  the  trees  are  of  several 
varieties,  and  the  novice  is  apt  to  lose  all  track  of  his  sorts  when 
heeling  in  the  trench,  unless  he  heels  in  each  kind  by  itself,  leaving 
the  nurseryman's  label  to  mark  the  whole  lot  of  each  kind. 

If  the  planter  has  his  own  ideas  of  after-treatment  of  his  trees, 
or  if  he  is  a  beginner  and  desires  to  adopt  the  suggestions  which 
will  be  laid  down  in  this  book,  he  should  insist  that  the  nursery- 
man shall  not  trim  up  nor  cut  back  the  trees  before  packing.  Have 
the  trees  packed  just  as  they  are  lifted  from  the  ground.  The  work 
toward  the  shaping  of  the  tree  should  be  done  after  it  is  planted  in 
the  orchard. 


PLANTING  THE   ORCHARD 

The  young  deciduous  tree  should  be  dormant  before  being  moved 
from  the  nursery  row,  and  if  its  leaves  have  fallen  it  is  good  evidence 
of  its  dormancy.  Such,  however,  is  the  effect  of  the  climate  of  Cal- 
ifornia, more  apparent  in  some  years  than  others,  and  with  some 
kinds  of  fruit  than  others,  that  the  young  tree  retains  a  small  part 
of  its  activity  very  late,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  not  practicable  to  wait 
for  the  complete  falling  of  the  leaves.  Sometimes  for  convenience 
of  work,  the  trees  have  to  be  lifted  before  this  takes  place,  and  in 
such  case  it  is  desirable  to  remove  the  leaves  to  lessen  evaporation. 
It  is  probably  better  to  transplant  in  this  condition  for  the  sake  of 
early  setting  in  its  new  position  than  to  wait  for  all  the  leaves  to 
drop.  This  statement  is  not  intended  to  include  nursery  stock  which 
is  kept  growing  late  in  the  season  by  late  irrigation.  Such  trees  are 
not  always  desirable. 

Time  to  Plant. — The  best  time  to  plant  deciduous  trees  in  Cali- 
fornia is  soon  after  the   early  rains    have  deeply   moistened    the 


I 


CONDITIONS     FOR    PLANTING  m 

ground.  It  is  not  desirable,  however,  to  have  a  stratum  of  dry 
earth  below.  This  can  be  removed  by  irrigation  when  available. 
Early  planting  of  common  orchard  fruits  is  of  advantage  for  sev- 
eral reasons.  First,  an  early-planted  tree  gets  the  full  benefit  of  the 
season's  rainfall,  whatever  it  may  be,  and  a  late-planted  tree,  in  a 
year  with  short  rainfall,  is  apt  to  suffer  during  its  first  season's 
growth,  unless  it  can  be  irrigated.  The  two  main  things  to  observe 
are  the  dormancy  of  the  tree  and  the  proper  condition  of  the  soil, 
and  both  of  these  are  most  apt  to  coincide  in  many  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia about  the  first  of  January,  but  in  heavy  loams  in  region  of 
large  rainfall,  the  soil  may  then  be  too  cold  and  wet.  There  will, 
however,  be  some  variation  from  year  to  year,  and  different  parts 
of  the  State  disagree  as  to  the  date.  Hence,  the  general  rule  must 
be  based  on  conditions,  that  of  the  tree  and  that  of  the  soil.  If  the 
novice  can  not  judge  these  for  himself,  he  must  get  the  advice  of 
some  one  of  experience  in  the  locality. 

The  dormant  period  of  a  tree  in  California,  as  has  been  stated 
in  another  connection,  is  very  short.  As  many  cold-climate  annual 
plants  become  perennial  here,  so  our  deciduous  trees,  in  compara- 
tively frostless  portions  of  the  State,  evince  a  tendency  to  become 
evergreen.  The  period  of  dormancy  in  the  root  is  also  shorter  than 
the  inactivity  of  the  top.  Trees  transplanted  early  are  found  to 
have  their  root  wounds  callused  over  and  new  rootlets  considerably 
advanced  before  the  buds  Swell.  Therefore,  by  early  planting  the 
tree  begins  soon  to  take  hold  upon  the  soil,  the  latter  being  well 
settled  around  it  by  rains,  which  often  follow  early  planting,  and 
the  high  wands,  which  are  apt  to  come  in  the  spring  in  some  parts 
of  the  State,  find  the  tree  well  anchored  and  ready  to  maintain  itself. 

Again,  the  proper  condition  of  soil,  if  not  seized  at  its  first  com- 
ing, may  not  recur  until  after  the  great  storms  of  the  winter  are 
over,  say  in  February  or  March  (in  most  parts  of  the  State),  and 
then  often  the  buds  are  bursting  into  bloom  and  leaf.  Planting 
when  the  soil  is  water-soaked  and  cold  is  very  undesirable,  for  in 
such  condition  it  can  not  be  properly  disposed  about  the  roots,  the 
inactive  roots  may  begin  to  decay  and  trees  moved  at  this  period  are 
apt  to  show  their  dislike  of  the  treatment.  If  the  work  has  been 
delayed  unavoidably,  so  that  early  planting  can  not  be  done,  it  is 
better  to  keep  the  trees  heeled  in  until  the  proper  soil  condition 
returns,  even  if  it  be  rather  late,  for  a  little  extra  attention  to  culti- 
vation for  retention  of  moisture  will  pull  through  a  late-planted  tree. 

These  remarks  are  of  very  wide  application  in  this  State,  but 
there  are  exceptions.  In  our  high  altitudes,  where  the  climate 
approaches  Eastern  conditions  in  cold  and  snowfall,  practice  in 
planting  will  also  approximate  Eastern  methods.  In  regions  of 
very  heavy  rainfall  and  on  the  upper  coast  where  the  rainy  season 
and  moisture  from  fogs  are  prolonged  late  in  the  spring,  late  planting 
is  safer  and  surer  than  in  the  warmer,  drier  parts  of  the  State. 


il2  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Another  consideration,  too,  is  the  slope  of  the  land  to  be  planted. 
Our  hillside  fruit  growers  in  regions  of  heavy  winter  storms  some- 
times plant  slopes,  which,  if  plowed  deep  in  the  fall,  are  apt  to  wash 
badly  during  the  heavy  winter  rains.  On  such  slopes  it  is  better 
to  plow  late  in  the  winter,  after  the  heavy  storms  are  over,  and  plant 
when  the  soil  has  become  warm  and  mellow. 

THE  OPERATION  OF  PLANTING 

Tree  planting  should  be  carefully  and  well  done,  but  it  need  not 
necessarily  be  slowly  done.  With  a  kind  soil  deeply  worked  and 
just  in  the  right  condition  for  planting,  trees  may  be  put  in  well 
and  rapidly.  Two  men  work  together  at  a  decided  advantage. 
Using  the  straight  *'tree-setter,"  which  has  already  been  described, 
one  takes  each  end,  and  as  soon  as  the  center  notch  encloses  the 
tree  stake,  the  setter  stakes  are  pushed  into  the  soil,  the  ''setter" 
is  laid  aside,  and  the  two  men,  taking  up  their  shovels  or  spades, 
begin  first  around  the  outside  of  the  hole,  throwing  all  the  surface 
dirt  on  the  same  side  of  the  hole  and  leaving  the  tree  stake  to  be 
thrown  out  last,  because  its  remaining  serves  to  center  the  hole. 
The  lower  soil  is  now  thrown  to  the  other  side  of  the  hole,  and 
when  depth  enough  is  reached,  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole 
is  loosened  up  to  the  depth  of  a  shovel-thrust,  without  removing 
it  from  the  hole.  A  shovelful  or  two  of  the  surface  soil  is  thrown 
into  the  center  of  the  hole,  being  allowed  to  remain  higher 
in  the  center,  because  this  generally  furnishes  a  cushion  about 
the  natural  shape  of  the  under  surface  of  the  root  system  of 
the  tree.  Now  replace  the  tree-setter  upon  its  end  pegs,  let  one 
man  hold  the  tree  with  its  stem  in  the  central  notch  in  the  setter, 
and  while  the  other  man  shovels  in  the  surface  earth  rather  slowly 
at  first,  the  man  who. holds  the  tree  with  one  hand  will  spread  out 
the  roots,  pulverize  and  pack  the  earth  around  them,  being  sure 
that  no  cavities  are  left  under  any  of  the  roots,  but  that  their  sur- 
faces everywhere  come  in  contact  with  the  soil,  and  that  they  spread 
out  as  widely  as  possible.  The  earth  is  being  continuously  put  in 
by  the  shoveler,  and  when  the  roots  are  covered  the  planter  steps 
in  the  hole  and  carefully  firms  the  soil  down  upon  the  roots  by 
tramping  (especially  at  the  cut  ends  of  the  roots  around  the  outer 
side  of  the  hole),  at  the  same  time  judging  of  the  perpendicularity 
of  the  tree  with  his  eye.  When  this  is  done,  both  men  use  their 
shovels  and  fill  up  the  hole  with  the  earth  taken  from  below,  being 
sure  to  leave  the  last  few  inches  at  the  surface  pulverized,  but 
untramped,  unless  the  soil  be  very  light  so  that  tramping  will  not 
overpack  it.  Some  one  said  long  ago  that  one  should  not  plant  a 
tree  as  he  does  a  post,  ramming  down  the  earth  to  the  very  top  of 
the  hole.  Many  trees  are  doubtless  ruined  by  over  zeal  in  this 
respect. 


SUGGESTIONS  ABOUT  PLANTING  -.-to 

The  shovel  has  been  mentioned  frequently  as  the  tool  to  be  used 
in  planting.  Where  the  soil  is  deeply  ploughed,  well  worked,  and 
free  from  stone,  the  shovel  is  the  most  rapid  tool.  Under  other  con- 
ditions the  long-handled  spade,  and  in  some  cases  the  long-handled 
spading  fork,  serves  admirably  in  loosening  the  soil  at  the  bottom 
of  the  holes  and  in  breaking  up  lumps  while  filling  in.  One  man 
with  a  shovel  or  spade,  and  the  other  with  the  fork,  make  a  good 
combination  in  this  respect. 

Planting  in  a  Furrow. — A  practice  which  has  been  largely  fol- 
lowed in  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  which  attains  greatest  speed 
and  cheapness  consists  in  laying  off  as  described  on  page  ninety- 
eight,  and  then  proceeding  with  a  heavy  listing  plow,  followed  by 
a  subsoil  plow  in  the  same  furrow.  The  trees  are  then  rapidly  set 
with  the  least  digging.  This  is  all  done  before  the  field  is  plowed. 
Plowing  immediately  follows  planting.  The  advantages  of  this 
method  are  ease  of  work  on  firm  ground  instead  of  a  plowed  surface, 
and  escape  of  injury  to  this  surface  by  men  and  teams  in  planting 
after  plowing. 

RANDOM  SUGGESTIONS 

The  roots  of  every  tree  should  be  examined  before  planting.  All 
large  root  ends  should  have  a  fresh,  clean  cut  with  a  sharp  knife  or 
shears.  Make  a  slanting  cut  with  the  cut  surface  on  the  underside 
of  the  root.  Where  a  root  is  mangled  or  bruised,  it  should  in  most 
cases  be  cut  back  to  a  sound  place. 

The  tree  should  be  placed  if  possible  with  the  same  side  toward 
the  sun  as  was  exposed  to  the  sun  in  the  nursery ;  at  all  events,  the 
wound  made  by  the  cutting  away  of  the  seedling  stock  above  the 
bud  should  be  at  the  north  or  northeast,  in  order  that  this  weak 
point  may  be  shaded  as  much  as  possible  from  the  afternoon  sun. 

If  the  roots  of  the  young  tree  grow  more  to  one  side  than  the 
other,  place  the  strongest  roots  toward  the  prevailing  wind. 

The  use  of  water  to  settle  the  earth  around  the  roots  is  some- 
times desirable  in  sections  where  the  rainfall  is  light  or  uncertain. 
Pour  in  the  wat^r  after  the  hand  work  in  spreading  the  roots  and  in 
pressing  the  soil  under  and  around  them  has  been  done  and  the  hole 
partly  filled.  When  the  water  has  soaked  away,  fill  the  hole  with 
fine  earth  zvithout  tramping.  In  irrigated  districts  leading  the  water 
along  the  line  of  trees  in  a  furrow  to  settle  the  ground  at  planting  is 
a  good  practice.  It  is  almost  essential  in  the  planting  of  evergreen 
trees  which  are  best  moved  during  the  dry  season.  In  early  planting 
in  parts  of  the  State  where  the  rainfall  is  abundant,  there  may  be 
no  need  of  water-settling;  in  late  planting,  however,  it  will  some- 
times be  found  of  advantage.  Puddling  the  roots,  or  dipping  them 
in  thin  mud  and  planting  with  this  mud  adhering,  is  governed  by 
much    the    same    conditions    as    water-settling;    it  may  insure  the 


114  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

growth  of  the  tree  when  otherwise  it  might  be  seriously  injured  by 
drouth.  With  puddled  roots  especial  care  should  also  be  taken  to 
leave  the  surface  loose  to  prevent  evaporation.  In  making  puddle, 
use  loamy  soil  and  never  adobe,  for  in  dry  time  the  latter  will  bake 
around  the  roots  and  may  kill  the  tree. 

The  Use  of  Manure. — Never  put  manure  in  the  hole  with  the 
tree.  Sometimes  the  injunction  is.  Never  put  anything  but  well- 
rotted  manure  in  the  hole.  It  is  better  to  put  none  of  any  kind. 
Manure  should  be  spread  upon  the  ground  after  planting.  The  rains 
then  leach  it  out  and  it  may  be  turned  under  in  the  spring  plowing. 
There  are,  however,  light  soils  in  the  drier  parts  of  the  state  where 
turning  under  manure  in  the  spring  is  a  disadvantage,  as  it  makes 
the  soil  too  porus  and  facilitates  evaporation.  On  such  soils,  extra 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  manure  thoroughly  decomposed 
by  composting,  as  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  on  fertilizers,  and 
all  applications  should  be  made  either  late  in  the  spring  to  act  as 
a  mulch  in  the  summer,  or  if  a  mulch  is  not  thought  desirable,  apply 
the  manure  in  the  fall  before  the  first  rains,  so  that  it  may  be  turned 
under  at  the  first  plowing  and  have  the  whole  winter  for  disintegra- 
tion. In  this  dry  climate  there  is  often  misapprehension,  especially 
among  newcomers,  as  to  what  is  well-rotted  manure.  They  take 
ths  scrapings  of  the  corral,  which  have  been  trampled  and  pul- 
verized, but  which,  having  been  kept  dry,  have  never  rotted.  When 
this  is  put  in  the  holes  with  the  tree  and  then  moistened  by  rainfall 
or  irrigation,  it  will  burn  the  tree,  the  first  sign  of  injury  being  the 
drying  up  of  the  leaves.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  safest  and  best  to  put 
nothing  but  well-pulverized  surface  soil  around  the  roots  of  the 
young  tree. 

Depth  of  Planting. — The  depth  to  which  trees  should  be  set  has 
always  been  a  matter  of  discord  among  the  planters.  The  safest  rule 
under  ordinary  circumstances  is  to  get  the  tree  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  same  depth  it  stood  in  the  nursery  row ;  that  is,  so  as  to  have  it 
stand  that  way  when  the  ground  has  settled,  or  the  surface  returned 
by  cultivation  to  its  normal  level.  In  planting  in  loose  soil  in  the 
drier  parts  of  the  State,  it  is  often  desirable  to  plant  rather  low, 
because  several  inches  depth  of  the  surface  soil  become  dry,  and  the 
roots  should  be  well  in  the  moist  layer.  But  if  irrigation  is  to  be 
practiced,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  water  level  will  rise  when 
the  soil  is  saturated  and  deep-planted  trees  are  apt  to  suffer.  The 
experience  of  recent  years  is  decidedly  against  deep  planting,  which 
used  to  be  advised  because  of  our  dry  climate.  Thousands  of  trees 
have  been  ruined  by  planting  too  deep  except  in  light  sandy  soil. 

Speed  in  Planting. — On  good  soil,  well  prepared,  trees  can  be 
put  in  rapidly  and  the  job  still  be  well  done.  It  is  reported  that  on 
one  occasion,  in  planting  almonds,  twenty  men  finished  sixty-four 


TREATMENT  OF  YOUNG  ORCHARD 


115 


acres  from  Friday  noon  to  Wednesday  night,  placing  the  stakes, 
digging  the  holes,  and  planting  the  trees.  This  would  be  almost 
three-quarters  of  an  acre  per  day  per  man.  In  planting  peaches 
and  apricots  an  average  of  one  hundred  trees  per  day  to  the  man 
has  been  attained.  On  the  mellow  loam,  in  another  case,  the  aver- 
age was  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  trees  to  the  man,  digging  holes 
two  feet  square  in  land  which  had  been  plowed  twelve  inches  deep. 
Such  work  is  only  possible  on  good  soil,  well  prepared,  and  by  men 
who  work  well  together. 

Mapping  and  Labeling. — Where  mixed  varieties  of  fruit  are 
planted,  the  orchard  should  be  mapped  as  soon  as  the  trees  are  set. 
A  good  durable  map  is  made  of  the  glazed  muslin,  such  as  carpenters 
and  architects  use  for  their  drawings.  The  map  can  easily  be  drawn 
to  a  scale  by  using  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  represent  a  foot.  After 
the  map  is  made,  it  can  be  rolled  on  a  broom  stick  and  easily  pre- 
served. With  such  a  record,  the  grower  need  not  care  what  becomes 
of  the  labels,  as  he  can  locate  a  variety  any  time  by  its  row  and  tree 
number.  If,  however,  one  desires  labels,  let  them  be  made  in  this 
way:  Take  a  piece  of  common  sheet  zinc  five  inches  wide.  '  Across 
this,  cut  pieces  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide  at  one  end  and  taper- 
ing to  a  point  at  the  other.  Near  the  wider  end  write  plainly  with  a 
common  lead-pencil  the  name  of  the  variety.  This  will  get  brighter 
by  exposure  to  the  weather.  The  small  end  may  be  coiled  around 
the  branch  of  the  tree ;  it  will  yield  as  the  tree  grows  and  will  do 
no  injury.  Such  labels  will  last  for  a  long  time.  Labels  attached 
by  a  cord  or  wire  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  trees  are  set,  for 
they  are  apt  to  be  forgotten  and  the  tree  seriously  injured  by  the 
cutting  in  of  the  ligature.  Even  when  labels  are  used  the  map  is 
the  only  surety,  because  any  kind  of  a  label  is  apt  to  be  lost  by  acci- 
dent or  through  malice  or  mischief  of  intruders. 

Mulching. — Although  early-planted  trees  on  deep  soils  in  regions 
of  sufficient  rainfall  need  only  good  cultivation,  after  planting,  there 
are  cases  in  which  mulching  is  desirable.  Various  light  materials 
may  be  used  for  a  mulch,  but  nothing  is  better  than  well-rotted 
straw,  in  which  fermentation  has  killed  all  weed  seed.  Apply  it  to 
a  distance  of  two  feet  around  the  tree,  and  to  a  depth  of  not  less  than 
six  inches.  It  is  best  done  as  soon  as  the  tree  is  planted,  and  is  to 
be  especially  recommended  when  late  planting  is  practiced.  Even 
in  localities  of  light  rainfall,  if  the  trees  are  well  mulched  early  in 
the  winter,  irrigation  may  be  unnecessary  for  the  young  deciduous 
tree.  Trees  planted  very  late  in  the  spring  may,  by  using  great 
care  and  mulching  well,  make  as  great  a  growth  as  those  set  out 
early  in  winter.  This  should  not  be  an  excuse  for  late  planting,  but 
where  late  planting  is  necessary,  mulching  will  help  the  trees  to  pull 
through.  It  is  a  far  easier  way  of  keeping  the  ground  moist  than  by 
irrigating,  but  is  not  a  substitute  for  it  where  systematic  irrigation 


j^lQ  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

is  necessary,  though  irrigation  may  often  be  lessened,  and  in  some 
cases  obviated,  by  extra  cultivation  or  mulching,  at  least  until  the 
trees  come  into  bearing. 

Guarding  Against  Sunburn. — Newly-set  trees  should  be  pro- 
tected against  sunburn.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  winding  strips 
of  burlap  from  old  grain  sacks  spirally  around  the  stems  beginning 
just  below  the  ground  surface  to  the  points  where  the  young  shoots 
will  appear.  When  these  start  the  strip  can  be  loosened  and 
rewound  so  as  to  protect  the  bark  between  the  shoots.  The  top  can 
be  fastened  with  a  stitch  or  two  with  a  twine  needle.  Manufactured 
''tree  protectors"  of  paper  or  rushes  which  are  readily  adjusted 
around  the  trees  are  now  largely  sold.  Whitewash  made  according 
to  the  formula  at  the  close  of  Chapter  IX  is  a  good  protection  from 
sunburn.  For  young  trees,  however,  it  should  be  made  with  air- 
slacked  lime,  which  has  lost  some  of  its  causticity.  Another  white- 
wash, which  has  been  largely  used  for  young  trees,  consists  of  four 
ounces  of  whale  oil  soap  dissolved  in  each  gallon  of  water,  Spanish 
whiting  being  stirred  in  to  give  the  solution  a  paint-like  consistency. 
Millions  of  trees  have  perished  in  this  State,  and  as  many  more  been 
condemned  to  sickly  lives,  because  of  sunburn,  and  borers  which 
seek  the  injured  bark  for  entrance.  Pruning  has  much  to  do  with 
saving  trees  from  this  evil,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  proper  connec- 
tion, but  in  the  hotter  parts  of  the  State,  the  first  precaution  should 
be  to  shade  the  bark  of  the  young  tree  with  some  artificial  protec- 
tion. 

Cutting  Back  at  Planting. — Whatever  idea  the  grower  may  have 
as  to  shaping  his  tree,  it  must  be  cut  back  when  planted.  Lifting 
from  the  nursery  has  removed  a  considerable  part  of  the  root  system 
of  the  young  tree  and  the  top  must  be  reduced  accordingly.  The 
planter  who  dislikes  to  sacrifice  the  fine  top  will  sacrifice  future 
growth  and  vigor  by  retaining  it.  The  tree  may  struggle  through 
and  regain  strength,  but  it  will  for  years  be  smaller  than  if  it  had 
been  properly  cut  back  at  planting.  If  the  moisture  supply  should 
be  short  the  tree  may  die  the  first  summer  which  would  have  sur- 
vived if  differently  treated  at  planting.  The  manner  of  cutting  back 
depends  somewhat  upon  the  style  of  pruning  to  be  followed  after- 
ward, as  will  be  considered  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XII 
PRUNING  TREES  AND  THINNING  FRUIT 

It  is  not  intended  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  general  theo- 
ries of  pruning.  The  reader  desiring  to  pursue  them  is  referred  to 
the  abundant  literature  on  the  subject  in  Eastern  and  European 
treatises.  The  effort  to  approve  or  condemn  these  theories  by  con- 
sidering them  in  the  light  of  California  experience  and  observation 
might  lead  to  interesting  conclusions,  but  it  has  no  place  in  a  work 
aiming  merely  at  an  exposition  of  what  appears  to  be  .the  most  satis- 
factory practice  in  California  fruit  growing.  It  will  be  found  that 
this  practice  varies  somewhat  in  the  different  regions  of  California, 
sometimes  in  degree,  sometimes  in  kind,  because  of  different  local 
conditions,  and  it  might  be  found  that  nearly  all  reasonably  theories 
of  pruning  could  be  verified  in  California  experience. 

Pruning  in  California  is  at  present  almost  exclusively  a  shaping 
process.  Our  fruit  trees  are  naturally  so  prone  to  bear  fruit  that 
pruning  to  produce  fruitfulness  is  seldom  thought  of,  and  still  more 
rarely  practiced,  while  pruning  to  reduce  bearing  wood,  and  thus 
decrease  the  burden  of  the  tree,  is  quite  widely  done,  to  take  the 
place,  in  part,  of  thinning  out  the  fruit.  Pruning  to  restore  vigor  to 
the  tree,  as  in  cutting  it  back  to  induce  a  new  wood  growth,  is  also 
rather  a  rare  proceeding,  but  probably  could  be  much  more  widely 
employed  to  advantage.  We  prune,  then,  for  shape  and  for  the 
many  practical  advantages  which  adhere  in  the  form  now  prevailing 
in  California  orchards.  Some  of  these  advantages  are  peculiar  to  our 
climate ;  others  we  share  with  those  who  advocate  a  similar  form 
elsewhere. 

Our  best  orchards  of  the  same  fruits  in  adjacent  localities  are 
almost  identical  in  form  and  general  appearance  of  the  trees,  and 
those  more  distant  differ  chiefly  in  the  extent  to  which  the  same 
principles  are  applied.  And  this  is  not  because  the  trees  are  allowed 
to  follow  their  natural  inclination,  which  should  secure  resemblance, 
but  because  their  natural  bent  is  resolutely  conquered  by  agreement 
of  growers  that  they  know  what  is  good  for  the  tree ;  and  this  sub- 
stantial unanimity  is  the  result  of  the  experience  of  the  last  fifty-five 
years.  People  possessed  of  the  art  temperament  sometimes  com- 
plain of  the  depressing  uniformity  and  artificiality  of  orchard-tree 
shapes  in  California.  They  are  apt  to  lament  the  fact  that  system- 
atic orcharding  destroys  the  picturesqueness  of  tree-growth.  They 
should  understand  that  such  conception  of  a  fruit  tree  has  no  place 
in  commercial  fruit  growing.    The  producing  tree  is  the  result  of  the 

117 


j;j^g  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

conception  of  an  agency  to  serve  certain  purposes.  The  orchardist 
does  not  prusue  uniformity  merely  for  its  own  sake,  but  rather  for 
the  purpose  it  serves,  and  the  fact  that  many  thinking  men  have 
practically  agreed  upon  a  certain  form  as  an  ideal  of  producing 
ability  is  demonstration  that  such  form  is,  at  least,  approximately 
correct.  There  is  an  industrial  conception  of  a  tree,  which  is  neces- 
sarily and  essentially  different  from  an  art  conception  of  pic- 
turesqueness  based  upon  the  feral  type.  The  wild  tree  is  rude  and 
crude  from  a  cultural  point  of  view. 


PRACTICAL   PURPOSES   OF    PRUNING 

One  of  the  first  things  for  the  beginner  to  undertake  as  he 
approaches  the  practice  of  pruning  trees  and  vines  is  to  form  a  good 
idea  of  the  purposes  to  be  served.  Imitation  is  not  the  foundation 
of  intelligent  pruning,  though  it  yields  many  valuable  suggestions. 
Satisfactory  work  rests  upon  a  correct  understanding  of  the  reasons 
for  each  act  and  to  the  attainment  of  this,  all  study,  observation  and 
experience  should  tend.  Possessing  this,  one  can  proceed  capably, 
modifying  method  to  meet  condition,  and  producing  desirable 
results.  Receive  all  suggestions  and  then  go  quietly  to  the  tree  and 
study  your  problem  in  its  shade.  The  tree  is  the  best  revelator  of 
its  needs.  Some  of  the  best  pruners  in  California  are  men  who  were 
untrained  to  horticulture  before  they  entered  upon  their  orchard 
work.  Reading,  discussion,  systematic  instruction  are  all  valuable. 
They  save  much  time  and  many  errors,  but  recourse  to  the  tree 
aflfords  the  sovereign  test  of  attainment. 

These  may  be  counted  among  the  practical  purposes  to  be 
attained  by  pruning  in  California :  (a)  Convenience  of  the  grower; 
(b)  health  and  strength  of  the  tree ;  (c)  regulation  of  heat  and 
light;  (d)  attainment  of  strong  bearing  wood;  (e)  attainment  of 
size  in  fruit ;  (/)  promotion  of  regular  bearing.  Examine  trees  with 
reference  to  their  embodiment  of  these  characters  and  one  can 
hardly  fail  to  secure  rays  of  light  upon  the  subject  of  pruning  which 
seems  dark  to  so  many. 

Convenience. — Trees  which  branch  near  the  ground  are  most 
quickly  and  cheaply  handled  in  all  the  operations  of  pruning,  spray- 
ing, fruit-thinning  and  picking.  Low  trees  with  obliquely-rising 
branches  are  more  easily  cultivated  than  any  form  with  horizontal 
branches,  unless  the  head  is  carried  so  high  that  the  animals  pass 
easily  under  the  tree.  To  do  this  sacrifices  all  the  other  conven- 
iences and  economies  which  actually  determine  profit,  and  is  really 
out  of  the  question  from  a  commercial  point  of  view.  Sometimes  it 
does  not  pay  to  pick  some  fruits  at  a  certain  distance  above  the 
ground,  when  picking  at  half  that  distance  yields  a  profit. 


REASONS    FOR    PRUNING 


119 


Health  and  Strength. — It  is  imperative  in  most  parts  of  this  State 
that  the  sunshine  be  not  allowed  to  touch  the  bark  during  the  heat 
of  the  day:  This  protection  is  secured  even  for  young  trees  by  low 
branching  and  encouragement  of  small,  low  laterals.  The  low  tree 
with  properly  spaced  branches  attains  superior  strength  by  virtue 
of  thick,  strongly  knit,  short  growth  between  branches,  and  by  its 
strong,  stiff,  obliquely-rising  growth  sustains  weight  which  brings 
horizontal  branches  to  the  ground,  and  thus  even  high-headed  trees 
are  liable  to  continually  increasing  interference  with  cultivation,  and 
the  desperate  grower  has  to  raise  the  head  of  his  tree  higher  into  the 
air  and  farther  above  the  profit  line,  while  at  the  same  time  he  ren- 
ders it  more  liable  to  sunburn,  to  bark-binding,  and  to  unthrift  by 
forcing  the  sap  to  flow  an  unnecessary  distance  and  through  wood 
and  bark  which  impede  its  movement.  Besides,  a  low  tree  escapes 
stress  by  strong  winds  which  a  high  tree  invites  and  at  the  same 
time  is  less  able  to  withstand.  Pruning  for  health  and  strength  of 
tree  also  includes  the  removal  of  unthrifty  or  diseased  parts,  which 
are  not  only  an  incumbrance  to  the  tree  but  may  communicate  to 
other  parts  the  causes  of  their  ill  condition. 

Heat  and  Light. — The  maintenance  of  strong  bearing  wood  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  tree  is  conditioned  upon  the  proper  pruning 
of  the  top  of  the  tree.  How  far  the  upper  levels  or  the  shade-layer 
of  the  tree  can  be  safely  opened,  depends  upon  the  local  climate  in 
each  fruit  region.  The  rule  must  be  the  higher  the  summer  heat 
the  denser  the  tree;  the  lower  the  heat  the  thinner  the  tree;  but 
everywhere  the  proper  condition  of  openness  must  be  constantly 
in  view  in  pruning.  Not  alone  must  this  be  done  to  maintain  thrifty 
growth  below,  but  it  is  also  essential  to  the  best  growth  and  ripening 
of  the  fruit  in  the  lower  and  interior  parts  of  the  tree.  Fruit  inferior 
in  size,  color  and  quality  results,  in  part,  from  lack  of  pruning  to 
regulate  the  admission  of  light  and  heat,  sometimes  one,  sometimes 
both,  to  the  shaded  portion  of  the  tree. 

Bearing  Wood. — Good  fruit  develops  on  good  bearing  wood  and  < 
good  bearing  wood  is  the  product  of  proper  degrees  of  light  and 
heat,  as  has  just  been  urged.  But  bearing  wood  in  the  case  of  some 
fruits  is  new  wood,  and  reduction  of  old  wood  for  the  purpose  of 
forcing  the  growth  of  new  wood  must  be  constantly  in  mind.  Re- 
newal is  more  or  less  a  consideration  with  all  trees,  and  especially 
the  securing  of  strong  new  wood.  This  is  a  point  upon  which  close 
study  of  the  bearing  tree  will  yield  most  satisfactory  suggestions. 

Size  of  Fruit. — The  size  of  fruit,  providing  the  tree  is  healthy  and 
vigorous,  depends  upon  the  character  and  amount  of  bearing  wood 
which  the  tree  is  allowed  to  carry.  Removal  of  part  of  the  fruit 
burden  is  done  by  thinning  after  it  is  well  set,  but  this  labor  should 
always  be  minimized  by  antecedent  pruning,  which  aims  to  retain 
more  or  less  bearing  wood  according  to  the  vigor,  size  and  bearing 


J20  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

habit  of  the  tree.  Thinning  out  of  bearing  shoots  and  spurs,  when 
either  are  clearly  seen  to  be  in  excess,  should  be  the  constant  study 
of  the  pruner. 

Regular  Bearing. — This  point  is  largely  involved  in  the  preceding 
and  affords  an  additional  incentive.  Regulating  the  amount  of  fruit 
borne  in  one  year  may  involve  the  profit  of  two  years,  because  a 
tree  may  not  be  able  to  produce  an  excessive  amount  of  fruit  and 
perfect  good  fruit  buds  for  the  following  year.  It  may  generally 
make  buds  which  will  bloom,  but  not  always  that.  It  it  does  make 
the  bloom,  it  is  no  guaranty  that  the  bloom  will  be  strong  and 
eflPective  for  bearing.  Consequently,  pruning  for  reasonable  amount 
of  bearing  should  always  be  borne  in  view  and  should  be  practiced 
at  the  close  of  the  year  of  non-bearing  with  particular  diligence,  if 
the  alternate  year  bearing  habit  is  to  be  broken  up. 

The  foregoing  are  among  the  practical  purposes  to  be  served  in 
pruning.  There  are  others,  but  these  will  suffice  to  emphasize  a 
single  point,  and  that  is,  that  pruning  can  not  be  compressed  into  a 
single  formula,  nor  can  one  learn  it  by  a  recipe.  There  are  various 
ends  to  attain ;  they  may  be  attained  in  different  ways,  although  it 
is  not  strange  that  substantial  agreement  in  methods  does  largely 
prevail.  It  is  better  to  try  to  understand  the  purposes  than  to  mem- 
orize the  formulae.  Get  the  tree  and  its  interest  clearly  in  the  mind; 
have  an  ideal  toward  which  to  work ;  be  more  interested  in  why  a 
neighbor  prunes  in  a  certain  than  how  he  does  it.  Learn  constantly 
by  all  available  means,  and  at  the  same  time  study  the  visible  forms 
and  aim  to  understand  their  fullest  significance. 


FORM  OF  TREE  BEST  SUITED  TO  CALIFORNIA 
CONDITIONS 

The  form  of  deciduous  fruit  tree  which  prevails  with  singular 
uniformity  all  over  the  State  is  the  "vase,"  or  "goblet,"  or  "wine- 
glass" form,  all  these  terms  signifying  a  similar  shape.  There  are 
different  ways  in  which  this  form  is  secured  and  maintained  in 
different  parts  of  the  State,  and  with  different  fruits,  which  will  be 
especially  noted  in  the  chapters  devoted  to  these  fruits. 

The  mainspring  of  success  in  California  is  to  grow  low  trees. 
Low  is  a  term  admitting  of  degrees,  it  is  true,  and  may  imply  a 
trunk  six  inches  up  to  one  or  two  feet,  in  the  clear.  In  addition  to 
the  general  advantages  of  low-trained  trees  which  have  been 
described,  there  are  special  reasons  for  this  form  in  California.  Hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  trees  have  been  destroyed  by  the  exposure 
of  a  long,  bare  trunk  to  the  rays  of  the  afternoon  sun.  The  sun- 
burned sides  have  given  the  conditions  desired  by  borers,  and 
destruction  has  quickly  followed.  Sometimes  young  trees  have  not 
survived  their  first  season  in  the  orchard,  because  of  burned  bark;  or 


THE  POPULAR  CALIFORNIA  FORM  ;£21 

this,  with  the  added  injury  by  the  borers.  It  is  also  found  by  Cali- 
fornia experience  that  growth  is  more  vigorous  in  the  branches 
when  they  emerge  near  the  ground.  Even  where  actual  burning 
may  not  occur  the  travel  of  the  sap  through  the  longer  distance  of 
trunk  is  undesirable.  It  is  believed,  also,  that  benefit  results  from 
shading  of  the  ground  at  the  base  of  the  trees,  by  reducing  evapora- 
tion, and  by  maintaining  a  temperature  of  soil  better  suited  to  vig- 
orous root-growth. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  reasons,  the  fact  is  indisputable,  the 
higher  the  prevailing  summer  temperature,  and  the  greater  the 
aridity,  the  lower  should  the  trees  be  headed.  Trees  which  will  do 
well  in  the  central  and  upper  coast  region  and  adjacent  to  the  bay 
of  San  Francisco,  with  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches  of  clear 
trunk,  would  dwindle  and  probably  perish  in  the  heated  valleys  in 
all  parts  of  the  State.  In  such  situations,  both  north  and  south,  the 
best  practice  is  to  head  the  tree  fifteen,  twelve,  and  even  some  hold 
as  low  as  six  inches  from  the  ground.  There  will  always  be  some 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  detail,  but  the  necessity  of  making  the 
trunk  short  enough  to  be  effectually  shaded  by  the  foliage  is  admit- 
ted by  all  growers. 

Characteristic  of  the  California  Vase  Form. — This  vase  form  is 
a  product  of  French  ingenuity  in  the  training  of  dwarf  trees,  but  it 
has  undergone  very  marked  modification  in  California,  losing  much 
of  the  accuracy  of  its  outline  and  gaining  vastly  in  speed  of  work 
and  in  bearing  capacity  of  tree  without  sacrificing  any  practical 
value  which  adheres  in  the  design. 

The  California  vase  form  dispenses  with  the  central  stem  or 
trunk  at  a  certain  short  distance  above  the  ground,  but  this  is  not 
done  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  hollow  or  open-center  tree,  which 
is  a  leading  characteristic  of  the  old  European  vase-form.  The  few 
branches  which  are  desired  to  grow  from  the  short  stem  are  pruned 
when  the  tree  is  young  to  induce  successive  branching  with  short 
interspaces.  At  each  cutting  the  aim  is  to  get  two  branches  from 
one,  and  nearly  as  possible  of  equal  vigor,  so  the  California  tree  does 
not,  exccjjt,  of  course,  in  occasional  instances,  show  the  outline  of 
a  leader  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  but  there  is  a  succession  of 
branchings,  turned  this  way  or  that  by  the  skilful  pruner,  occupying 
available  air  space,  distributing  the  weight  so  it  comes  more  nearly 
over  the  center  of  gravity  and  at  the  same  time  knitting  the  fibers 
of  the  branch  so  that  the  weight  of  the  fruit  is  well  sustained.  This 
idea,  however,  is  not  allowed  to  go  so  far  as  to  wholly  close  the 
interior  of  the  tree,  but  to  retain  such  degree  of  open  interior  as  is 
found  desirable.  When  the  tree  is  laden  with  fruit,  the  weight  nat- 
urally expands  the  top  quite  enough  to  admit  the  sunlight  without 
exposing  either  the  fruit  or  the  branches  to  danger  of  burning.  Thus 
it  appears  that  instead  of  the  true  vase  or  wine-glass,  with  hollow 


122 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO    GROW    THEM 


interior  and  thin  walls,  we  have  the  general  exterior  outline  of  this 
model,  but  give  a  good  part  of  the  central  area  of  the  figure  to  bear- 
ing shoots,  and  thus  secure  a  large  bearing  surface  with  well- 
strengthened  supports. 

It  has  been  found  that  this  many-branching  form,  developed 
upon  a  few  main  branches  well  placed  upon  the  trunk,  gives  a 
stronger  tree  than  can  be  had  by  growing  a  considerable  number  of 
leaders,  all  starting  from  near  the  point  where  the  tree  was  headed 
at  planting.  Such  leaders  crowd  each  other  at  the  point  of  emer- 
gence from  the  stem,  and  when  laden  with  fruit,  sway  outward  and 
break  out  at  this  point.  A  vastly  stronger  tree  is  secured  by  start- 
ing but  four  or  five  branches  from  the  low  trunk  and  letting  them 
emerge  from  different  sides  of  the  stem,  and  at  different  levels. 
Thus  each  main  attachment  to  the  stem  has  abundant  room,  and  the 
wood  enlarges  symmetrically  and  solidly.  The  expansion  of  the  top 
is  attained  by  the  branching  which  follows  the  cutting  back  of  suc- 
ceeding years.  Starting  branches  from  nearly  the  same  level  on  the 
stem  has  been  the  occasion  of  great  losses  of  overladen  trees,  and 
quite  a  considerable  recourse  to  strengthening  up  weak  trees  by 
running  bolts  through  from  side  to  side  at  the  points  where  experi- 
ence shows  breakage  is  likely  to  occur.  In  this  respect  it  is  now 
clearly  seen  that  the  practice  which  was  widely  adopted  a  few  years 


Forms  of  head  resulting  from  cutting  back. 

Twelve-year-old  apple  tree  in  the  writer's  garden  in  Berkeley,  showing  forms 
of  head  resulting  from  cutting  back  for  greater  and  less  spacing  of  main  branches 
at    planting. 

ago  of  beginning  with  a  very  short  stem  and  using  the  three  or  four 
adjacent  buds  nearest  the  point  to  which  the  tree  was  cut  back  at 
planting  is  defective.     It  is  much  better  not  to  cut  back  so  far  at 


THK    KFFECTS    OF    PRUNING 


123 


Results  of  cutting  back  to  longer  and  shorter  stems. 
Apricot  and  cherry  trees  twelve  years  old,   showing  results  of  cutting  back  to 
longer  and  shorter  stems  at  planting,  in  1897.  as  an  experiment  in  head  form. 


124 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


planting,  but  to  leave  a  longer  trunk,  keep  a  greater  distance  be- 
tween the  main  branches  and  still  have  the  lowest  branch  as  near 
the  ground  as  before,  thus  securing  a  tree  which  is  practically  as 
low  as  that  secured  by  the  old  method  of  starting.  This  point  will 
be  enforced  by  illustrations. 

HOW  TO  SECURE  THE  DESIRABLE  FORM 

For  the  benefit  of  the  inexperienced  reader,  it  will  be  well  to 
illustrate  the  steps  by  which  the  form  of  tree  found  so  generally 
desirable  is  to  be  attained. 

Cutting  Back  at  Planting. — This  has  been  shown  on  page  116  to 
be  essential  to  strong  growth  of  the  transplanted  tree.  It  is  also  the 
prime  act  in  securing  a  tree  with  a  low  head  and  strong  branches, 
formerly  trees  were  cut  back  farther  than  desirable  and  the  branches 
allowed  to  crowd  each  other,  as  has  just  been  stated.  It  is  better  to 
retain  twenty-four  inches  of  stem  than  twelve  inches — providing 
care  is  taken  during  the  first  summer  to  prevent,  by  pinching,  the 
growth  of  too  many  branches  near  together.  Allow  those  to  grow 
which  are  more  distant  from  each  other  on  the  stem  and  pinch  the 
intervening  shoots.  In  this  way  one  can  have  the  lowest  branch 
at  six  inches  from  the  ground  in  the  hot  valleys  if  desired,  or  twelve 
inches  in  the  coast  valleys,  and  the  highest  branch  at  eighteen  or 


Pruning  for  branch  spacing. 

Yearling  apple  marked  to  cut  back  for  greater 
or  less  space  between  main  branches;  also  first 
year's  growth  from  each  beginning  marked  for  first 
winter  pruning. 


RULES     FOR    WINTER    PRUNING 


125 


L.. ,„.,.. „ 

^Khe  main  branches  which  was  formerly  allowed,  and  it  is  of  vast 
^Radvantage  to  the  strength  of  the  tree.  The  illustrations  of  this  fact 
^■are  from  trees  planted  by  the  writer  in  1887  to  test  this  matter.  At 
^Bthis  date  they  are  large  trees  and  show  the  forms  of  heads  restdting 
^Kfrom  different  spacing  of  branches  on  the  young  trees  during  the 
i^first  summer's  growth. 

First,  then,  cut  back  the  tree  just  after  planting,  as  shown  in  the 
engraving,  deciding  first  at  what  height  you  wish  your  trees  to  form 
heads,  and  cut  them  all  back  as  uniformly  as  possible  and  still  secure 
a  good  bud  just  below  the  point  of  cutting.  To  preserve  these  buds 
the  trees  should  be  handled  carefully  while  removing  from  the 
nursery  and  during  planting. 

If  the  tree  has  already  grown  laterals  where  the  head  is  desired, 
three  or  four  of  these  properly  placed  on  the  stem  may  be  selected 
to  form  the  main  branches,  shortened  in  to  the  sound  bud  nearest  the 
stem,  and  other  laterals,  not  desired  to  form  the  head,  removed. 
This  treatment  is  shown  in  the  engraving  of  a  young  peach  tree  well 
branched  in  the  nursery.  If  all  the  laterals  on  the  young  tree  have 
started  out  above  where  the  head  is  desired,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case,  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  the  whole  top,  and  usually 
others  will  start  below  afterwards.  If  there  are  no  buds  visible  on 
the  stem  at  the  place  where  the  head  is  desired.,  the  choice 
must  be  made  between  heading  the  tree  higher  up,  where  the 
buds  are,  or  cutting  back  without  regard  to  buds,  trusting 
to  the  development  of  latent  buds  at  the  right  place,  or  to 
the  growth  of  a  shoot  from  below,  which  can  be  cut  back  to  form  a 
head  the  following  year.  It  is  for  this  reason,  among  others,  that 
planters  prefer  a  yearling  tree  which  has  not  branched,  but  has  good 
buds  all  along  the  stem.  Peaches  and  apricots  usually  branch  in 
the  nursery  but  usually  have  dormant  buds  at  the  bases  of  such 
branches  which  can  be  employed  in  making  new  growth  where  it  is 
desired. 

After  cutting  back  at  planting,  the  shoots  desired  to  form  the 
head  are  allowed  to  make  their  full  growth  without  interference. 
All  shoots  not  desired  for  branches  are  pinched  off  after  growing  out 
two  or  three  inches,  leaving  a  bunch  of  leaves  to  shade  the  trunk 
and  contribute  to  its  stouter  growth.  Constant  watchfulness  is 
necessary  to  pinch  off  undesirable  branches  all  the  first  summer. 

First  Pruning. — In  the  winter  following  planting,  the  shoots  of 
the  previous  season's  growth  are  cut  back  to  about  ten  or  twelve 
inches  from  their  junction  with  the  stem.  Some  prefer  to  cut 
shorter,  but  this  is  apt  to  huddle  the  branches  too  close  together 
when  they  get  old  and  stout.  Growers,  however,  do  not  agree  on  the 
exact  length  which  these  future  main  branches  should  be  left  at  the 
first  pruning. 


-j^2g  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

If,  during  the  first  summer's  growth,  all  shoots  except  the  num- 
ber desired  to  form  the  head  have  been  pinched  back,  the  first  winter 
pruning  consists  only  in  cutting  back  the  main  branches.  If  laterals 
have  grown  on  the  parts  of  these  branches  which  are  to  be  left  on  the 
tree,  they  should  be  cut  back  to  a  bud  or  two.  This  is  better  than 
removing  them  entirely,  for  the  next  summer  they  will  be  pinched 
after  throwing  out  a  few  leaves  to  shade  and  thicken  tlie  branches, 
just  as  the  short  growths  left  the  previous  summer  serve  the  main 
stem. 

Second  Pruning. — During  the  second  summer  it  is  usual  to  allow 
two  branches  to  grow  from  each  of  the  main  branches  left  at  the  pre- 
vious winter  pruning,  and  to  pinch  off  all  others,  as  described. 
These  branches  are  allowed  to  run  out  their  full  growth,  except 
where  excessive  growth  is  made,  and  then  it  is  repressed  by  summer 
pruning.  This  is  done  with  the  apricot  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
State,  as  will  be  considered  at  length  in  the  chapter  on  that  fruit. 
Usually,  however,  the  main  branches  are  untouched  during  the  sec- 
ond summer's  growth  unless  some  are  running  out  so  far  as  to  make 
the  tree  lop-sided.  During  the  following  wmter  the  main  branches 
are  cut  back  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  growth  they  have 
made,  and  if  too  many  strong  laterals  have  grown  below  this  point, 
some  are  shortened,  others  are  removed  entirely  where  they  are  apt 
to  cross  or  crowd  each  other  or  to  interfere  with  cultivation.  It  is 
not  desirable,  however,  that  all  small  growth  should  be  cleanly 
removed.  Some  of  these  small  shoots  will  bear  a  little  fruit  and  the 
leaf  action  is  in  any  case  desirable  as  a  contributor  to  the  strength  of 
the  larger  branches  to  which  they  are  attached.  Besides,  they  serve 
to  shade  the  bark  from  sunburn. 

Third  Pruning. — When  the  tree  reaches  its  third  winter  pruning, 
its  form  is  well  outlined,  and  early-bearing  trees  like  the  peach,  apri- 
cot, almond,  Japanese  plum,  etc.,  will  give  the  grower  a  respectable 
crop  the  next  season.  To  bear  this  crop  greater  care  should  be 
taken  at  the  third  winter  pruning  to  leave  the  small  laterals  low 
down  on  the  main  branches,  for  on  them,  clustered  close  in  the  head 
of  the  tree,  most  of  the  first  crop  will  be  found.  Though  some  trees, 
as  stated,  do  bear  earlier  than  the  third  summer,  the  fruit  is  not 
usually  considered  of  commercial  account  until  the  third  summer. 
An  engraving  is  given  of  a  peach  tree  just  after  its  second  winter 
pruning.  It  is  a  very  good  representative  of  the  vase-form  of  a  tree 
as  grown  in  California.  It  has  four  main  branches,  each  issuing 
from  a  different  point  on  the  stem,  each  permitted  to  carry  two 
main  branches,  which  are  not  arranged  around  the  circumference, 
but  some  of  them  tending  toward  the  center.  At  the  third  pruning 
more  shoots  have  been  left  than  are  required  by  the  rule,  for,  start- 
ing with  four  main  branches,  there  are  usually  sixteen  left  at  the 
third  pruning. 


STRONG    TREES    FROM     A    RIGHT     START 


127 


^i  hree  winter  primings  of  deciduous  trees  usually  establish  their 
lermanent  form,  and  subsequent  pruning  is  chiefly  directed  toward 
he  retention  of  that  form ;  for  strength  of  branch  and  stem ;  for 
enewal    of    bearing  wood;    for   regulation   of    amount  of    bear- 
ng  wood;      for   relative    light   and    shade,   and     for   convenience 
m    cultivation    and    other  orchard   work.     Naturally,   these   ends 
are  sought  according  to  the  needs  and  habits  of  different  fruits, 
and  the  methods  of  attaining  them  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapters 
treating  of  these  fruits.     There  are,  however,  certain  general  con- 
siderations which  are  proper  in  this  connection : 

Pruning  during  the  dormancy  of  the  tree  induces  greater  growth 
of  wood  during  the  following  summer;  pruning  during  the  active 
period  reduces  wood  growth  and  promotes  fruit-bearing.  The 
amount  of  wood  removed  during  the  dormant  period  will  make  the 
summer  growth  of  wood  proportionately  stronger.  Whether  the 
total  weight  of  wood  growth  would  be  greater  may  be  questioned, 
but  the  effective  wood  growth  is  certainly  greater.  Whether  the 
feet  of  new  wood  grown  on  a  peach  tree  cut  back  to  stumps  in  the 
winter  would  be. greater  in  weight  than  all  the  inches  of  growth 
which  would  be  scattered  all  over  the  surface  of  the  tree  if  not  cut 


V 


V 


Yearling  peach.         Cut  back  at  planting.         First  summer's  growth  in  the 

orchard. 

These   sketches,   and   those  on  pages   98   and   99,    represent   the  progress  of  the 
peach  tree  from  a  branched  yearling  to  bearing  form  entering  the  third  summer. 


128 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


back,  may  be  doubted,  but  the  new  growth  secured  by  cutting  back 
will  be  of  immense  vigor  and  the  following  year  will  bear  large  fruit, 
while  the  new  growth  on  the  tree  not  cut  back  will  be  thin  and  short 
and  the  fruit  absent  or  indifferent.  The  weaker  the  tree  or  the 
branch  or  the  twig  of  the  tree,  the  greater  the  part  of  it  to  be 
removed  when  dormant  to  get  the  stronger  new  growth. 

In  the  case  of  fruit  trees  in  vigorous  growth  pruning  during  the 
active  period  or  allowing  the  wood  to  go  uncut  during  the  dormant 
period,  having  the  same  effect,  viz.,  the  promotion  of  fruiting.    Some 


First  winter  pruning. 


Second  summer  growth  in  orchard. 


trees,  like  apricots  and  peaches,  which  bear  upon  new  laterals,  will 
bear  fruit  even  though  heavily  winter-cut,  if  these  small  laterals 
are  retained  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  main  branches.  Some  other 
trees,  like  the  prune,  which  bear  on  spurs,  will  delay  the  formation 
of  spurs  if  heavily  winter-cut.  These  two  facts  suggest  two  diverse 
policies  in  pruning  bearing  trees :  A  peach  tree  unpruned  will 
reduce  its  crop  for  lack  or  weakness  of  new  laterals ;  a  prune  tree  too 
severely  winter-pruned  will  reduce  its  crop  for  lack  of  old  spurs. 
Again,  some  fruits,  or  varieties  of  fruits,  bear  chiefly  upon  the  tips, 
others  chiefly  upon  the  lateral  spurs ;  shortening  one  reduces  the 
crop  largely ;  shortening  the  other  may  increase  the  marketable 
crop  by  decreasing  the  aggregate  number.  These  and  other  similar 
facts  suggest  that  pruning  bearing  trees,  to  be  intelligently  pursued, 


HOW    TO     PRUNE     FOR    PJFFECTS 


129 


must  be  accompanied  with  the  fullest  possible  knowledge  of  the 
bearing  habit  of  the  fruit  or  variety  thereof. 

Cutting  back  or  "shortening  in"  should  be  done  in  a  way  which 
will  reduce  the  burst  of  new  shoots  near  the  cut.  This  is  measurably 
secured  by  always  cutting  the  branch  at  a  strong  lateral,  because  the 
sap  flow  into  this  lateral  prevents  undue  pressure  and  forcing  of 
latent  buds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cut.  For  this  reason  the  cutting 
back  of  all  branches  to  a  certain  definite  height  is  wrong.     Trees 


Second  winter  pruning  in  orchard. 

shorn  across  at  a  certain  line  become  thick  as  a  brush  with  top 
shoots  which  require  extensive  thinning,  or  the  bearing  wood  will 
soon  be  all  at  that  level  through  failure  of  the  densely-shaded  bear- 
ing wood  below.  Cut  to  the  nearest  lateral  below  the  line  you  wish 
to  approximate,  and  shorten  the  lateral  if  desirable,  and  the  result 
will  be  fewer  and  stronger  shoots  than  from  a  stub-cut. 

In  the  treatment  of  bearing  trees  the  main  eflfort  should  generally 
be  toward  thinning  or  reducing  the  number  of  bearing  shoots.  This 
is  related  to  the  important  work  of  thinning  the  fruit  to  reduce  the 
burden  of  the  tree,  and  will  be  mentioned  again  in  that  connection. 
The  work  has,  however,  a  bearing  beyond  the  size  of  the  individual 
fruit  specimens.     It  involves  the  whole  future  of  the  tree  as  a  profit- 


130 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


able  affair.  An  unthinned  tree  becomes  a  thicket  of  small,  weak,  and 
dying  laterals  and  spurs.  An  attempt  to  cure  this  afterwards  by 
sawing  out  many  large  branches  is  only  partially  successful,  though 
perhaps  the  best  thing  that  can  be  done  after  such  condition  has  been 
allowed  to  exist.  The  only  way  to  keep  the  interior  of  the  tree  full 
enough  of  strong,  bearing  wood  is  to  resolutely  and  regularly  thin 
out  surplus  shots  as  the  tree  advances  in  age  and  size.  This  work 
is  as  important  with  trees  which  are  not  regularly  cut  back,  as  with 
those  which  are  thus  treated.  It  is  one  of  the  most  vital  as  well  as 
the  most  generally  neglected  item  in  orchard  practice. 

In  thinning  out  lateral  bearing  shoots  seldom  leave  more  than 
one  at  any  point;  select  the  strongest;  remove  the  rest  close  to  the 
branch.  When  a  new  shoot  springs  out  at  the  base  of  an  older  one 
remove  the  older  one ;  when  a  new  shoot  breaks  out  on  the  side  of  an 
older  one  cut  the  older  one  back  to  that  point.  In  thinning  always 
reject  the  older,  weaker  laterals  or  spurs.  This  does  not  apply  to  the 
outbreak  of  strong  suckers  or  water  sprouts  below  the  main 
branches ;  they  should  usually  be  cleanly  cut  away  unless  a  new 
main  branch  is  desirable. 

Pruning  of  bearing  trees  should  always  have  regard  to  the 
removal  of  branches  which  have  become  decrepit  through  sunburn, 
blight  or  disease  of  any  kind,  frost  injury,  or  in  any  form  die-back 
from  whatever  cause.  Such  wood  is  not  only  of  lessened  value,  but 
there  is  also  danger  of  extension  of  the  trouble.  Removing  such 
wood  and  training  new  wood  to  take  its  place  should  always  be  in 
mind. 

Where  cutting  of  large  branches  is  demanded  for  any  reason  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  wounds  are  most  quickly  healed  and 
least  injury  to  the  tree  is  to  be  apprehended  if  the  cutting  is  done 
near  the  beginning  of  the  growing  season  and  not  at  the  beginning 
of  the  dormant  period. 

TIMES   FOR   PRUNING 

Some  changes  of  view  have  lately  prevailed  as  to  the  times, 
within  the  dormant  period,  during  which  winter-pruning  can  be  done 
to  the  best  advantage.  Formerly  it  was  thought  to  be  a  vital  matter 
that  no  cutting  should  be  done  until  the  leaves  had  fallen,  and  this 
is  still  the  prevailing  practice,  and  may  prove  to  be  on  all  accounts 
the  best.  Recently,  however,  pruning  in  autumn,  has  been  quite 
widely  practiced. 

Fall  Pruning. — There  is  a  time  near  the  end  of  the  active  season 
in  California  when  the  foliage  changes  its  aspect.  There  is  no 
marked  change  in  color,  perhaps,  but  there  is  a  certain  limpness  and 
drooping  which  betokens  decided  decline  in  activity.  It  comes  first 
to  the  early  fruits,  the  cherries  and  apricots,  for  instance,  and  upon 
old  trees  earlier  than  young  ones.     The  buds  are  well  formed ;  the 


GOOD  FORMS  OP  YOUNG  TREES 


131 


season's  growth  apparently  complete.  There  are  no  frosts  to  hasten 
the  fall  of  the  leaf  and  it  remains  in  place.  Does  it  render  any  im- 
portant service?  On  the  conclusion  that  it  does  not,  many  growers 
begin  the  winter  pruning  while  the  days  are  longer  and  ground  dry 
and  firm  rather  than  delay  pruning  until  the  short,  dark  days  and 
rain-soaked  soil  of  December  and  January  render  pruning  expensive 
and  disagreeable.  Those  trees  are  first  pruned  which  first  assume 
the  appearance  described,  and  the  work  proceeds  with  other  varie- 
ties afterwards  until  the  winter  pruning  is  finished  by  December  1 — 
about  the  time  when  it  commonly  began  under  the  old  practice.  Not 
only  is  more  thus  accomplished  in  the  same  number  of  days'  work, 


Young  peach  and  apple  trees,  showing  branches  well  spaced  on  the  stems. 

but  the  orchard  is  earlier  in  shape  for  the  winter  spraying  and  culti- 
vation and  the  grower  is  ahead  of  his  work  and  not  behind  it  all  the 
season  if  the  season  is  unusually  rainy.  Several  years'  practice  of 
this  method  discloses  no  bad  results  except  in  the  one  item  of 
increasing  danger  from  frost.  Vines  and  trees  pruned  early  in  the 
dormant  period  have  a  tendency  to  start  growth  earlier  than  those 
pruned  late  in  the  dormant  period.  In  places,  then,  where  early 
bloom  and  fruit-setting  are  particularly  threatened  by  frost,  this 
practice  may  be  undesirable. 

Spring  Pruning. — Resting  largely  upon  this  matter  of  retarding 
growth,  the  practice  of  pruning  very  late  in  the  dormant  period,  or, 
in  fact,  at  the  beginning  of  the  growing  season,  is  also  gaining  wider 
adoption  where  frost  injury  is  especially  feared.     It  is  not  actual 


132 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


freezing,  but  a  drop  of  two  or  three  degrees  below  the  freezing 
point  which  is  feared,  and  during  recent  years  such  a  temperature 
has  wrought  havoc  with  some  fruits,  in  early  valley  regions  partic- 
ularly. Later  pruning,  even  after  the  bloom  and  foliage  have 
appeared,  has  worked  no  injury  to  the  trees,  but  it  is  less  conven- 
iently done  than  when  the  trees  are  free  of  foliage. 

Summer  Pruning. — Summer  pruning,  to  induce  bearing,  is,  as  has 
been  previously  intimated,  but  little  employed  in  this  State,  for  the 
constant  tendency  of  our  trees  is  to  bear  early  and  to  overbear. 
Enough  has,  however,  been  done  in  individual  cases  to  show  that 
fruit-bearing  is  promoted  by  pruning  after  the  chief  growth  of  the 
season  has  been  attained.  If  the  pruning  results  in  forcing  out 
laterals  late  in  the  season  it  has  been  done  too  early.  What  is 
desirable  is  the  strengthening  or  developnient  of  fruit  buds,  and 
this  will  be  accomplished  after  the  energy  has  been  too  far  dissipated 
to  make  new  wood  growth. 

Summer  pruning  to  check  the  too  exuberant  wood  growth  of 
some  kinds  of  trees  is  employed  to  some  extent,  chiefly  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  State,  where  the  vegetative  process  in  som€ 
trees  seems  fairly  to  run  riot,  and  unless  checked  is  apt  to  ruin  the 
tree  by  breaking  to  pieces  when  the  wind  and  weight  of  fruit  test 
its  strength.  The  methods  of  summer  pruning  employed  in  different 
parts  of  the.  State  for  different  fruits  will  be  considered  in  connection 
with  the  special  chapters  on  these  fruits. 

Summer  pruning  to  preserve  form  is  another  matter,  and  relates 
in  the  main  to  pinching  in,  to  check  undesirable  extension  and  to 
direct  the  sap  toward  shoots  in  which  growth  is  desired.  This  prac- 
tice is  approved  by  most  of  our  orchardists,  and  is  employed  by 
them  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  More  people  believe  in  than  prac- 
tice it,  however,  because  the  summer  months,  with  their  long  suc- 
cession of  fruits  to  be  gathered  and  shipped  or  dried,  and  the  addi- 
tional consideration  that  there  is  always  a  scarcity  of  labor  at  this 
time,  give  the  orchardist  so  much  work  to  do  that  he  is  more  apt  to 
confine  his  ''pinching"  to  a  little  that  he  may  do  now  and  then  when 
he  has  a  few  moments'  leisure  than  to  do  the  work  thoroughly  and 
systematically.  The  result  is  that  the  regular  winter  pruning  is  the 
main  operation  for  tree  shaping  in  this  State. 

There  is  such  a  great  difference  in  opinion  about  summer  pruning 
that  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  make  any  assertions  about  it  which 
will  not  be  disputed.  Much  of  this  difference  comes,  of  course,  from 
different  conditions  prevailing  in  different  trees  and  in  different 
parts  of  the  State,  and  some  of  these  will  be  met,  as  already  prom- 
ised, in  following  chapters.  Leaving  these  wholly  out  of  considera- 
tion at  this  time,  it  is  safe  to  advise  those  who  wish  to  secure  sym- 
metry or  any  particular  fcrm  in  any  kind  of  a  tree,  that  they  can 
resort  to  summer  pinching  with  advantage,  and  can  sometimes  to 
advantage  remove  wood  too  large  for  the  thumb  and  finger  to  sever. 


RENRWINO     OLD     TREES  ^  qo 

Constant  watchfulness  should  be  maintained  for  adventitious 
shoots  starting  out  on  stem  or  limb  at  points  where  branches  are 
not  desired.  Wherever  they  start  out  strongly,  they  should  be 
pinched,  or  entirely  removed,  according  to  the  best  judgment  to  be 


Weak  tree  from  ill-spaced  branches. 

formed  in  each  case.  Suckers,  which,  properly,  according  to 
Downing,  are  "shoots  sent  up  from  the  root  or  from  parts  of  the 
stem  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,"  should  be  removed  whenever 
discovered. 

RENEWING    OLD    TREES 

Improving  and  renewing  trees  by  cutting  back  and  grafting 
has  already  been  considered  under  the  head  of  propagation.  It 
is  often  desirable  to  renew  trees  of  a  satisfactory  variety,  and  this 
IS  done  simply  by  cutting  back  when  the  tree  is  dormant.  Cutting 
back  was  formerly  done  early  in  the  winter,  before  the  rise  of  the 
sap  begins,  but  more  recently  it  has  been  seen  that  the  exposure 
of  large  cut  surfaces  for  weeks  or  months  before  growth  begins, 
lesults  in  drying  and  shrinkage  of  the  bark  and  checking  of  the 
wood,  both  of  which  are  avoided  by  amputation  later  in  the  dor- 
mant period  or  during  the  early  part  of  the  growing  season.  In 
cutting  back,  of  course,  those  stumps  should  be  left  to  support 
new  branches  which  will  secure  the  best  balance  and  symmetry 
in  the  new  head.  When  the  new  growth  starts,  there  generally 
appear  many  more  shoots  than  are  desirable,  and  selection  of  the 
best-placed  and  most  vigorous  should  be  chosen,  the  others  either 
being  rubbed  off  in  the  bud  or  pinched  back  when  a  few  leaves 
are  put  out.  In  cutting  back  trees,  the  exposed  trunk  and  branch 
stumps  should  be  wrapped  in  old  sacking,  or  carefully  whitewashed 
as  protection  from  sunburn. 

In  removing  large  limbs  it  is  desirable  that  the  cut  should 
be  made  in  the  right  place  so  as  to  secure  quick  covering  of  the 
scar  with  new  growth.  Cutting  so  as  to  leave  a  long  stub  results 
m  an  unsightly  piece  of  dead  wood  on  the  tree,  and  this,  in  decay- 
ing, carries  the  decay  deep  into  the  center  of  the  trunk  or  branch. 
Cutting  too  close  prevents  covering  with  the  new  bark,  and  also 
results  in  a  hole  in  the  branch.     Cutting  just  to  the  right  mark, 


134  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW     THEM 

which  is  the  outer  edge  of  the  little  collar  or  swelling  which  will 
be  found  at  the  base  of  all  branches,  enables  the  wound  to  grow 
over  quickly,  and  if  the  wound  is  properly  treated  when  cut,  there 
will  be  no  decay,  and  the  wound  will  soon  be  obliterated. 

In  amputating  large  branches,  an  undercut  with  the  saw  should 
be  made  first  so  that  the  bark  shall  not  be  torn  as  the  branch 
falls.  Another  good  way  is  to  saw  off  first  at  a  distance  from  the 
final  cut  and  then  saw  off  smoothly  at  the  right  place  when  the 
weight  is  removed. 

Trees  often  become  ''hide-bound,"  as  it  is  called.  Especially 
in  this  dry  climate  the  bark  gets  dry  and  tough,  therefore  can 
not  expand  in  proportion  to  the  growth  of  the  tree,  or  supply 
the  amount  of  sap  necessary  for  the  demand.  Slitting  such  trees 
here  and  there  up  and  down  the  trunk  and  main  limbs  with  a 
sharp  knife  seems  to  have  good  effect,  for  often  in  three  months 
the  cut  opens  half  an  inch,  and  a  fine,  clear  bark,  with  an  increase 
of  growth,  results.  On  old  trees,  too,  there  is  often  a  growth  of 
moss  and  lichens  which  should  be  removed.  This  -can  be  done 
by  scraping  off  the  rough,  loose  bark  and  spraying  with  an  alka- 
line wash,  composed  of  one  pound  of  caustic  soda  or  potash  to 
six  gallons  of  water.  If  scale  insects  are  present,  the  lime,  salt 
and  sulphur  spray  should  be  used,  as  will  be  described  in  the 
chapter  on  injurious  insects.  This  will  remove  the  parasites, 
give  the  trees  a  clean,  bright  bark  and  contribute  to  their  vigor. 

PRUNING  TOOLS 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  comparative 
value  of  the  pruning  knife  and  the  pruning  shears.  The  knife, 
if  sharp,  and  well  used,  makes  a  smooth  cut,  with  no  bruising  of 
the  bark,  and  such  a  wound  heals  over  perfectly.  The  shears,  if 
of  good  pattern  and  sharp,  also  make  a  very  good  cut,  but  there 
is  always  some  little  injury  to  the  bark  on  the  side  opposite  to  the 
entry  of  the  blade.  On  small  cuts,  say  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
or  less,  if  the  blade  is  kept  very  sharp,  the  resistance  does  not 
make  sufficient  injury  to  the  bark  to  seriously  consider,  and  the 
speed  with  which  the  shears  can  be  used  renders  them  the  main 
reliance  for  all  the  smaller  pruning.  Nearly  all  styles  of  hand 
shears  are  used  in  this  State. 

There  are,  also,  two-hand  shears,  which  are  very  powerful, 
and  enable  one  to  work  very  quickly.  When  kept  well  sharpened 
they  are  very  effective  tools.  There  are  a  number  of  styles  in 
use,  both  home-made  and  imported. 

Still  another  arrangement  of  shears  is  mounted  on  a  pole,  the 
cutting  blade  being  operated  by  a  cord,  and  having  a  spring  to 
throw  the  blade  back.  The  pole  is  jointed,  so  that  one  or  more 
lengths  can  be  used.  With  this  device  one  can  stand  on  the  ground 
and  shorten  in  the  top  shoots  of  a  tree  very  handily. 


CUTTING    AND    COVERING 


135 


For  larger  cuts  than  can  be  made  with  the  pruning  knife  or 
one-hand  shears,  there  are  pruning  saws  of  different  styles,  of 
which  two  styles  are  chiefly  used.  One  has  a  frame  made  of  the 
best  spring  steel,  constructed  somewhat  on  the  plan  of  a  butcher's 
saw,  except  that  the  saw  blade  is  much  narrower;  and  instead  of 
being  stationary,  it  revolves  so  that  the  pruner  is  enabled  to  adjust 
the  blade  to  cut  at  any  angle,  as  is  often  necessary  to  do  when 
cutting  where  limbs  grow  close  together,  and  where  it  would  be 
impossible  to  use  an  ordinary  saw  of  a  wider  blade.  The  blade 
is  only  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  wide,  and  therefore  not  liable 
to  get  pinched  in  the  cut.  Strength  is  imparted  by  a  tension 
screw  under  the  handle,  which  tightens  the  blade.  The  blade  is 
easily  detached  by  slackening  the  tension  screw,  and  lifting  the 
blade  out  of  the  slot  in  the  clutches  at  each  end.  The  blade  can 
be  thus  reversed  and  made  to  cut  with  a  push  or  a  pull,  as  may 
be  desired. 

Another  popular  saw  is  the  curved  pruning  saw,  with  twelve 
and  fourteen-inch  blades,  which  cuts  with  a  pull. 

During  recent  years  it  has  been  possible  to  find  quite  full 
assortments  of  pruning  tools  at  the  hardware  and  general  mer- 
chandise stores  in  all  our  fruit  districts  where  these  devices  can 
be  compared  and  selection  made  according  to  individual  preference, 
for  there  can  be  no  best  tools  for  all  men  and  all  uses. 

CUTTING  TO   A   BUD 

Whatever  may  be  used  to  make  the  cut,  it  is  important  to 
sever  the  twig  or  shoot  at  that  distance  from  a  wood  bud  which 
gives  that  bud  the  best  chance  to  grow  well,  and  at  the  same 
time  facilitates  the  healing  and  complete  obliteration  of  the  scar. 
Cutting  too  far  from  the  bud  leaves  a  stub  which  dies  back,  and  is 
likely  to  carry  decay  into  the  pith  and  thence  down  into  the  limb. 
Cutting  too  close  to  the  bud  or  carrying  the  slope  down  too  far 
behind  it,  does  not  give  it  enough  live  wood  to  carry  it,  and  it 
makes  a  weak  growth. 

Cutting  to  inside  buds  with  trees  of  spreading  habit,  and  to 
outside  buds  with  upright  growers,  or  to  a  side  bud  when  lateral 
extension  is  desired,  should  always  be  remembered  as  a  means  of 
throwing  new  growth  in  the  direction  demanded  by  symmetry 
and  equal  occupation  of  the  space  allotted  to  the  tree.  This  is 
one  respect  in  which  study  of  the  habit  of  the  tree  suggests  proper 
practice. 

COVERING   WOUNDS 

Whenever  wood  is  cut  with  so  great  diameter  that  it  will 
not  grow  over  in  one  season,  the  wound  should  be  coated  with 
something  to  keep  the  wood  from  checking  and  decaying.     It  has 


136 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


been  amply  demonstrated  by  California  experience  that  smooth- 
paring  of  the  cut  made  by  shears  or  saw  is  a  waste  of  time.  Large 
wounds  should,  however,  be  covered  to  prevent  checking  of  the 
wood  and  drying  back  of  bark  edges.  Nothing  is  better  or  cheaper 
for  this  covering  than  lead  and  oil  paint,  a  little  thicker  than 
for  ordinary  use,  and  applied  sparingly,  so  that  it  will  not  run 
down  the  bark. 

GATHERING  UP  PRUNINGS 

Gathering  up  prunings  for  burning  is  tedious  and  expensive, 
and  several  efforts  have  been  made  to  substitute  machinery  for 
hand  labor.  Anderson's  Brush  Rake,  invented  by  W.  C.  Anderson, 
of  San  Jose,  has  been  used  to  some  extent.  It  readily  gathers  all 
kinds  of  tree  and  vine  brush,  compresses  it  considerably  and  is 
easily  discharged  of  its  load  by  a  slight  lift  while  still  going 
forward.  It  is  said  to  save  about  one-half  the  cost  of  hand  raking. 
Brush  is  often  gathered  into  windrows  by  the  use  of  horse  rakes 
borrowed  from  the  hay  field. 

Baling  Prunings. — There  is  a  fuel  value  in  prunings  which  has 
become  more  clear  since  pumping  for  irrigation  is  so  widely  prac- 
ticed, but  loose  prunings  are  too  expensive  in  handling.  T.  G. 
Rogers,  of  Winters,  has  contrived  a  ''brush  baler."  It  is  a  large 
strong  saw  horse  inverted,  to  which  is  bolted  a  long,  heavy  lever. 
Attached  to  a  cross  piece  on  the  lever  are  four  heavy  tines  bent 
in  a  semi-circle.  The  saw  horse  is  filled  with  brush,  the  lever 
is  then  pulled  down  and  fastened  by  a  ratchet  brake,  the  brush 
is  forced  into  a  small,  compact  bundle,  and  when  bound  with  wire 
makes  a  bundle  easily  handled  by  the  fireman. 

THINNING  FRUIT 

Intimately  connected  with  the  pruning  of  bearing  trees,  is  the 
thinning  of  the  fruit  or  proper  spacing  of  the  individual  fruits 
so  that  each  shall  have  space  and  sap  to  allow  its  attainment  of 
satisfactory  marketable  size.  It  has  been  fully  demonstrated  that 
no  demand  is  profitable  which  will  be  content  with  the  undersized 
fruit  from  an  overladen  tree.  The  superior  price  for  good-sized 
fruit  for  all  uses,  not  excluding  drying,  is  unquestionable;  the 
total  weight  secured  may  be  variable  as  between  thinned  and 
unthinned  trees,  but  it  can  be  accepted  as  an  indisputable  fact 
that  any  increase  of  weight  there  may  be  upon  an  unthinned  tree 
will  not  be  nearly  an  equivalent  for  the  loss  in  value.  It  is  the 
conclusion  of  our  largest  and  most  successful  growers  that,  large 
as  is  the  expenditure  required  for  careful  and  systematic  thinning 
of  fruit.  It  is  the  most  directly  profitable  outlay  which  they  have 
to  make  for  orchard  maintenance. 


13; 


138 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THRM 


Objects  in  View  in  Fruit  Thinning. — But  thinning  fruit  has 
objects  beyond  the  vahie  of  the  visible  crop  which  it  makes  profit- 
able.;/  No  overburdened  tree  can  discharge  the  twofold  summer 
duty  of  every  cultivated  fruit-bearing  tree,  which  is  to  perfect  this 
season's  fruit  and  lay  a  good  strong  foundation  for  next  year's 
bearing./^  If  the  tree,  after  fruit  gathering,  has  not  the  strong, 
vigorous  foliage  to  complete  the  formation  of  fruit  buds  for  the 
following  year,  there  will  either  be  a  lack  of  bloom  or  a  show  of 
bloom  unfit  to  set,  and  the  tree  will  work  for  itself  next  year,  and 
not  for  you,  because  this  year  you  would  not  work  for  it.  In 
this  particular,  thinning  fruit  coincides  in  purpose  with  pruning 
to  limit  the  amount  of  bearing  wood,  which  has  already  been 
considered. 

Other  objects  there  are  also  which  are  related  directly  to  the 
profit  of  orcharding  and  should  command  respect  from  the  most 
careless.     The  following  is  an  emphatic  statement  of  the  case  :* 

There  are  at  least  six  ways  in  which  growers  are  repaid  for  thinning 
peaches,  nectarines  or  apricots  designed  for  drying: 

First:  You  can  thin  off  half  the  fruit  when  small  quicker  than  you  could 
pick  it  when  large,  and  when  mature  the  time  required  to  fill  a  basket  de- 
pends mainly  upon  the  number  of  peaches  it  holds. 

Second:  It  takes  just  as  long  to  cut  and  spread  on  a  drying  tray  a  small 
peach  as  a  large  one.  It  takes  longer  to  cut  eight  peaches  that  will  weigh  a 
pound  than  to  cut  three  and  pick  off  five  when  they  are  little. 

Third:  If  peaches  run  six  to  the  pound  the  weight  of  pits  will  not  vary 
much  from  that  of  the  cured  fruit.  If  they  run  three  to  the  pound,  they  will 
Weigh  not  muich  over  half.  A  ton  of  large  peaches  is  as  likely  to  yield  400 
pounds  of  dried  as  a  ton  of  small  fruit  of  the  same  variety  to  yield  300 
pounds.  It  means  a  difference  of  about  $8.00  per  ton  in  the  value  of  the  fresh 
fruit"  to  the  dryer.  It  will  cost  over  $t.oo  per  ton  to  thin  a  heavily  laden 
peach  orchard  in  a  way  to  make  that  difference. 

Fourth:  Granted  that  you  leave  fruit  to  reach  the  same  weight  at  ma- 
turity, still  you  leave  it  along  the  body  and  in  places  on  the  limbs  where  the 
weight  has  no  breaking  leverage  and  take  it  off  the  ends  where  it  may  get 
sun-burned  and  is  almost  sure  to  break  the  tree. 

Fifth:  Vitality  drawn  from  the  plant  and  certain  elements  of  fertility 
from  the  soil,  are  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  seeds  matured.  The  pulp 
cuts  little  figure  except  in  aerial  substances  and  water. 

Sixth :  Suppose  that  fruit  dried  from  peaches  that  weigh  three  to  the 
pound  only  brings  one  cent  a  pound  more  than  that  from  peaches  half  that 
size.  Two  cents  would  more  accurately  measure  the  difference  in  value. 
Still,  the  smaller  figure  is  enough  to  meet  the  whole  cost  of  picking  and  haul- 
mg  or  of  cutting  and  drying  in  any  well-managed  establishment. 

When  to  Thin  Fruit. — Thinning  of  fruit  should  begin  with  the 
winter  pruning  of  bearing  trees,  as  has  been  already  urged  in  con- 
nection with  regulating  the  amount  of  bearing  wood  allotted  to 
each  tree.  After  this  is  carefully  done,  there  is  the  thinning  of 
bloom,  which  is  urged  on  the  ground  of  least  possible  loss  of 
energy  by  the  tree  in  the  partial  development  of  fruit  to  be  sub- 
sequently removed.  Hand-thinning  of  individual  blooms  is  im- 
practicable  on   a   commercial   scale,   but   the   removal   of   spurs   or 

•  Condensed  from  F.   S.    Chapin. 


THINNING    FRUIT  mmgmm  I39 

twigs,  or  shortening  of  them  with  shears,  is  feasible  enough.  The 
objection  must  He  in  the  fact  that  profusion  of  bloom  does  not 
necessarily  indicate  an  excessive  set  of  fruit,  and  any  severe  reduc- 
tion of  bloom  is,  therefore,  venturesome  unless  one  is  fully  assured 
by  local  experience  of  the  habit  of  the  variety  under  treatment. 
Reduction  of  the  amount  of  fruit  itself  is,  therefore,  the  only 
safe  proceeding,  and  this  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be.  undertaken 
until  the  first  drop,  through  lack  of  pollination,  has  taken  place. 
Even  at  greater  theoretical  loss  of  energy  to  the  tree,  it  is  better 
to  err  on  the  side  of  thinning  a  little  too  late  than  too  early 
in  order  to  secure  the  fullest  assurance  possible  of  the  permanent 
burden  which  the  tree  assumes.  Where  spring  frosts  are  likely 
to  occur  they  afford  additional  reason  for  delay.  If  surety  of  the 
local  conditions  comes  before  the  pits  harden  in  the  young  fruit 
it  is  fortunate  for  the  tree,  but  even  after  that  it  is  still  a  greater 
saving  to  the  tree  and  assurance  of  profit  to  the  grower  to  reduce 
the  fruit  to  a  proper  amount  than  to  permit  overbearing. 

The  Practice  of  Thinning. — If  the  tree  has  not  been  sufficiently 
relieved  of  an  excess  of  bearing  wood  during  the  winter  pruning 
and  has  made  a  very  heavy  set  of  fruit,  thinning  with  the  shears 
by  cutting  out  whole  spurs  or  short  bearing  shoots,  or  even  short- 
ening in  longer  limbs,  cutting  always  to  a  lateral  when  possible, 
is  of  no  appreciable  injury  to  the  tree.  After  all  the  shear- work 
possible  is  done,  the  spacing  of  the  fruits  on  the  twigs  and  branches 
must  be  provided  for.  This  was  done  in  early  days  by  beating 
the  tree  with  a  pole,  and  some  still  maintain  that  they  can  use 
the  pole  to  advantage.  The  almost  universal  practice,  however, 
is  to  use  the  hand  in  plucking  or  pushing  off  the  small  fruit.  This 
IS  done  very  quickly  by  experienced  workmen.  If  the  trees  are 
low,  as  they  should  be,  most  of  the  work  can  be  done  from  the 
ground.  It  is  best  to  work  in  vertical  spaces  and  take  all  that 
can  be  reached  from  top  to  bottom  without  changing  position ; 
then  move  a  step  or  two  and  take  another  vertical  strip,  and  so  on. 

The  distance  which  should  be  left  between  specimens  depends 
upon  conditions.  It  is  as  unsatisfactory  to  thin  by  rule  of  inches 
as  it  is  to  prune  by  such  a  rule.  The  space  to  each  fruit  depends 
upon  the  kind,  the  age,  vigor  and  strength  of  the  tree,  the  size 
and  thrift  of  the  lateral  or  spur  which  carries  the  fruit,  the  moisture 
supply,  the  richness  of  the  soil,  etc.  It  also  depends  upon  what 
use  is  to  be  made  of  the  fruit,  because  it  is  possible  to  have  some 
fruit  which  is  too  large  for  certain  demands,  though  this  objection 
does  not  often  arise.  The  strength  of  the  shoot  is  perhaps  the 
most  easily  appreciable  factor.  With  peaches,  for  instance,  a 
shortened  lateral  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  should  only 
carry  one  peach,  while  one  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter  might 
mature  four  good  large  fruits.     It  would  evidently  be  wrong  to 


■j^^Q  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

work  for  an  arbitrary  inch-distance  on  all  sorts  of  shoots,  and  it 
will  be  seen  to  be  just  as  irrational  if  it  be  applied  without  regard 
to  the  other  conditions  of  the  tree.  If,  however,  a  rule  must  be 
had,  let  it  be  this,  that  the  distance,_b£tween  the  fruit  shalLbe 
two  and  one-half  times  the  diameter  desired  in  the^  fruit.  This 
would  fix  an  arbitrary  distance,  then,  of  four  to  six  inches  for 
apricots  and  six  to  eight  inches  for  peaches — with  other  fruits 
according  to  their  respective  sizes,  and  the  late  varieties  with 
greater  distance  than  early. 

Any  such  standard,  however,  considers  only  the  size  of  the 
fruit,  not  the  strength  of  the  tree,  and  therefore  stops  short  of 
one  of  the  important  ends  of  thinning,  to  conserve  the  strength 
of  the  tree  for  next  season's  fruiting.  Fruits  might  be  thus  spaced 
and  still  the  tree  be  overladen,  because  it  may  be  carrying 
too  many  bearing  shoots.  Calculate  the  burden  of  the  tree  in 
this  way,  for  instance :  Peaches  which  weigh  three  to  the  pound 
are  of  fair  marketable  size;  sixty  such  peaches  will  fill  an  ordinary 
peach-box  of  twenty  pounds;  ten  to  twelve  such  boxes  is  fruit 
enough  for  a  good  bearing  tree  six  to  ten  years  of  age.  Now  count 
the  little  peaches  you  have  left  on  one  main  branch  and  its  laterals, 
which  ought  to  be  about  one-tenth  of  the  tree,  and  thin  down  to 
about  sixty.  By  doing  a  few  trees  in  this  way  and  thinking  of  the 
relation  of  the  bearing  wood  to  the  fruit,  one  will  soon  get  a  con- 
ception of  the  proper  degree  of  thinning,  and  proceed  to  realize 
it  as  rapidly  as  the  fingers  can  fly  along  the  branch. 

It  is  seldom  desirable  to  divide  doubles  in  peaches;  pull  both 
off  or  leave  both  on,  as  they  may  be  needed  or  not  to  make  the 
load  of  the  tree.  Clusters  of  apples  or  pears  should  often  be  reduced 
to  singles,  except  where  size  is  apt  to  be  too  great. 

All  kinds  of  fruit  are  clearly  subject  to  increase  of  size  by 
thinning,  but  it  is  with  only  the  larger  fruits  that  the  practice 
prevails  at  present.  The  dividing  line  seems  to  lie  upon  the  prune. 
With  this  fruit  thinning  is  only  done  by  pruning  the  tree  for  the 
reduction  of  the  number  of  bearing  branches,  while  with  some 
shipping  plums  hand  thinning  is  practiced.  Growers  are  still 
striving  for  a  prune  naturally  of  larger  size  rather  than  to  have 
recourse  to  thinning. 

The  practice  of  thinning  partially  at  first,  trusting  to  further 
removal  of  fruit  later  if  too  much  of  it  survives  the  natural  drop 
and  various  accidents,  is  followed  by  some  growers,  but  the  rule 
is  to  finish  at  one  operation. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
CULTIVATION 

It  was  demonstrated  very  early  in  California  experience  in 
fruit  growing,  that  ''clean  culture"  is  generally  the  proper  treat- 
ment for  trees  and  vines  during  the  proper  season,  at  least. 
Though  the  frequent  stirring*  of  the  soil  and  the  eradication  of 
grass  and  weeds  have  been  advocated  by  certain  horticulturists 
for  generations  and  have  recently  been  demonstrated  to  be  desirable 
by  careful  comparative  experiments,  it  has  nowhere  secured  such 
wide  adherence  as  in  California.  It  may  even  be  held  to  be  an 
essential  to  successful  growth  of  tree  and  vine  in  most  soils  and 
situations  in  California,  and  the  several  advantages  of  clean  culture 
are  intensified  under  our  conditions. 

Chief  of  these  advantages  is  the  maintenance  of  the  soil  in  a 
condition  favoring  root  growth,  and  the  main  feature  of  this  con- 
dition is  the  retention  of  the  moisture,  though  regulation  of  summer 
temperature  in  the  soil  is  also  involved.  Where  moisture-retention 
is  not  the  chief  concern,  because  of  ample  irrigation  facilities, 
and  the  moderation  of  soil  temperature  is  of  greater  moment,  a 
summer-growing  cover  crop  may  be  of  benefit  to  the  trees.  In 
irrigaied  districts  of  excessive  heat  and  dry  air  this  policy  may 
prevail,  but  it  will  be  only  the  exception  to  the  rule  of  clean  culture. 

Retaining  Moisture  by  Cultivation. — It  is  a  familiar  fact  that 
Avater  will  rise  in  a  tube  of  exceeding  small  diameter  very  much 
higher  than  the  surface  of  the  body  of  water  in  which  the  tube  is 
held  upright.  The  water  rises  by  capillary  attraction.  A  compact 
soil  has  extending  through  it,  minute  spaces,  formed  by  the  partial 
contact  of  its  particles,  which  facilitate  the  rise  of  water  from 
moist  layers  below,  in  accordance  with  the  same  principle  which 
causes  the  water  to  rise  in  the  capillary  tube.  This  movement 
is  constantly  going  on  in  firm  soil,  and  as  fast  as  the  top  layer 
is  robbed  of  its  moisture  by  evaporation,  the  water  rises  from 
below  and  it  too  is  evaporated.  During  the  long,  dry  summer, 
the  water  rises  and  is  evaporated  from  a  depth  of  several  feet 
in  some  soils,  and  the  earth,  beneath  the  baking  sun  heat,  becomes 
''dry  as  a  brick." 

When  a  soil  is  broken  up  by  cultivation,  capillarity  is  tempo- 
rarily destroyed  through  the  disturbed  layer,  because  the  particles 
are  so  separated  that  the  mutual  connection  of  the  minute  inter- 
spaces no  longer  exists.  But  if  it  be  roughly  broken  up,  so  that 
the  disturbed  layer  takes  the  form  of  coarse  clods,  the  air  has  free 
access  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  firm  soil  beneath  them,  in  which 

141 


142  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

the  capillary  condition  still  exists,  and  evaporation  proceeds  in 
the  same  way,  though  in  a  somewhat  less  degree,  as  if  there  had 
been  no  cultivation.  It  becomes  evident,  then,  that  the  pulver- 
ization of  the  disturbed  layer  must  be  so  complete  that  the  particles 
are  separated  and  capillarity  destroyed,  and,  farther,  that  the  free 
access  of  air  to  the  lower  point,  where  capillarity  exists,  must  be 
prevented.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  fine  loose  earth  which 
acts  as  a  mulch.  When  this  is  attained,  only  that  moisture  in  the 
upper  surface  which  comes  in  immediate  contact  with  the  air  is 
evaporated,  and  the  balance  is  retained  for  the  use  of  the  plant. 
Plants  growing,  then,  in  a  well-cultivated  soil,  have  the  water 
in  the  lower  soil  held  for  their  use,  and  as  fast  as  they  use  it 
the  supply  is  replaced  through  the  firm  soil  below,  which  evapora- 
tion being  stopped,  remains  moist  and  permeable  by  roots  which 
extent  freely,  seeking  the  nourishment  they  need. 

Such  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  theory  which  explains  the  results 
gained  by  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil,  so  far,  at  least,  as  reten- 
tion of  moisture  is  concerned.  The  practical  demonstration  is  easy. 
Go  into  a  well-cultivated  orchard  or  vineyard,  push  aside  the 
soil  with  the  foot,  and  moisture  will  be  found  two  or  three  inches 
from  the  surface,  or  even  less  in  some  soils,  while  on  uncultivated 
land  adjacent,  digging  to  the  depth  of  several  feet  will  show  nothing 
but  hard  earth,  baked  and  arid.  In  such  hard-baked  earth,  more- 
over, the  sun  heat  is  conveyed  or  conducted  downward  very  rapidly 
during  a  hot  day,  so  that  in  some  cases  the  roots  are  seriously 
injured.  When  the  surface  is  well  tilled,  it  will  act  like  a  blanket, 
preventing  a  too  rapid  conveyance  of  heat  downward,  and  thus 
also  diminishing  the  intensity  of  evaporation. 

Accurate  demonstration  of  these  facts  has  recently  been  secured 
as  the  result  of  many  moisture  determinations  in  cultivated  and 
uncultivated  soil  by  the  University  of  California  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.*  Very  striking  exhibition  of  the  condition 
of  trees  with  and  without  cultivation  is  found  in  the  engravings 
which  are  reproduced  herewith.  Upon  the  demonstration,  the 
practice  in  the  uncultivated  orchard  was  radically  changed.  The 
exact  determination  of  moisture  present  at  various  depths  of  the 
soil  beneath  these  contrasted  orchards  in  the  month  of  July  is  as 
follows : 


Depth  in  soil. 
First  foot 

Cult 
Per  cent. 
6.4 

ivated. 
Tons  per  acre. 

128 
116 
128 
130 
134 
120 

Uncu 
Per  cent. 

4.3 
4.4 
3.9 
5.1 
3.4 
4.5 

Itivated. 
Tons  per  acre. 
86 

Second   foot 

Third   foot 

Fourth  foot                . . . 

5.8 
6.4 
6.5 

88 

78 

102 

Fifth    foot 

Sixth    foot 

6.7 
6.0 

68 
90 

Totals,  six  feet... 

6.3 

756 

4.2 

512 

♦Bulletin  121. 


METHODS    OF    CULTIVATION 


143 


irhis  shows  a  gain  of  nearly  fifty  per  cent  of  soil  moisture  by 
cultivation. 
Necessity  of  Adequate  Cultivation. — It  has  been  very  fully 
demonstrated  by  California  experience  that  adequate  depth  of  tilth 
must  be  attained.  The  depth  of  cultivation,  or  the  thickness  of 
the  dust-mulch,  as  some  like  to  call  it,  must  be  sufficient  to  prevent 
the  access  of  the  dry  air  to  the  firm  soil  belov^.  At  the  East,  where 
they  have  a  moister  air,  a  thin  mulch  may  answer;  but  in  California, 
with  a  thirsty  air  for  such  a  protracted  period,  there  must  be 
deeper  tilth.  Two  or  three  inches  of  dust  spread  over  a  hard-pan 
layer,  formed  in  some  soils  by  cultivation,  will  not  retain  moisture 
well  in  California.  The  cultivator  should  go  twice  that  depth, 
ordinarily,  and  then  the  result  will  be  accomplished  if  it  is  done 
frequently  enough  to  prevent  the  re-firming  of  the  surface  by 
atmospheric  moisture  or  by  the  rise  of  moisture  from  below.  The 
exact  significance  of  depth  in  the  loose,  surface  layer  has  also 
been  demonstrated  by  moisture  determination  in  the  subsoil  at 
diflPerent  points  by  the  California  Experiment  Station,  as  follows  : 


Percentage  of  moisture 

in  cultivated  loam  soil. 

Depth. 

Three  inches 

Six    inches 

Niles.           Santa  Maria. 
5.4                         5.3 
6.3                         8.5 

Ventura. 
8.3 
9.3 

These  may  be  accepted,  probably,  as  average  results :  Varia- 
tion may  occur  in  soils  of  diflerent  characters.  The  capillarity  in 
a  heavy  soil  is  vastly  greater  than  in  a  light  soil.  The  difficulty  of 
securing  a  pulverized  surface  layer  is  also  greater  in  the  heavy 
soil.  The  poorer  the  pulverization,  the  deeper  the  layer  must  be. 
Naturally,  then,  growers'  practice  will  vary.  The  rule  will  remain 
that  there  must  be  depth  enough  to  secure  eflfective  protection 
of  the  firm  soil  beneath  from  agencies  promoting  evaporation. 

Loss  of  Moisture  by  Weed  Growth. — One  of  the  most  active 
agencies  for  the  exhaustion  of  moisture  from  the  subsoil  is  the 
growth  of  weeds.  To  cultivate  the  soil  in  winter  and  spring,  and 
then  to  allow  a  summer  growth  of  weeds  to  "shade  the  soil"  is 
a  great  error.  Although  under  the  cover  of  rank  weeds  moisture 
may  appear  even  at  the  surface  and  convey  the  impression  of 
moisture-saving,  the  fact  is,  as  fully  demonstrated  by  experience 
and  actual  experiment,  the  moisture  in  the  lower  layers  of  the 
soil  is  reduced  and  trees  are  thus  robbed  of  their  supply.  Weed 
growth  must  be  .resolutely  suppressed  during  the  dry  season. 

Moisture  Storage  in  the  Soil. — Conservation  of  moisture  in  the 
soil  is  not  only  the  surety  of  the  current  season's  growth  and 
fruitfulness,  but  is  the  safeguard  against  injury  from  the  years  of 
deficient  rainfall  which  occur  now  and  then  in  California.     The 


144 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


moisture  supply  is  equalized  by  this  storage  in  the  soil,  and  a 
surplus  from  the  liberal  rainfall  of  one  year  is  held  over  to  supply 
the  lack  of  the  next.  Of  course,  the  well-cultivated  surface  is  also 
well  calculated  to  catch  water.  While  from  a  hard  surface  much 
of  a  heavy  rainfall  flows  off  quickly  to  a  lower  level  before  it 
can  penetrate,  a  loose  soil,  if  sufficiently  deep,  retains  all  that  falls 
upon  it,  except  the  excess,  which  disappears  by  drainage. 

It  has  sometimes  been  held  by  California  orchardists  that  plant- 
ing some  tall-growing  crop,  like  corn,  so  as  to  shade  the  young 
tree  and  the  ground  around  it,  is  an  advantage.  This  is  a  great 
mistake.  Though  some  rich,  moist  soils  may  afford  moisture 
enough  to  grow  both  the  tree  and  the  corn,  it  is  a  fact  that  in  most 
cases  the  growth  of  the  corn  is  made  at  the  expense  of  the  tree, 
and  sometimes  almost  costs  its  life  and  thrift.  It  has  been  amply 
shown  by  investigation  that  though  shading  ground  by  a  leafy 
growth  may  make  the  surface  layer  of  the  soil  moister,  the  lower 
layers  are  invariably  made  drier,  and  it  is  in  these  lower  layers 
that  the  tree  seeks  its  sustenance.  The  young  tree  should  be 
shaded  as  has  been  described  in  the  chapter  on  planting,  and  not 
by  a  growing  plant. 

GROWING   CROPS   BETWEEN   TREES   AND   VINES 

The  possible  advantage  of  a  cover  growth  of  clover  in  regions 
of  high  heat  and  ample  moisture  has  been  noted  at  the  opening  of 
this  chapter.  The  rule,  however,  must  be :  Grow  nothing  what- 
ever between  the  trees  if  you  desire  the  full  success  of  the  latter. 
As  with  all  rules,  this  one  may  admit  of  exceptions. 

Inter-cultures  in  orchard  or  vineyard  may  be  allowed  under 
certain  conditions  of  the  soil  and  the  purse  of  the  grower.  If 
the  soil  is  deep  and  moist  and  rich,  the  cost  of  planting  and  culti- 
vation, and  sometimes  more,  may  be  made  by  growing  a  crop 
among  young  trees.  Of  course,  if  irrigation  is  available,  much 
more  can  be  done  in  this  direction  than  if  dependent  upon  natural 
supplies  of  water. 

There  is  much  difference  as  to  crops  in  amount  of  injury  they 
may  do  to  the  trees.  Growing  alfalfa,  without  irrigation,  has 
been  known  to  kill  out  an  orchard.  Grain  is  less  dangerous,  but 
still  is  objectionable,  both  because  of  exhaustion  of  soil  and 
moisture,  and  because  of  danger  to  trees  from  heat  deflected  from 
straw  and  stubble.  The  crops  least  injurious,  because  of  their 
requirements,  and  because  of  the  constant  cultivation  of  them, 
checks  the  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation,  are  corn,  beans,  pota- 
toes, beets,  carrots,  etc.,  squashes,  and  other  members  of  the  melon 
family,  onions,  and  other  shallow-rooting  vegetables.  In  the 
growth  of  these,  however,  there  should  be  a  width  of  several  feet 
of  well-cultured  soil  on  all  sides  of  the  tree,  unoccupied. 


I  CROPS     BETWEEN     TREES     AND     VINES  -f^fc 

In  soils  exceptionally  rich  and  deep,  and  where  rainfall  is 
abundant,  inter-cultures  of  small  fruits  or  vegetables  may  be  carried 
on  for  a  long  series  of  years  with  profit  both  from  the  trees  and 
the  inter-culture.  In  similar  deep,  rich  soils,  with  irrigation, 
immense  crops  of  small  fruits  and  vegetables,  even  as  high  as 
twelve  to  twenty-four  tons  of  tomatoes  per  acre  have  been  taken 
from  between  orchard  rows,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  sacks  of 
onions  per  acre  from  between  the  rows  of  a  strawberry  plantation. 
In  Ventura  County  some  fields  of  lima  beans,  in  favorable  years, 
have  paid  over  $70  per  acre — grown  between  young  trees.  In 
other  parts  of  the  State  considerable  amounts  of  peas  for  sale  to 
canners-  are  grown  between  the  rows  in  young  orchards.  This 
crop  is  especially  desirable  when  good  sale  is  assured,  because  the 
plant  is  hardy  and  can  make  a  good  part  of  its  growth  during  the 
rainy  season  and  the  ground  be  cleaned  up  and  well  cultivated 
early  in  the  summer.  As  beans  and  peas  are  legumes,  their  roots 
enrich  the  soil,  as  will  be  noted  in  the  chapter  on  fertilization. 

How  Exhaustion  by  Inter-Culture  May  Be  Avoided. — But  all 

inter-cultures  are  a  loan  made  by  the  trees  to  the  orchardist.  The 
term  may  be  very  long  and  the  rate  of  interest  very  small  in 
some  cases,  but  sooner  or  later  the  trees  will  need  restitution  to 
the  soil  of  the  plant  food  removed  by  inter-cropping.  This  may 
be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  fertilizers.  Still  the  rule  that  the 
trees  or  vines  should  have  all  the  ground  is  generally  true.  It 
is  also  true  that  on  merely  ordinary  soils,  trusting  to  rainfall,  or 
on  shallow  soils,  trusting  in  part  to  irrigation,  the  trees  or  vines 
should  have  the  full  strength  of  the  land  and  all  the  help  which 
can  be  given  them  in  the  shape  of  thorough  cultivation. 

METHODS    OF    CULTIVATION 

In  general  terms  the  main  objects  of  cultivation  of  orchard 
and  vineyard  are  two :  Winter  cultivation  for  moisture  reception, 
and  summer  cultivation  for  moisture  retention. 

Wherever  early  winter  plowing  can  be  done  without  too  great 
danger  of  soil  washing,  it  aflfords  the  best  available  means  of 
admitting  water  to  the  great  reservoir  in  the  lower  levels  of  a  deep 
soil.  Too  frequently  large  volumes  of  rain  water,  enriched  by  air- 
washing  as  it  falls  and  by  fine  soil-particles  as  it  flows,  are  allowed 
to  run  ofT  into  the  country  drainage,  with  the  double  loss  of  fertility 
and  moisture  to  the  fruit  grower.  Deep  penetration  of  winter  rains 
should  be,  in  all  safe  ways,  promoted.  Cultivation  for  retention 
has  already  been  strongly  urged  and  is  quite  generally  recognized. 

To  serve  these  main  purposes  there  are  two  main  divisions 
of  practice  in  this  State,  each  of  which  has  variations  of  greater 
or  less  importance. 


146 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


First :  Winter  plowing  followed  by  frequent  use  of  cultivator 
and  pulverizer  in  summer. 

Second  :  Use  of  cultivator  at  intervals  both  winter  and  summer, 
following,  if  needed,  with  pulverizer  in  the  summer. 

The  main  features  of  each  division  of  practice,  and  some  of  the 
claims  by  which  each  method  is  supported  by  its  advocates,  will 
be  noted. 

Plowing  Orchard  and  Vineyard. — There  is  considerable  varia- 
tion in  the  practice  of  plowing  orchard  and  vineyard,  in  the  kinds 
of  plows  employed,  and  the  times  chosen  for  the  work.  Some 
plow  but  once,  toward  spring,  whenever  the  ground  is  in  suitable 
condition ;  and,  if  there  is  much  growth  of  weeds  and  clovers,  a 
looped  chain  is  run  from  the  plow  to  the  end  of  the  evener  to  aid 
in  drawing  under  the  tall  growth.  Sometimes,  however,  the  growth 
gets  so  rank  before  the  soil  is  in  condition  to  plow^  that  the  weeds 
are  mown  before  plowing.  Where  but  one  plowing  is  done,  the 
soil  is  usually  thrown  away  from  the  trees  and  afterwards  is  leveled 
back  by  harrowing  or  cultivating.  If  this  practice  is  adopted,  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  soil  is  properly  returned  about  the  tree 
roots,  for  injury  is  sometimes  done  by  bringing  the  roots  too  near 
the  surface,  which  is  soon  afterwards  intensely  heated  by  the  sun- 
shine. 

It  is  undoubtedly  better  practice  to  plow  earlier,  when  the 
green  stuff  gets  a  good  start,  but  is  still  not  too  high  to  turn  under 
handily.  In  this  practice  the  weed  stems  are  less  woody,  and 
they  easily  decay  and  act  as  a  fertilizer.  Where  early  plowing 
is  practiced,  it  is  usual  to  plow  again  when  the  second  growth  of 
weeds  reaches  the  proper  state  in  the  spring.  When  two  plowings 
are  given,  the  earth  is  usually  thrown  away  from  the  trees  in  the 
first  plowing,  and  returned  toward  the  trees  in  the  second  plowing. 
But  this  order  is  sometimes  reversed  in  situations  where  rainfall 
is  heavy  and  the  soil  retentive,  for  the  dead  furrow  between  the 
rows  often  acts  as  a  surface  drain  to  carry  off  surplus  water,  which 
is  thus  prevented  from  standing  around  the  tree  roots.  In  all 
modes  of  plowing  it  is  desirable  that  before  the  summer  heat  comes, 
the  surface  be  leveled  as  completely  as  possible. 

Too  much  stress  can  not  be  laid  upon  the  importance  of  plowing 
when  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  and  not  otherwise.  To  dis- 
regard this  is  bad  enough  in  all  soils,  but  it  is  a  grievous  mistake 
to  work  any  of  the  clayey  soils  when  they  are  out  of  condition. 
If  too  wet,  they  are  puddled  by  the  plow  and  dry  down  in  hard 
clods,  impenetrable  by  air,  and  even  resist  water  itself  for  a  long 
time.  When  clods  are  thus  formed,  it  may  require  long  eft'ort  to 
bring  the  soil  back  to  a  good  friable  condition.  The  cultivation 
of  adobe  is  one  of  the  problems  of  California  agriculture.  The 
more  refractory  it  is,  the  more  particular  care  is  needed  to  take  it 


147 


148 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THFM 


when  it  is  in  proper  condition  to  work.  To  work  it  when  perfectly 
dry  is  simply  impossible,  and  if  it  is  plowed  when  too  wet  and  sticky, 
it  becomes  hard,  lumpy,  and  altogether  unmanageable.  The  con- 
dition which  favors  best  results  by  tillage  must  be  learned  by 
experience.  * 

Another  mistake,  apt  to  be  made  where  the  orchard  or  vineyard 
is  but  one  of  the  branches  of  a  mixed  farm,  is  to  put  aside  the 
plowing  until  all  the  field  work  is  done,  and  in  some  seasons  the 
soil  in  the  orchard  has  become  so  dry  that  it  turns  up  in  large 
clods,  which  are  afterwards  partially  reduced  by  the  harrow,  but 
never  put  in  the  fine  tilth  which  should  be  secured  for  the  retention 
of  moisture  and  otherwise  to  encourage  the  growth  and  productive- 
ness of  the  trees. 

Breaking  up  Hard-pan. — Those  who  advocate  the  use  of  the 
plow,  claim  several  advantages  for  it.  The  chief  is  that  more 
thorough  tilth  can  be  secured.  In  most,  but  not  all  soils,  there  is 
formed  by  cultivation  an  artificial  hard-pan  at  whatever  depth  the 
implement  attains,  if  this  depth  be  kept  the  same  for  many  succes- 
sive cultivations.  This  hard-pan,  in  some  soils  at  least,  becomes 
impervious  to  water  and  is  otherwise  an  injury  to  the  growth  of 
the  trees.  It  occurs  in  irrigated  and  unirrigated  land  alike,  but 
probably  is  more  quickly  formed  by  irrigation.  When  continuous 
summer  cultivation  is  practiced,  the  hard-pan  will  be  found  at 
whatever  depth  the  teeth  uniformly  reach.  The  remedy  is  to  plow 
in  winter  just  below  this  hard-pan  layer  and  thus  break  it  up, 
and  then  by  the  action  of  the  air  and  rains  it  is  reduced,  and  culti- 
vation may  proceed  as  before.  Where  the  hard-pan  is  formed  by 
the  plow,  the  ground  should  be  plowed  shallow  one  year  and 
deeply  the  next,  thus  alternating  from  year  to  year. 

Green  Manuring. — Another  advantage  in  the  use  of  the  plow 
IS,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  the  turning  under  of  the  growth 
of  weeds,  grass,  and  clover  as  a  green  manure.  Many  growers 
attach  considerable  importance  to  this,  and  some,  who  have 
orchards  in  which  winter  growth  has  been  killed  out  by  long  culti- 
vation, are  seeking  for  a  quickly-growing  crop  which  they  can 
sow  with  the  first  rains  and  secure  growth  enough  to  turn  under 
with  the  winter  plowing.  This  consideration  will  be  farther  pre- 
sented in  the  chapter  on  fertilization. 

Plowing  Hillside  to  Prevent  Washing. — Where  the  slope  of  the 
land  is  sharp,  there  is  much  danger  from  washing  during  the  rainy 
season,  if  the  hillside  is  not  terraced  or  furnished  with  ditches 
carefully  laid  out  on  contour  lines  to  carry  the  water  down  on  a 
gentle  grade.  The  old  plan  of  plowing  furrow^s  one  above  another 
around  the  hill  to  check  the  flow  and  let  the  water  down  easily, 
is  often  found  treacherous  unless  one  is  able  to  strike  good  grades. 


I  AVOIDING     INJURY     IN     CULTIVATION  -j^^g 

tecause  of  the  liability  to  collection  of  water  at  certain  points  and 
he  subsequent  breaking  away  and  washing.  Recently  some  of 
if  the  foot-hill  growers  have  adopted  the  plan  of  plowing  furrows 
even  or  eight  feet  apart  straight  down  the  hill  in  the  direction  of 
-  its  deepest  descent.  The  rainfall  is  thus  distributed  over  the 
ground  so  that  not  much  water  is  collected  in  any  one  place  and 
the  harm  done  by  washing  will  not  amount  to  much.  Hillside 
work  differs  according  to  character  of  soil  and  of  local  rainfall  and 
conference  with  experienced  men  in  the  region  will  usually  afford 
the  beginner  the  best  suggestions  of  method.  In  some  localities, 
the  plowing  of  a  few  furrows  at  intervals  to  assist  in  penetration 
and  the  growth  of  a  cover  crop  during  the  winter  to  assist  in  bind- 
ing the  soil,  will  be  found  better  than  any  attempt  at  the  early 
plowing,  which  may  work  admirably  on  level  lands. 

The  Best  Plow. — For  plowing  orchards  and  vineyards  many 
kinds  of  plows  are  used,  including  the  ordinary  one  and  two-horse 
walking  plows,  single  and  double  sulky  or  riding  plows,  and  gang 
plows  of  different  kinds.  Recently  disk  plows  and  harrows  have 
become  very  popular.  In  several  of  the  leading  fruit  districts 
there  are  plows  made  in  the  local  shops  which  are  patterned  to 
meet  the  different  soils  prevailing.  Which  is  the  best  plow  is 
a  question  which  can  not  be  answered,  it  must  be  determined  by 
local  conditions,  and  the  best  way  to  get  information  is  to  consult 
the  experienced  cultivators  of  the  locality. 

Avoiding  Injury  to  Trees  and  Vines. — The  great  problem  is  to 
use  the  plow  so  as  not  to  injure  the  trees  and  vines.  Injury  to 
the  roots  is  one  ground  on  which  those  who  advocate  the  banish- 
ment of  the  plow  from  orchard  and  vineyard  base  their  opposition, 
as  will  appear  more  fully  presently.  It  is  the  usual  practice  to 
run  tlie  plow  shallower  when  approaching  the  stem  of  the  tree  or 
vine,  and  this  is  easily  done  when  using  a  riding  plow  or  a  two- 
horse  walking  plow  between  the  rows  and  finishing  up  near  the 
trees  with  a  single-horse  walking  plow,  which  is  a  common  practice. 
The  injury  by  the  plow,  to  which  especial  reference  is  now  made, 
is  that  to  the  bark  of  the  tree  or  to  the  vine  stump. 

Makers  of  the  special  orchard  and  vineyard  plows  have  recently 
made  them  adjustable  so  that  the  plow  will  work  either  side  of  the 
central  line  of  draft,  and  these  improved  tools  have  rendered  obso- 
lete the  early  contrivances  for  accomplishing  the  result  with  com- 
mon field  plows. 

Flat  Hames  and  a  Spreader. — Among  the  worst  things  for  use 
among  trees  are  the  pointed  iron  hames  which  are  found  on  most 
harnesses.  They  often  seriously  bark  the  branches  under  which 
the  horse  passes,  and  should  be  dispensed  with.  An  arrangement 
widely  used  consists  in  having  broad  leather  tugs  and  hames  with 


150 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


only  one  long  iron  loop  on  the  swell  of  the  hame.  The  tug  is 
passed  around  the  hame  and  the  end  is  brought  through  the  iron 
loop  from  the  under  side,  so  that  the  draft  will  hold  the  tug  tight 
between  the  collar  and  the  hame  and  the  end  between  the  iron 
staple  and  the  pulling  part  of  the  trace.  A  spreader  is  put  between 
the  tugs ;  it  is  made  of  a  hard-wood  stick  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches 
long;  a  hole  is  bored  in  each  end  large  enough  for  a  two-inch  screw, 
a  hole  punched  in  each  trace  about  twelve  inches  from  the  rear  end, 
and  the  tugs  are  screwed  to  the  ends  of  the  spreader,  and  the  ends 
of  the  tugs  attached  to  the  plow  clevis.  This  gives  no  iron  or 
wooden  surfaces  at  all,  either  on  harness  or  whiffletree,  to  strike 
the  bark. 

Improved  Singletrees. — Later  than  these  came  the  orchard  and 
vineyard  singletrees,  invented  and  patented  by  Californians,  which 
are  widely  used  and  sold  in  all  stores  in  the  fruit  growing  districts. 

Dispensing  with  Doubletrees. — Still  other  inventions  which 
admit  the  use  of  two  horses  even  close  up  to  the  trees,  because 
they  dispense  entirely  with  whiffletrees  and  tugs,  are  known  as  the 
steel  harness.  Eastern  inventions,  which  have  secured  the  approval 
of  some  of  our  leading  growers  for  use  in  orchard  and  vineyard. 
The  plow  is  attached  to  the  steel  yoke  by  a  chain  running  between 
the  horses.  With  them  it  is  possible  to  work  quite  close  to  the 
trees  and  vines,  and  is  especially  desirable  in  the  vineyard  in 
working  close  to  the  vines  when  they  have  grown  out  about  two 
feet,  which  is  a  difficult  job  with  the  old-style  harness. 

SUMMER   TREATMENT    OF    PLOWED    ORCHARD    AND 

VINEYARD 

Where  the  orchard  or  vineyard  is  plowed  twice  during  the 
winter,  the  land  should  remain  after  the  first  plowing  as  the  plow 
leaves  it.  The  moistening  and  aeration  during  the  winter  have  a 
good  effect  upon  the  soil  both  chemically  and  mechanically. 

If  but  one  plowing  is  done,  when  the  chief  rains  are  supposed 
to  be  over,  there  must  be  full  effort  put  forth  to  reduce  the  soil  to 
good  tilth,  and  to  level  the  surface  as  much  as  possible.  This  is 
done  by  harrowing  with  one  of  the  several  improved  harrows  which 
are  now  generally  introduced  and  found  very  effective.  They  act 
in  cultivating,  clod  crushing,  and  leveling,  in  a  most  satisfactory 
manner.  They  are  too  well  known  to  need  description.  Each 
has  its  advocates  and  its  adaptations  to  certain  soils.  As  with 
plows,  so  with  harrows  and  cultivators,  the  best  for  one  soil  may 
not  be  the  best  for  another,  and  local  inquiry  among  experienced 
fruit  growers  will  be  the  best  guide  for  the  newcomer.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  excellent  implements  brought  from  the  eastern  States, 


I^H  CULTIVATION     WITHOUT     PLOWING  ^51 

lere   are   others   of   California   invention   and   manufacture   which 
ave  very  marked  local  adaptations,  and  almost  every  fruit  region 
in  California  has  some  embodiment  of  local  inventive  genius  in  the 

Kirm  of  implements  of  tillage. 
The  secret  of  success  in  handling  the  heavier  soils  in  spring 
orking  is  to  secure  as  perfect  surface  pulverization  as  possible 
ithout  compacting  the  soil.  Light  soils  need  a  certain  amount 
of  firming  after  plowing,  or  else  there  is  too  free  access  of  air  and 
too  great  drying  out.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  the  grower 
has  to  study  his  soil  and  learn  from  observation  the  methods  which 
succeed  best  with  it.  The  practice  which  gave  success  under  cer- 
tain conditions  might  not  be  well  adapted  under  other  conditions. 
The  use  of  the  roller  is  a  striking  example  of  this  fact.  In  some 
orchards  the  roller  is  a  benefit,  in  others  a  decided  injury.  Its 
chief  effect  is  compacting  the  surface  layer,  which  is  only  desirable 
on  very  coarse  open  soils.  The  long-tooth  harrow  accomplishes 
a  very  marked  compacting  of  the  soil  to  the  depth  it  reaches  and 
often  settles  the  lower  layer  too  closely  and  causes  it  to  run 
together  too  solidly  if  rain  follows.  The  modern  cultivators,  clod- 
crushers,  disk-harrows,  etc.,  are  superior  in  effect,  each  in  the 
soil  to  which  its  action  is  most  desirable. 

After  working  down  the  soil  after  plowing,  the  cultivator  is 
relied  upon  to  kill  the  weeds,  break  up  the  crust  which  may  form 
after  spring  rains  or  after  irrigation,  and  to  prevent  the  compacting 
of  the  surface  layer  of  the  soil  from  any  causes. 

CULTIVATION    WITHOUT    PLOWING 

There  are  orchards  in  California  which  have  not  been  plowed 
for  years — in  some  cases  the  plow  has  not  been  used  since  the 
trees  were  planted.  Instances  of  this  kind  are  to  be  found  both  in 
irrigated  and  unirrigated  land.  It  depends  largely  upon  the  me- 
chanical condition  and  disposition  of  the  soil  whether  the  practice 
will  give  satisfactory  results.  It  can  not  be  trusted  on  land  prone 
to  develop  hard-pan,  as  has  already  been  considered,  and  yet  the 
term  "cultivation"  has  taken  such  a  wide  range  in  this  State,  and 
the  tools  have  reached  such  efficiency,  that  there  is  not  as  much 
difference  as  formerly  between  the  plow  and  the  cultivator,  except 
that  the  former  turns  the  soil  and  the  latter  stirs  without  turning. 
For  some  who  oppose  the  use  of  the  plow,  use  a  chisel-tooth  cul- 
tivator, cutting  to  a  depth  of  eight  inches  in  the  spring,  but  at 
other  times  of  the  year  they  are  not  more  than  half  as  deep. 
This  treatment  would  tend  to  dispose  of  hard-pan.  However  this 
may  be,  and  what  the  special  nature  of  their  soils,  there  are  fruit 
growers,  both  in  northern  and  southern  California,  who  have  for 
years  trusted  almost  wholly  to  the  cultivator,  cutting  to  a  depth 
of  three  or  four  inches,  and  keep  their  orchards  throughout  the 
year  almost  in  the  same  state  of  tilth,  never  allowing  a  weed  to 


152 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO    GROW    THEM 


grow.  This  practice  is,  however,  becoming"  less  prevalent,  and  for 
certain  soils  the  (piestion  is  practically  settled  in  the  minds  of  nearly- 
all  orchardists,  while  for  other  soils  there  is  still  doubt.  For 
the  heavier  soils,  which  continuous  shallow  cultivation  is  apt  to 
render  too  compact,  it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  plow  to 
open  the  land  for  proper  aeration  and  penetration  of  moisture 
which  otherwise  would  be  largely  lost  by  surface  run-oflF.  The 
lighter  soils  do  not  require  this  and  they  seem  to  do  well  with 
continuous  use  of  the  cultivator.  It  is  beginning  to  be  clearly 
seen,  however,  that  this  treatment  tends  toward  the  decrease  of 
the  humus  and  the  consequent  impoverishment  of  the  soil.  Its 
water-holding  capacity  is  also  lessened.  These  facts  have  induced 
some  growers  to  change  their  practice  and  take  up  the  plow  during 
late  winter  or  early  spring  to  cover  in  the  growth  of  green  stufif 
which  they  allow  to  grow  instead  of  frequently  destroying  it  with 
the  winter  use  of  the  cultivator.  Either  the  fall  and  spring  plowing, 
or  both,  followed  by  the  summer  use  of  the  cultivator,  is  the  most 
rational  and  satisfactory  practice  for  most  of  our  deciduous  orch- 
ards, though  there  are  local  conditions  and  circumstances  under 
which  different  procedure  is  preferable. 

SUMMER   CULTIVATION 

Whatever  the  winter  policy  may  be,  the  essential  point  in  sum- 
mer cultivation  is  to  preserve  the  surface  layer  of  pulverized 
earth.  It  will  not  do  to  have  a  few  inches  of  clods,  from  the  size 
of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  goose  egg,  resting  on. a  hard  surface.  The 
finer  the  pulverization  the  shallower  can  be  the  surface  layer,  and 
vice  versa,  and  this  is  probably  one  reason  why  in  practice  the 
work  of  the  plow  is,  in  so  many  situations,  found  the  best  founda- 
tion upon  which  to  rest  the  years'  cultivation. 

In  order  to  secure  this  finely-pulverized  layer,  it  is  sometimes 
nece^ary  to  use  what  is  called  a  ''rubber,"  where  there  are  many 
clods  which  are  merely  displaced  by  the  harrow  or  cultivator. 
There  are  different  styles,  and  they  are  generally  home-made. 
The  most  common  form  is  made  of  two-inch  plank  in  lengths  of 
three  or  four  feet,  bolted  or  spiked  to  pieces  of  four-by-four-inch 
scantling  running  crosswise,  the  edges  of  the  planks  lapped  like 
the  clapboards  which  are  used  for  weather  boarding.  As  these 
edges  are  drawn  over  the  surface,  the  clods  are  rubbed  into  tilth 
if  the}^  are  not  too  hard  and  dry. 

But  this  rubbing  may  be  very  undesirable  if  it  leaves  the  sur- 
face smooth  and  polished.  It  may  reflect  the  sunheat  even  to 
tree-burning,  and  is  apt  to  form  an  evaporating  surface,  which  is 
most  to  be  avoided.  The  best  finish  for  the  land  is  that  produced 
by  a  light,  fine-tooth  harrow,  and  an  attachment  of  this  kind  is 
provided  with  various  clod  crushers  and  cultivators.     The  result 


WHAT     IS     THOROUGH     CULTIVATION 


153 


IS  a  surface  of  loose  earth,  flat  and  fine,  which  approaches  very 

jlosely  an  ideal  conditign. 

There  is  less  difference  than  formerly  in  the  use  of  the  harrow 

>r  cultivator  during  the  summer.     Still  some  are  content  to  use 
the  cultivator  only  as  a  weed-killer,  and  after  the  weeds  cease  to 

^row  and  the  spring  showers  are  over,  the  cultivator  is  laid  aside 

md  the  land  left  unstirred  until  the  following  winter.  This,  of 
^course,  refers  to  unirrigated  ground,  for  wherever  irrigation  is 
practiced  a  cultivator  must  follow,  except  on  hillsides  where  the 
surface  is  left  undisturbed  after  the  irrigation  furrows  are  made 
at  the  beginning  of  the  dry  season.  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  even 
if  no  rain  falls,  the  soil  becomes  compacted  to  a  certain  degree, 
and  the  best  way  to  imprison  the  greatest  possible  amount  of 
moisture  below  is  to  run  the  cultivator  at  intervals  all  through 
the  dry  season.  It  should  run  shallow  and  only  stir  the  surface 
layer.  The  experience  of  the  most  successful  growers  is  that  fre- 
quent stirring  without,  however,  bringing  new  soil  to  the  air,  is 
the  best-paying  practice. 

WHAT   IS   THOROUGH    CULTIVATION 

As  clean,  thorough  cultivation  has  been  approved,  it  may  be 
desirable  to  attempt  to  define  the  term.  It  can,  however,  only  be 
approximately  done,  because  of  the  great  difference  in  individual 
views  and  practices.  Some  indication  of  the  operations  which  are 
contemplated  may  be  had  in  the  following  specifications  upon  which 
contracts  have  been  let  for  care  of  orchard :  First,  plowing  away 
from  the  trees,  followed  by  harrowing ;  second,  plowing  toward  the 
trees,  followed  by  harrowing;  ten  summer  workings  with .  culti- 
vator; three  workings  with  shallow  cultivator  or  weed-cutter;  five 
hand  hoeings  around  the  trees.  The  contract  intends  the  most  com- 
plete and  perfect  working  of  the  soil  and  specifies  the  above  merely 
that  there  may  be  no  difference  of  opinion  between  owner  and 
contractor. 

In  cases  where  the  land  is  infected  with  morning-glory,  weekly 
cultivation  is  stipulated  for  in  some  cases,  and  this  seems  about 
the  only  way  to  cope  with  this  formidable  trespasser. 

CULTIVATION    FOR    WEED    KILLING 

Cultivation  for  weed  killing  is  a  minor  consideration  in  Cali- 
fornia ^  because  cultivation  for  moisture  conservation  effectually 
disposes  of  most  of  them,  and  weeds  do  not  start  readily  in  the 
earth-mulch  during  the  dry  season.  There  are,  however,  a  few 
most  persistent  pests  which  require  heroic  measures.  Johnson 
grass  and  morning-glory  are  the  most  prominent  of  these.  ^  The 
only  successful  treatment  consists  in  cutting  constantly  with  a 
weed -cutter  (a  sharp  horizontal  knife),  operated  so  as  to  pass  under 


154  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

the  whole  surface  and  run  so  often  that  the  plant  is  never  allowed 
to  show  a  shoot  on  the  surface.  It  is  of  no  use  merely  to  cultivate 
or  "weed-cut"  as  for  other  weeds.  This  spreads  the  pest  more  and 
more ;  but  if  the  rising  shoots  are  continually  cut  under  the  surface, 
and  never  allowed  to  get  the  light,  it  will  kill  the  plant  surely,  but 
it  may  take  two  seasons  to  do  it.  Weed-cutting  knives  of  this 
description  are  usually  contrived  by  local  smiths  and  are  attached  to 
sleds  or  fitted  with  plow-handles,  or  used  with  a  pair  of  thills  and 
cultivator-handles,  or  other  rigging  as  the  operator  may  choose. 
The  vital  point  is  a  blade  of  sheet  steel,  very  sharp,  and  rigged  to 
run  just  under  the  surface.  It  must  be  used  as  often  as  once  each 
week. 

MULCHING  A   SUBSTITUTE   FOR   CULTIVATION 

The  use  of  a  mulch  or  covering  of  the  ground  with  a  litter  of 
light  materials  to  prevent  evaporation,  is  practiced  to  a  small  extent 
in  this  State.  Though  mainly  used  for  berries  of  different  kinds, 
recourse  has  also  been  had  to  mulching  by  vineyardists.  The  mate- 
rials, used  are  various,  such  as  partly-rotted  straw,  coarse 
manure,  damaged  hay,  corn-husks,  corn-stalks,  vine  prunings  and 
leaves,  and  even  fine  brush  from  adjacent  thickets.  The  practice 
has  been  found  of  greatest  value  on  hillsides  where  cultivation 
is  difficult,  and  danger  of  washing  of  loose  soil  is  great.  There  are 
cases  where  vines  have  been  grown  several  years  in  this  way  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  owner.  The  danger  of  fire  in  our  dry  climate 
when  the  surface  is  covered  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  with  a 
dry  mulch  is  considerable.  As  a  rule,  the  mulch  employed  by  the 
California  grower  is  a  perfect  pulverization  of  the  surface  soil. 


CHAPTER    XIV 
FERTILIZERS    FOR    TREES    AND    VINES 


t^m  It  was  a  popular  doctrine  among  early  Californians  that  Cali- 
fornia soils  would  never  need  fertilization,  and  that  there  is  some- 
thing in  our  soil  and  climate  which  releases  us  forever  from  repay- 
ing anything  to  the  ground  for  the  wealth  of  produce  which  we 
take  from  it.  Such  a  view  is,  of  course,  without  foundation,  and 
yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  how  it  arose.  Early  attempts  to  enrich 
the  soil  by  the  turning  under  of  coarse  stable  manure,  as  is  done 
in  other  countries,  was  undertaken  here  on  light  soil  in  a  region 
rather  short  of  rainfall.  The  manure  did  not  decompose,  and  its 
coarse  materials  made  a  soil,  already  too  light  to  retain  moisture 
well,  so  open  and  porous  that  its  moisture  was  quickly  carried  away 
by  evaporation,  and  crops  did  not  grow  so  well  as  upon  adjacent 
land  which  had  not  been  manured.  So  the  fiat  went  forth  against 
manure.  The  corrals*  became  undisturbed  guano  deposits,  and 
manure  piles  were  fired  in  dry  weather  to  get  the  soil  poison  out 
of  the  way.  Innumerable  tons  of  bones  were  gathered  and  ground 
in  San  Francisco  and  shipped  away  to  countries  which  need  fertil- 
izers. Nature  did  much  to  foster  the  popular  delusion,  for  field 
crops  were  gloriously  large,  and  trees  and  vines  grew  rampantly 
and  bore  fruit  the  weight  of  which  they  were  unable  to  sustain. 
How  could  there  be  more  conclusive  evidence  that  manure  was  a 
detriment  to  California  soils? 

A  few  decades  of  experience  have  swept  away  such  fallacies 
and  now  California  growers,  especially  those  handling  citrus  fruits, 
are  not  only  freely  investing  in  commercial  fertilizers  but  are  buy- 
ing and  shipping  considerable  distances  all  available  animal 
manures.  They  are  also  untiring  students  of  the  art  of  fertilization 
and  the  sciences  underlying  it.  It  was  in  response  to  their  demand 
that  the  California  Legislature  of  1903  passed  a  fertilizer  control 
law  giving  the  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  regu- 
lation of  the  trade  in  fertilizing  materials.  All  dealers  are  required 
to  register  and  submit  samples  of  their  brands  and  there  is  con- 
stant inspection  to  detect  departures.  Semi-annual  reports  are  pub- 
lished for  public  information  and  these,  with  special  instructions  for 
taking  samples  when  purchasers  desire  analyses  on  their  own  ac- 
count, can  be  had  by  application  to  the  Experiment  Station  at 
Berkeley.  The  total  amount  of  sales  reported  under  the  law  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1908,  was  31,228  tons. 


•  Inclosures  for  live  stock  of  any  kind. 
155 


156 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


It  is  foreign  to  our  pur])ose  to  discuss  the  general  su])ject  of 
the  use  of  fertiHzers  in  CaHfornia,  and  the  changes  in  belief  and 
practice  which  have  recently  gained  ground.  Of  course,  the  marked 
falling  off  in  the  yield  of  shallow-rooting  cereals  gave  the  first  un- 
mistakable intimation  that  there  was  something  wrong  about  the  old 
theory  of  the  perpetual  youth  of  California  soils.  The  lands  used 
for  fruit  are  sometimes  slow  to  show  exhaustion,  because  trees  are 
deef)  feeders,  and  the  soils,  as  they  are  often  the  very  best  and 
deepest  of  the  State,  selected  for  fruit  because  of  that  very  charac- 
ter, possess,  in  an  eminent  degree,  lasting  properties,  as  is  shown 
in  the  chapter  on  the  fruit  soils  of  California.  But  certain  of  these 
soils  are  already  showing  the  need  of  refreshment,  and  intelligent 
growers  are  quick  to  minister  to  the  lands  which  are  giving  them 
such  generous  returns,  as  they  can  well  afford  to  do. 

WHEN    IS    FERTILIZATION    NECESSARY? 

Though  the  use  of  fertilizers  by  our  fruit  growers  is  beginning, 
it  should  be  plainly  stated  that  at  present,  except  perhaps  with 
citrus  fruit  trees,  or  the  oldest  orchards  of  other  fruits,  it  is  not 
yet  the  rule  that  such  applications  are  necessary.  There  are  some 
soils  which  are  really  too  rich  for  fruit.  There  is  sojiietimes  an 
overrank  growth  of  wood,  which  delays  or  prevents  the  formation 
of  fruit  buds,  and  there  is  a  marvelous  development  of  fruit  which 
is  inconsistent  with  the  highest  quality.  For  this  reason  the  grower 
should  not  conclude,  from  the  foregoing  general  remarks  concern- 
ing the  need  of  fertilization  in  California,  that  he  must  manure  his 
soil  whether  it  needs  it  or  not.  Especially  is  this  the  case  with 
young  trees,  in  which  the  wood  growth  is  easily  overstimulated. 
As  with  irrigation,  so  in  fertilization ;  the  tree  or  vine  itself  will 
give  the  observing  grower  hints  as  to  its  needs,  and  if  the  growth 
of  wood  and  color  of  foliage  are  such  as  obviously  indicate  health 
and  vigor,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  plant  needs  nothing  but 
good  cultivation  and  intelligent  pruning. 

Usually  cases  of  overrich  ground  will  cure  themselves  as  the 
trees  attain  size  and  full  bearing,  and  it  is  then  that  fertilization 
may  be  necessary.  When  the  tree  or  vine  which  has  been  properly 
pruned  and  cultivated  is  not  able  to  mature  a  good  weight  of  well- 
developed  fruit,  and  make  a  satisfactory  wood  growth,  usually  at 
the  same  time  showing  some  degree  of  distress  by  the  color  of  its 
foliage,  it  needs  help ;  and  if  the  grower  is  sure  that  the  trouble  is 
not  from  lack  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  he  should  bestir  himself  in 
the  manuring  of  his  orchard  or  vineyard.  In  examining  the  soil 
for  moisture,  one  should  dig  deeply,  for  there  have  been  cases 
of  moisture  near  the  surface,  and  drouth  below. 


THE     USE     OP     FERTILIZERS  .  rn 


[AT    FERTILIZERS    TO    APPLY    TO     FRUIT    TREES 
AND    VINES 


I^H  A  discussion  of  this  subject  from  a  chemist's  point  of  view  is 
nSeyond  the  scope  of  this  volume.  The  results  of  research  at  the 
University  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley  are  summarized  in  the 
treatise  on  soils  by  Dr.  E.  W.  llilgard,  who  maintains  the  position 
that  the  most  intelligent  and  economical  choice  of  fertilizers  is  to 
be  made  after  ascertaining  by  analysis  in  what  constituents  the 
soil  is  deficient  and  in  what  it  is  well  supplied.  Some  applications 
made  in  conformity  with  suggestions  based  upon  analysis  have 
proved  very  satisfactory.  But  as  soils  vary  within  narrow  limits  of 
area,  there  must  be  analysis  for  each  soil  in  question. 

Approaching  the  matter  of  choosing  fertilizers  without  soil 
analysis,  the  method  by  local  trial  is  open.  In  this  recourse  there 
is  danger  of  error,  as  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Hilgard,  arising  from  local 
differences  in  soil  and  subsoil,  and  must  be  checked  by  several 
check  plots  so  interposed  between  the  others  as  to  not  only  check 
them  by  direct  comparison,  and  to  prevent  the  washing  of  fertil- 
izers from  one  fertilized  plot  to  another,  but  they  must  also  be 
compared,  first  of  all,  among  themselves,  to  determine  what  is  the 
normal  product  of  the  unfertilized  land.  It  will  frequently  be  found 
that  these  unfertilized  check  plots  differ  more  widely  between  them- 
selves than  do  the  fertilized  ones  from  them  or  from  each  other. 
It  usually  takes  several  seasons  to  come  to  definite  results. 

From  these  statements  it  must  appear  that  the  prescription  of 
fertilizers  is  not  an  easy  matter.  Disappointments  will  naturally 
be  encountered,  but  unquestionably  the  advantage  is  on  the  side 
of  patient  trial  and  wise  investment  in  fertilizers  honestly  made 
and  honestly  sold.  The  observing  grower  must  learn  all  that 
he  can  from  experience.  The  University  of  California  at  its  Citrus 
Experiment  Station  at  Riverside  began  in  1907  a  series  of  experi- 
ments in  the  course  of  which  trees,  specially  planted  in  plots 
guarded  from  interference,  will  be  grown  on  various  diets  in  order 
that  close  comparisons  may  be  made,  from  which  it  is  expected 
that  important  conclusions  in  plant  nutrition  can  be  drawn.  It  is 
obviously  the  duty  of  the  grower  to  constantly  study  fertilizer 
questions  as  presented  in  books  and  journals  and  to  be  alert 
for  observation  of  the  behavior  of  his  own  trees  with  the  applica- 
tions he  may  make.  The  publications  of  responsible  fertilizer 
manufacturers  and  dealers,  also  convey  important  information  when 
read  discriminately. 

Though  the  deficiencies  of  the  soil,  as  learned  by  analysis,  or  by 
practical  test,  must  be  the  basis  of  prescription  of  fertilizers,  the 
analyses  of  fruits,  as  showing  the  special  needs  of  the  plants,  are 
of  the  highest  importance.     The  following  analyses  of  the  different 


158 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


fruits,  containing,  in  each  case,  skin,  pulp  and  seeds,  are  almost 
entirely  from  California-grown  specimens,  and  are  supposed  to 
represent  an  average  composition  of  the  fruits  named. 


Quantities  of  soil   ingredients  withdrawn  by  various  fruits 

Compiled  from  analyses  by  G.  E.   Colby,  University  of  California 

Phosphoric 

FRESH  FRUIT           Total  ash  Potash  Lime  Acid         Nitrogen 

1,000  pounds                  Pounds  Pounds  Pounds            Pounds          Pounds 

Almondst    17.29  9.95  1.04  2.04  7.01 

Apricots    ..       5.08  3.01  .16  '                   .66  1.94 

Apples    2.64  1.40  .11                      .33  1.05 

Bananas    10.78  6.80  .10                      .17  .97 

Cherries    4.82  2.77  .20                      .72  2.29 

Chestnutst    9.52  3.67  1.20  1.58  6.40 

Figs     7.81  4.69  .85                      .86  2.38 

Grapes    5.00  2.55  .25                      .11  1.26 

Lemons    5.26  2.54  1.55                      .58  1.51 

Olives    %.     13.50  9.11  2.43  1.25  5.60 

Oranges     4.32  2.11  .97                      .53  1.83 

Peaches   5.30  3.94*  .14*                    .85*  1.20* 

Pears    2.50  1.34  .19                      .34  .90 

Prunes,  French   4.86  3.10  .22  '   .68  1.82 

Plums     5.35  3.41*  .25*                    .75*  1.81 

Walnutst    12.98  8.18  1.55  1.47  5.41 


flncluding  hulls.  *Estimated. 


FIRST  AID   TO   THE   INJURED   SOIL 

Based  upon  the  clear  characteristics  of  California  soils  as 
already  indicated  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject,  Dr.  Hilgard  advises 
that  any  large-scale  fertilization  should  begin  with  phosphates  and 
nitrogen,  and,  should  this  not  prove  fully  satisfactory,  then  with 
potash  also,  this  being  the  order  in  which  these  substances  are 
likely  to  become  deficient  in  most  of  our  soils  under  cultivation. 
In  the  course  of  time  potash  fertilization  will  become  widely 
necessary  in  this  State;  in  fact  some  California  soils  are  naturally 
deficient  in  potash. 


AVAILABLE   SUPPLIES   OF   PHOSPHATES 

Phosphatic  manures  which  are  clearly  promotive  of  freer  fruit- 
ing of  trees  and  vines,  are  now  being  supplied  to  fruit  growers  by 
importers  and  manufacturers  located  in  various  California  cities, 
and  results  attained  by  their  use  are  such  as  to  warrant  contin- 
uance. They  are  bone  and  rock  phosphates,  which  are  transformed 
into  superphosphates,  and,  with  nitrogenous  matter  added,  serve 
as  good  applications  both  for  growth  and  fruiting. 


I 


HOW    TO    HANDLE    BONES  -jrQ 


Home-made  Bone  Manures. — Much  good  bone  manure  can  be 
made  by  collecting  bones,  heads,  horns,  feet,  etc.,  from  butchers' 
shops  or  elsewhere.  How  to  make  such  material  available,  by 
simple  proceedings,  is  described  by  Prof.  Hilgard  as  follows : 

1.  Bones  put  into  a  well-kept  (moistened)  manure  pile  will  themselves 
gradually  decay  and  disappear,  enriching  the  manure  to  that  extent. 

2.  Raw  bones  may  be  bodily  buried  in  the  soil  around  the  trees;  if  placed 
at  a  sufficient  depth,  beyond  the  reach  of  the  summer's  heat  and  drouth  and 
cultivating  tools,  the  rootlets  will  cluster  around  each  piece,  and,  in  course 
of  a  few  years,  consume  it  entirely. 

3.  Bones  may  be  packed  in  moist  wood  ashes,  best  mixed  with  a  little 
quick-lime,  the  mass  kept  moist  but  never  dripping.  In  a  few  months  the 
hardest  bones  will  be  reduced  to  a  fine  mush,  which  is  as  effectual  as  super- 
phosphate. Concentrated  lye  and  soil  may  be  used  instead  of  ashes.  In  this 
process  the  nitrogen  of  the  bones  is  lost,  going  off  in  the  form  of  ammonia, 
the  odor  of  which  is  very  perceptible  in  the  tank  used. 

For  neither  of  these  processes  should  the  bones  be  burned.  The  burning 
of  bones  is  an  unqualified  detriment  to  their  effectiveness,  which  can  only  be 
undone  by  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid. 

4.  Bones  steamed  for  three  or  four  hours  in  a  boiler  under  a  pressure  of 
thirty-five  to  fifty  pounds,  can,  after  drying,  be  readily  'crushed  in  an  ordinary 
barley-crushing  mill,  and  thus  be  rendered  more  convenient  for  use.  Practi- 
cally, very  little  of  the  nitrogen  (glue)  of  the  bones  need  be  thus  lost. 


POTASH 

Though,  as  already  stated,  potash  is  commonly  in  good  supply 
in  California  soils,  it  is  very  clear  from  experience  that  additions 
of  potash,  perhaps  in  more  available  form,  are  advisable.  The 
fruit  analyses  already  given  show  that  the  use  of  this  substance 
by  fruit  trees  and  vines  is  very  large.  Recent  experiments  also 
show  that  potash  ministers  directly  to  the  quality  of  the  fruit  in 
some  cases.  Ashes  from  wood  fires  are  the  most  available  source 
of  potash,  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  regard  wood  ashes  as  valuable 
only  for  their  potash  contents.  Professor  Storer  has  found  by 
analysis  of  a  number  of  samples  of  house  ashes,  that  selected  sam- 
ples contain  8Y2  per  cent  of  real  potash,  and  2  per  cent  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  or  say  4J/2  pounds  of  potash  and  one  pound  of  phos- 
phoric per  bushel.  Hence  there  is  enough  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  to  make  a  bushel  of  ashes  worth  twenty  or  twenty-five  cents, 
and  besides  that,  some  ten  or  fifteen  cents  additional  may  be 
allowed  for  the  "alkali  power"  of  the  ashes,  i.  c,  the  force  of 
alkalinity  which  enables  ashes  to  rot  weeds  and  to  ferment  peat. 

These  facts  suggest  to  the  fruit  grower  that  he  should  carefully 
preserve  all  home-made  wood  ashes  and  apply  them  to  the  soil 
at  once,  or,  if  stored  for  future  application,  be  sure  that  they  are 
kept  dry.  Leached  ashes  from  the  lye  barrel,  or  ashes  from 
open  piles,  leached  by  rains,  are  hardly  worth  handling.  Coal 
ashes  are  almost  devoid  of  fertilizing  properties,  though,  if  finely 
divided,  as  in  the  case  of  coals  burning  completely,  their  use  is 


;j^gQ  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

beneficial,  mechanically,  on  clay  soils,  in  the  same  way  that  fine 
sand  would  be. 

The  chief  supplies  of  potash  salts  are  now  brought  from  Ger- 
many and  are  in  the  hands  of  local  dealers,  but  there  are  exten- 
sive deposits  in  Utah,  New  Mexico,  and  elsewhere  in  the  interior, 
which  can  be  employed  when  railroads  make  them  available. 

NITROGEN 

Nitrogen  ministers  directly  to  the  vegetative  activity  of  the 
plant  and  is  a  wonderful  stimulant  of  wood  growth  and  foliage. 
Supplies  of  this  substance  can  be  had  from  animal  manures,  which 
will  be  considered  later.  The  effect  of  stable  manure  upon  the 
soil  and  the  plant  is  notably  strengthening  and  restorative.  For 
this  reason  money  and  effort  are  often  well  expended  in  securing 
it  even  beyond  the  cost  of  the  equivalent  of  the  plant  food  which 
it  contains.  Another  natural  form  of  nitrogen  in  cover  crops  or 
green  manures  will  be  discussed  presently.  Of  commercial  forms 
of  nitrogen,  tankage  and  dried  blood  are  highly  esteemed  for 
orchard  use,  and  there  is  large  use  also  of  Chile  saltpeter,  which 
contains  about  sixteen  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  in  immediately  avail- 
able form.  From  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds 
per  acre  is  the  usual  application.  Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  another 
available  source  of  nitrogen  obtainable  in  commerce ;  a  good  com- 
mercial article  contains  twenty  per  cent  and  over  of  nitrogen.  It 
does  not,  however,  act  quite  as  rapidly  as  the  Chile  saltpeter.  A 
suggestion  of  caution  in  the  use  of  nitrogenous  manures  will  be 
given  presently. 

LIME,    GYPSUM    AND    MARL 

Lime  is  another  substance  usually  abundant  in  California  soils, 
but  still  often  desirable  as  an  application.  This  is,  notably,  the 
case  on  our  heavy  clays  or  adobes,  where,  as  has  already  been  men- 
tioned in  another  connection,  the  use  of  lime  as  a  top  dressing, 
at  the  rate  of  six  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds  to  the  acre, 
not  only  makes  the  heavy  soil  more  friable,  but  acts  upon  and 
makes  available  the  large  amount  of  organic  matter  which  such 
soils  usually  contain.  Lime  also  renders  inorganic  materials  more 
available  for  plant  food,  corrects  acidity,  and  may  destroy  insects 
and  fungi.  Application  of  lime  is  also  desirable  after  applications 
of  barn-yard  manure  have  been  made  for  several  years;  and  it  is 
especially  valuable  wherevef-,  in  alluvial  soils  rich  in  vegetable  mat- 
ter, there  is  an  excessive  growth  of  wood  and  leaf.  Usually  light 
soils  are  not  materially  benefited  by  the  use  of  lime. 

Ground  limestone  is  sometimes  proposed  as  a  fertilizer,  and 
has  even  been  offered   on  the   market,     It  is  insoluble  and   inert 


TREATMENT     OF     STABLE     MANURES  -j^g-j^ 

carbonate  of  lime,  and  is  not  worth  the  cost  of  hauling  any  distance. 
^It  can  not  take  the  place  of  burned  limestone. 

^H     Gypsum. — Gypsum,  or  land  plaster   (sulphate  of  lime),  occurs 

^fti  considerable  quantities  in  this  State  and  Nevada,  and  is  now 

^^eing  mined  and  ground  at  a  low  price  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

It  acts  directly  in  correcting  soils  made  alkaline  by  presence  of 

carbonate  of  soda.     Applied  to  soils  not  alkaline,  gypsum  sets  free 

potash,  magnesia,  and  ammonia,  which  may  be  present  in  insoluble 

form;  and  it  also  causes  potash  to  be  transferred  from  the  upper 

to  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil,  so  that  roots  can  everywhere  find 

a  store  of  it.    Hence  its  special  value  when  applied  to  deep-rooting 

plants.     The   reason  why  gypsum   is  so  capricious   in   its  action, 

'      which  was  long  a  mystery,  is  now  held  to  be  clear,  because  upon 

I      soils  that  are  tolerably  rich  in  fixed  potash  it  will  do  good  service, 

while  upon  soils  poor  in  potash  it  will  not.     In  any  event  gypsum 

i  '  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  excitant  rather  than  as  a  form  of  plant  food. 

Of  the  several  uses  of  gypsum,  probably  its  chief  value  lies  in 

.      its  power  as  an  absorbent.     If  added  to  manure  in  excess  it  delays 

fermentation,  and  it  is,  therefore,  not  a  desirable  addition  to  the 

compost  heap.     But  for  covering  fermenting  manures  or  scattering 

around  moist  places  in  horse  and  cow  stables  to  absorb  odors  and 

fix  volatile  manurial  substances  it  is  of  value. 

Marls. — Marl  is  a  calcareous  earth,  and  is  called  shell  marl, 
rock  marl,  earthy  marls,  etc.,  according  to  its  origin  and  mechanical 
condition.  A  number  of  samples  from  different  parts  of  the  State 
have  been  analyzed  by  Professor  Hilgard  and  some  of  them  com- 
mended for  local  application  to  soils  needing  lime,  but  not  valuable 
j  enough  to  warrant  hauling  far.  Marl  which  sometimes  occurs 
in  California  too  near  the  surface  is  injurious  to  trees,  causing 
yellow  leaf  and  die  back  when  reached  by  the  roots. 

BARN-YARD    MANURE    AND    COMPOST 

Where  fruit  growing  is  carried  on  with  stock  growing,  there 
are  abundant  supplies  of  manure  available,  but  this  combination 
is  not  characteristic  of  California,  though  prevailing  to  some  extent, 
and  likely  to  be  more  prevalent  as  fruit  planting  extends  farther 
from  the  centers  which  are  wholly  given  to  it.  But  even  in  the 
fruit  centers  there  are  certain  amounts  of  material  available  from 
the  animals  that  are  kept  for  cultivation  and  hauling,  or  to  be  had, 
often,  for  the  expense  of  hauling  from  adjacent  towns. 

As  already  stated,  coarse,  unrotted  manure  can  seldom  be  used 
to  advantage  in  this  State,  unless  it  be  in  heavy  soils  in  regions 
of  ample  rainfall,  or  on  lighter  soils,  perhaps,  if  well  irrigated; 
and  even  in  such  situations  either  finely  divided  or  well-rotted 
manure  is  infinitely  superior.     Corral  scrapings,  which  are  usually 


IQ2  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW    THEM 

the  first  resource  when  the  idea  of  manuring  springs  up  in  a  neigh- 
borhood, are  not  always  well  decomposed,  but  they  are  finely 
divided,  and  therefore  decompose  readily  as  compared  with  coarse 
straw,  which,  it  is  said,  has  been  found  practically  unchanged  even 
after  lying  two  years  in  a  dry,  loose  soil.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the 
greatest  advantage  to  prepare  barnyard  manure  with  care  for  use 
in  this  State  by  some  such  method  as  will  be  described  below, 
which  includes  composting,  thereby  turning  to  account  nearly 
all  organic  material  likely  to  be  available : 

Clean  up  all  the  manure  on  hand  just  before  the  fall  rains,  putting  the 
same  on  the  land,  and  either  cultivate  it  in  or  plow  it  under.  What  manure 
accumulates  during  the  winter  pile  in  a  snug  heap  some  five  or  six  feet  in 
depth,  and  throw  it  over  some  three  or  four  times  during  the  winter  to  keep 
it  from  burning,  as  well  as  to  thoroughly  mix  it  and  thereby  hasten  decom- 
position. Put  horse,  cow,  hog,  chicken,  and  every  other  kind  of  manure  that 
can  be  had,  all  together.  Never  burn  anything  that  will  rot,  but  haul  to  the 
pile  corn-stalks,  roots,  and  all  squash,  melon,  tomato,  and  potato  vines,  etc., 
as  well  as  weeds  of  every  description,  in  fact,  anything  and  everything  that 
will  decay  and  make  vegetable  matter.  Use  fresh  horse  manure  mostly  to 
hasten  the  decomposition  of  said  vines,  weeds,  etc.,  alternating  as  the  heap 
is  made.  By  so  doing  there  will  not  be  a  weed  seed  left  with  vitality  enough 
to  germinate.  It  is  well  to  have  manure  piles  under  a  roof  to  avoid  leaching 
during  the  longest  and  most  excessive  rains,  but  so  situated  that  some  of  the 
rain  falling  on  the  barn  can  be  easily  conducted  to  the  piles,  giving  them  just 
the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  wet  thoroughly  without  leaching,  and  no 
more. 

Treatment  of  Manure  without  Composting. — Even  when  com- 
posting all  refuse  vegetable  matter  with  the  manure  is  not  thought 
worth  the  time  and  trouble,  it  is  just  as  important  to  properly 
treat  the  manure  when  stored  alone.  This  can  be  easily  done  by 
some  such  plan  as  is  described  below : 

Collect  the  stable  manure  in  a  large  bin  and  keep  it  wet  enough  to  prevent 
burning  or  "fire-fanging."  With  a  bin,  say  ten  or  twelve  feet  square  and  five 
or  six  feet  high,  built  convenient  to  the  barn,  the  manure  can  be  placed 
therein  and  watered  from  time  to  time  with  much  less  trouble  than  it  can  be 
composted  with  other  material.  This,  of  course,  presupposes  the  ability  to 
run  the  water  in  through  a  hose  or  by  natural  flow.  Care  must,  of  course,  be 
taken  that  too  much  water  be  not  supplied,  causing  the  substance  to  be 
leached  from  the  pile.  But  in  my  own  experience  I  find  the  danger  is  at  the 
other  extreme,  and  when  I  open  my  pile  I  sometimes  wish  I  had  used  more 
water.  In  filling  the  bin  leave  one  end  or  side  open  as  long  as  possible,  for 
convenience  of  filling. 

Barn-yard  manure  and  compost  carefully  prepared  in  some  such 
way  as  described,  and  applied  before  the  rains  or  early  in 
the  rainy  season,  to  be  turned  under  at  the  first  plowing,  will  be 
in  condition  to  be  readily  assimilated,  and  will  not  injure  any 
soil.  Where  no  composting  is  undertaken  it  is  rational  to  apply 
the  manure  during  the  rainy  season  directly  to  the  land  if  the 
rainfall  is  not  large  and  the  land  fit  to  haul  over.  During  the  dry 
season  the  manure  can  be  spread  in  the  corral  and  tramped  into 
dust  by  the  stock  because  as  long  as  it  remains  dry  no  losses  by 


I 


USING     WASTE     MATERIALS 


163 


ermentation  can  occur.  Near  the  end  of  the  dry  season,  the 
corral  should  be  scraped  and  all  the  material  spread  on  the  land. 
In  this  way  the  cost  and  trouble  of  manure  piles  can  be  avoided. 

Sheep  Manure. — The  proximity  of  the  orange  orchards  of  South- 
ern California  to  extensive  sheep  ranges  led  to  large  use  of  the 
manure  from  the  sheep  corrals  until  supplies  were  practically 
exhausted.  Afterwards  large  deposits  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley 
were  opened  and  the  material,  which  has  shown  value  by  analysis 
in  one  case  of  above  $14  per  ton,  is  finely  ground  and  placed  upon 
the  market  in  a  business  way.  One  deposit  mined  for  several 
years  by  George  C.  Roeding  &  Co.,  of  Fresno,  was  several  acres 
in  extent  and  at  some  points  the  material  was  ten  feet  deep.  Such 
deposits  can  seldom  be  found  now  except  in  remote  parts  of  the 
State. 

Sheep  manure  is  usually  counted  richer  and  quicker,  though 
not  so  lasting  in  its  effects,  as  stable  manure.  Being  highly  nitro- 
genous, too  free  use  of  sheep  manure  tends  to  excessive  growth 
of  wood,  especially  on  young  trees.  Old  bearing  trees  may  be 
benefited  by  such  a  stimulant. 


VARIOUS    WASTE    PRODUCTS 

The  care  advised  in  saving  and  treating  barn-yard  manure,  hen 
manure,  bones,  ashes,  etc.,  should  be  extended  to  other  waste 
products  of  the  farm.  Soapsuds  should  be  allowed  to  run  to  adja- 
cent trees  unless  used  in  the  flower  garden,  but  not  too  long  upon 
the  same  trees  for  it  may  kill  them.  Peelings  and  corings  of  fruit, 
cut  for  drying,  should  be  fed  to  pigs  and  the  resulting  manure 
secured.  It  is  not  wise  to  corral  the  swine  in  a  dry  run  in  the 
summer  and  allow  the  manure  to  be  sluiced  out  by  the  winter  rise 
of  the  stream. 

Prunings. — Prunings  of  the  orchard  and  vineyard  should  be 
burned  between  the  rows,  in  small  piles,  so  as  to  distribute  the 
ashes  well.  Danger  to  adjacent  trees  may  be  avoided  by  using 
the  portable,  home-made  tin  shields  on  the  sides  of  the  fires.  It 
is  not  wise  to  carry  all  the  prunings  to  the  side  of  the  highway 
and  burn  them  there  and  allow  the  ashes  to  be  lost.  Vineyard 
prunings  are  sometimes  cut  up  with  an  arrangement  like  a  straw- 
cutter,  which  reduces  them  to  bits  about  an  inch  in  length.  They 
are  then  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  turned  under 
at  the  next  plowing,  and  soon  decay.  Where,  through  lightness 
of  soil  and  short  rainfall,  the  woody  fiber  does  not  readily  decay, 
burning  upon  an  iron  sled  about  ten  feet  long  is  practiced.  At 
its  front  is  a  V-shaped  iron  rod,  to  which  a  horse  can  be  hitched. 
On   the   sled   are   flaring   sheet-iron   sides   and   perforated   bottom. 


164 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THl<:M 


This  is  filled  with  brush,  a  fire  kindled,  and  as  the  horse  moves 
forward  fresh  brush  is  added,  while  the  ashes  by  its  motion  are 
sifted  out  very  evenly  all  over  the  vineyard. 

Refuse  from  Wineries. — The  fermented  husks,  stems,  and  seeds, 
all  containing  valuable  fertilizing  properties,  are  often  spread  on 
the  road  and  in  holes,  where  it  is  of  no  account  whatever.  If 
scattered  over  the  vineyard,  much  valuable  substance  would  be 
returned  to  the  soil.  In  some  soils  application  of  raw  refuse 
would  be  undesirable  because  of  the  acidity  developed.  It  is 
usually  safe  on  calcareous  soils,  and  for  other  soils  should  be 
composted  with  lime  or  wood  ashes  to  facilitate  decay  and  neu- 
tralization of  the  acid.  Of  winery  refuse  the  lees  are  especially 
valuable  because  of  the  supplies  of  potash  they  contain,  but  they 
are  now  being  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tartaric  acid. 

Other  Waste  Products. — There  are  available  from  various  man- 
ufactories different  waste  products  which  can  not  be  specified. 
When  any  such  material  comes  to  the  notice  of  the  fruit  grower, 
he  should  seek  advice  from  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
at  Berkeley,  as  to  the  probable  value  of  the  material,  and  its  special 
uses. 

CAUTION    IN    USE    OF    FERTILIZERS 

Besides  the  injunction  already  given  against  application  of 
fertilizers  when  the  soil  is  already  quite  rich  enough  to  produce 
good  fruit  and  plenty  of  it,  it  should  be  noted  that  manures  unduly- 
rich  in  animal  matter  should  be  used  with  caution,  as  they  may 
overstimulate  the  plant,  delay  or  reduce  fruiting,  injure  the  quality 
of  the  fruit,  and  possibly  engender  disease  in  the  tree  or  vine. 
Monstrous  size  and  puffiness  of  oranges  is  clearly  due  in  some 
cases  to  excess  of  nitrogenous  manures.  Excessive  use  of  soluble 
fertilizers  like  nitrate  of  soda  may  kill  plants  or  trees  outright. 

The  effect  of  excessive  use  of  stable  manures,  or  other  manures 
very  rich  in  nitrogen,  upon  the  products  of  the  vine  has  been 
frequently  noted  as  destructive  to  bouquet  and  quality. 

METHODS    OF    APPLYING    FERTILIZERS 

Suggestions  concerning  proper  application  of  barn-yard 
manures,  both  to  young  trees  at  planting  and  to  bearing  trees 
and  vines,  have  already  been  given.  The  same  conditions  which 
cause  slow  decomposition  of  stable  manures  apply  to  any  fertil- 
izing material  which  is  not  readily  soluble  in  water.  All  such 
material  should  be  in  a  finely  divided  state.  Surface  applications 
of  ground  bone,  will,  in  the  dry  climate  of  California,  lie  practically 
unchanged  for  a  long  period.     Ground  bone  should  be  plowed  in 


MANURES    IN    IRRIGATION    WATER  igr 

as  deeply  as  can  be  done  without  injury  to  the  roots  of  trees  and 
vines,  and  then,  if  the  surface  is  kept  cultivated,  it  will  lie  in  moist 
strata  and  decompose,  or  be  siezed  by  the  searching  rootlets.  On 
the  other  hand,  superphosphate,  or  other  really  soluble  chemical 
fertilizers,  will  produce  immediate  results,  and  can  be  most  eco- 
nomically used  on  light  and  easily  permeable  soils,  on  which  falling 
water  sinks  and  does  not  flow  over  the  surface.  In  leachy  soils 
a  part  of  such  fertilizers  might  be  carried  down  beyond  the  reach 
of  shallow-rooting  plants,  but  there  is  little  danger  of  this  in  the 
case  of  trees  and  vines. 

When  superphosphate  is  used  on  irrigated  ground,  it  is  some- 
times drilled  in  to  prevent  its  being  carried  along  with  the  running 
water.  One  way  is  to  run  a  chisel-tooth  cultivator  ahead  of  the 
grain-seed  drill  and  to  distribute  and  drill  in  the  fertilizer  as  deep 
as  feasible  to  do  without  injuring  the  roots.  Spring  application  of 
fertilizers  are  conveniently  made  by  spreading  upon  the  vegetation 
which  is  plowed  under  at  that  season. 

Manures  with  Irrigation  Water. — Distribution  of  fertilizers  by 
using  the  flow  of  irrigation  water  is  described  by  A.  S.  Chapman, 
as  follows : 

We  shovel  sheep  manure  into  the  irrigating  ditches,  allowing  each  tree  to 
receive  about  twenty-five  pounds  at  each  separate  irrigation.  Our  basins 
cover  the  entire  surface  of  the  ground.  We  make  no  effort  to  choke  such 
weeds  as  clover,  alfilerilla,  and  the  like;  but  the  irrigator  with  his  hoe  de- 
stroys the  obnoxious  nightshade,  hoarhound,  and  nettle. 

In  the  fall  of  the  year  we  follow  with  copious  liming — about  three  barrels 
of  unslacked  lime  to  the  acre — applied  in  the  following  manner  at  the  head 
of  our  irrigating  ditch:  We  plant  a  box  about  three  feet  wide,  six  feet  long, 
two  feet  deep,  and  six  inches  under  the  surface  of  the  running  water.  In  it 
we  place  a  barrel  of  the  lime.  It  slacks  and  swells  to  twice  its  original  bulk. 
A  man  stands  on  this  with  his  hoe  and  sees  that  the  water  carries  it  off 
evenly.  With  an  irrigating  head  such  as  we  use,  a  man  will  run  into  the 
ditch  four  barrels  a  day,  or  about  three  barrels  to  the  acre.  We  have  a  con- 
siderable fall,  and  the  water  runs  very  rapidly;  but  it  takes  up  all  the  lime, 
and  the  water  runs  white,  like  milk. 

We  now  leave  the  orange  orchard  till  spring,  when  we  plow  under  weeds, 
manure  and  lime.  We  thus  aim  to  supply  our  soil  with  nitrate  of  lime, 
potash,  and  magnesia.  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  absorbed  by  the  water  and 
attacks  the  inert  plant  food  in  the  soil;  hard-pan  is  prevented  both  by  the 
mechanical  effects  of  the  vegetable  matter  and  the  lime. 

The  basin  method  of  irrigation,  to  which  allusion  is  made,  will 
be  more  fully  described  in  the  following  chapter. 

FERTILIZING    MATTERS    IN    IRRIGATION    WATER 

Water  used  for  irrigation  may  carry  in  solution  injurious  sub- 
stances, as,  for  example,  alkali,  as  will  be  noted  in  the  following 
chapter;  or  it  may  carry  very  valuable  fertilizing  properties. 
These  facts  can  only  be  determined  by  analysis.  Professor  Hilgard 
has  found  that  the  water  of  one  creek  in  7\lameda  County  carries 
to  the  land  it  irrigates  about  half  a  grain  of  potash  in  each  gallon, 


IQQ  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

which  means  that  if  twelve  inches  of  such  water  were  used  on 
the  ground  during  the  season,  each  acre  would  receive  therefrom 
about  twenty  pounds  of  fully  available  potash.  At  Riverside  a 
crop  of  oranges  requires  about  forty-two  pounds  of  potash  per 
acre,  of  which  the  amount  of  irrigation  water  used  in  that  case 
contained  thirty-five  pounds,  beside  other  matters  required  by 
plants.  These  things  have  a  definite  cash  value  in  the  market;  and 
this  value  the  irrigator  gets  as  a  free  gift  in  addition  to  the  water. 
Even  in  the  case  of  the  Nile,  the  sediment  is  only  part  of  the  sum 
of  fertility  conveyed  by  the  river. 

GREEN   MANURING   OR   COVER   CROPS 

Green  manuring  consists  in  plowing  under  a  growth  of  weeds 
or  a  sown  crop  to  secure  by  its  decay  a  contribution  of  humus 
to  the  soil.  Plants  grown  for  this  purpose  are  currently  called 
''cover  crops"  because  they  cover  the  soil  instead  of  allowing  it 
to  remain  bare  in  ''clean  culture"  of  orchard  or  "bare  fallow"  of 
grain  fields. 

All  plants  by  their  decay  in  the  soil  add  organic  matter  to  it, 
and  this  matter  is  of  nitrogenous  character,  but  leguminous 
plants  do  this  and  a  great  deal  more,  through  their  exclusive  ability 
to  use  atmospheric  nitrogen  gathered  by  the  bacteria  which  cause 
nodules  upon  their  roots.  There  is  also  special  value  in  deep- 
rooting  legume  in  soil  amelioration.  There  is  now  reason  to 
believe,  as  has  already  been  stated,  that  where  moisture  is  ample 
for  both  alfalfa  and  trees  we  shall  come  to  using  this  plant  for 
a  permanent  cover  of  orchard  ground  as  a  substitute  for  apart 
of  the  clean  culture  which  is  now  observed.  This  is,  in  fact, 
already  being  done  to  some  extent.  It  is  also  probable  that  alfalfa 
can  be  used  for  a  certain  time  even  where  its  permanent  stand 
is  not  desirable,  for  it  is  not  difficult  to  destroy  alfalfa  with  a 
well-sharpened  plow  although  the  roots  may  have  attained  con- 
siderable thickness.  Of  course  this,  as  already  stated,  depends 
upon  moisture  supply;  where  that  is  n6t  abundant,  clean  culture 
for  moisture  conservation  is  unavoidable.  But  where  moisture  in 
excess  of  the  needs  of  the  trees  is  available  it  will  be  used  in  future 
indirectly  for  their  benefit  in  ways  we  are  only  just  beginning  to 
discern,  and  one  of  these  is  likely  to  be  the  summer  growth  of 
legumes  in  the  orchard.  Cow  peas  on  moist  or  irrigated  lands  may 
be  used  in  this  way. 

A  summer  cover  crop  in  California  is,  however,  largely  a  matter 
for  future  determination,  and  under  ordinary  conditions  may  never 
be  practicable.  The  wider  problem  is  to  secure  the  best  legumi- 
nous plant  which  will  make  a  heavy  growth  during  the  winter 
months,  so  that  it  can  be  plowed  in  early  in  spring,  and  the  ground 
put   in   shape   for   the   thorough   surface   pulverization    to   prevent 


Lemon  orchard  under  clean  culture. 


Winter  view  of  lemon  orchard  with  coyer  crop  of  vetche§, 


IQ^  CAmFORNlA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

evaporation  of  moisture  during  our  long,  dry  summer.  For  this 
reason  we  can  not  use  many  plants  which  are  used  for  green- 
manuring  in  humid  climates.  Crimson  clover,  cow  peas,  etc.,  do 
not  make  good  winter  growth  unless  the  temperature  is  relatively 
high  and  frosts  few  and  light.  They  make  exuberant  growth  for 
a  time  in  the  spring  when  heat  is  adequate  and  moisture  abundant, 
but  at  that  time  it  is  too'  late  to  grow  crops  for  plowing  under 
because  the  soil  is  too  dry  for  their  decay  and  their  presence  tends 
otherwise  to  the  loss  of  moisture  and  makes  it  very  difficult  to 
secure  a  good  surface  tilth.  The  greatest  care  must  be  had  not 
to  allow  a  growth  either  of  cover  crop  or  of  weeds  to  stand  too 
long  or  its  covering  will  do  more  harm  than  good.  Hardy  legumes 
are  therefore  the  desideratum  both  for  winter  forage  and  green- 
manuring.  The  common  "burr  clover"  (Medicago  denticulata)  is 
proving  very  satisfactory  in  some  parts  of  the  State,  the  ''Canadian 
field  pea,"  the  winter  vetch,  the  hairy  vetch  and  fenugreek  are 
coming  into  quite  wide  use  in  orchards  in  different  parts  of  the 
State.  Which  plant  is  best  in  any  locality  must  be  determined 
by  its  local  behavior.  In  some  places  native  lupines  make  a  good 
natural  cover  crop. 

A  Matter  of  Local  Study. — The  recourse  to  cover  crops  in 
the  orchard  or  vineyard  should  be  approached  with  a  disposition 
to  careful  study  and  experiment.  Unless  it  is  done  in  the  right 
way  it  is  likely  to  be  disappointing  and  the  right  way  involves 
both  the  selection  of  the  best  legumes  and  the  best  ways  to  grow 
them.  Scant  growth,  cloddy  soil,  loss  of  moisture  and  condemna- 
tion of  the  practice  are  likely  to  result  from  ill-considered  methods. 
On  the  other  hand,  success  with  cover  crops  results  in  such  numer- 
ous and  important  advantages  that  the  wide  introduction  of  them 
must  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  most  important  advances  in 
California  horticulture  during  the  last  decade.  One  of  the  most 
careful  students  of  cover  crops  in  all  their  bearings  is  Mr.  L.  L. 
Palmer  of  North  Pomona,  who  in  a  recent  public  address  cited 
ten  different  reasons  for  growing  cover  crops  (legumes)  in  the 
orchard : 

1.  They  provide  humus  in  the  soil,  by  which  the  inert  fer- 
tilization materials  of  the  soil  are  made  available. 

2.  They  make  it  possible  to  obtain  results  from  the  use  of  the 
cheaper  forms  of  phosphate,  such  as  Thomas  Slag  and  other  unacid- 
ulated  phosphates. 

3.  They  store  up  nitrpgen  from  the  air,  and  therefore  act  as 
a  direct  nitrogenous  fertilizer. 

4.  They  improve  vastly  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil, 
making  it  easily  possible  to  secure  the  best  cultivation. 

5.  They  put  the  soil  in  a  condition  to  retain  moisture. 


I 


I 


SERVICE    OF    COVER    CROPS 


169 


6.  They  make  the  soil  porous,  so  that  proper  aeration  is 
secured. 

7.  They  are  a  means  for  overcoming-  irrigation  hard-pan  and 
plow-sole. 

8.  While  growing  they  prevent  the  washing  of  the  soil  by 
the  storm  waters. 

9.  While  growing  they  probably  assist  in  preventing  the  radi- 
ation of  heat  from  the  ground  in  time  of  a  freeze. 

10.  They  do  away  with  the  cultivation  of  the  ground  during 
the  winter  months. 

Each  of  these  reasons  suggests  a  chapter  of  discussion  and 
explanation  which  can  not  be  indulged  in.  Every  reader  should 
keep  himself  up  to  date  in  this  progressive  subject  by  thoughtful 
reading  of  our  horticultural  journals  and  proceedings  of  our  horti- 
cultural assemblies. 


CHAPTER   XV 
IRRIGATION    OF    FRUIT   TREES    AND    VINES 

Whether  fruit  shall  be  grown  with  irrigation  or  not  is  a  local 
and  specific  question,  and  it  must  be  answered  with  due  regard 
for  several  conditions,  among  which  are:  First,  the  minimum 
local  rainfall ;  second,  the  depth  and  character  of  the  soil  and  sub- 
soil ;  third,  the  situation  and  environment  of  the  ground  on  which 
the  fruit  is  to  be  grown ;  fourth,  the  kind  of  fruit  which  it  is  desired 
to  produce. 

These  conditions  are  all  correlated,  and  a  knowledge  of  them 
all  is  necessary  to  an  intelligent  decision  as  to  correct  practice 
in  any  given  locality.  For  example,  the  amount  of  rainfall  which 
is  adequate  in  one  locality,  or  in  one  situation,  even,  may  be 
quite  insufficient  in  another,  because,  first,  one  soil  may  be  deep 
and  fairly  retentive,  into  which  roots  can  penetrate  and  find  abun- 
dant moisture;  second,  another  soil  may  have  sufficient  depth, 
but  be  so  porous  as  to  lose  its  moisture  by  evaporation,  or  so 
leachy  as  to  lose  it  by  drainage ;  third,  still  another  may  be  shallow, 
and  quickly  dried  out  under  a  fervid  sun,  or  quickly  drained  by 
reason  of  a  sloping  substratum  of  rock  or  hard-pan,  while  another 
similar  soil,  dififerently  situated,  may  receive  abundant  moisture 
from  the  drainage  of  the  slope  above  it ;  fourth,  possibly  in  all  the 
soils  cited  there  might  be  adequate  moisture  for  deciduous  fruits, 
but  citrus  fruits  would  require  irrigation ;  or  enough  for  young, 
but  not  for  bearing  trees. 

Thus  it  appears  that  even  to  decide  whether  a  location  has 
sufficient  rainfall  for  the  growth  of  fruit  without  irrigation,  one 
must  pass  judgment  upon  all  the  conditions  first  mentioned.  It  is 
hardly  worth  while,  then,  to  discuss  such  a  topic  upon  theoretical 
grounds,  or  to  attempt  to  answer  the  general  question.  Shall  irri- 
gation be  employed  in  the  growth  of  fruit?  The  true  guide  is 
enlightened  local  experience,  and  the  true  test  is  the  growth  of 
the  tree  and  the  excellence  of  its  fruit.  So  long  as  the  grower 
is  able  to  secure  every  year  a  generous  amount  of  good-sized 
and  excellent  fruit  by  natural  rainfall,  he  need  concern  himself 
very  little  about  irrigation  ;  if  his  tree  shows  distress,  and  his  fruit, 
even  when  properly  thinned  out,  is  not  up  to  market  standards 
every  year,  he  may  do  well  to  provide  himself  with  irrigation 
facilities,  either  for  constant  use  or  to  supplement  rainfall  when 
it  is  occasionally  deficient. 

170 


RESULTS     OF     OVER-IRRIGATION  I'Jl 

Of  course  it  is  not  commended  as  a  rule  of  practice  that  the 
grower  wait  until  the  tree  shows  signs  of  distress  before  applying 
water.  This  is  a  very  bad  plan  of  proceeding,  but  the  visible 
|langua.ge  of  the  tree  is  mentioned  as  indicating  that  the  tree  needs 
help,  either  at  regular  intervals  or  occasionally,  and  after  such  a 
warning  the  grower  should  be  able  to  tell  by  examination  of  the 
soil  and  by  study  of  the  local  rainfall  record  when  this  need  will 
occur,  and  apply  his  water  in  advance  of  the  need. 

Recent  experience  has  enabled  fruit  growers  in  all  parts  of 
California  to  arrive  at  a  truer  conception  of  the  relation  of  irri- 
gation to  the  growth  of  fruits.  Many  who  long  scouted  the  sug- 
gestion that  irrigation  was  necessary  for  deciduous  fruit  trees 
in  their  districts,  have  found  that  w^ater,  in  addition  to  the  rainfall, 
was  very  profitable,  either  to  enable  large,-  bearing  trees  to  produce 
larger  fruit,  or  to  maintain  in  full  vigor  their  later  summer  growth 
and  to  make  strong  fruit  buds,  which  insure  the  following  year's 
production.  It  has  also  been  widely  demonstrated  that  a  tree 
which  is  adequately  supplied  with  water,  no  matter  whether  it  be 
directly  from  the  clouds  or  through  the  irrigating  stream,  yields 
fruit  of  better  size,  aroma,  flavor  and  carrying  quality  than  a  tree 
which,  from  any  cause,  falls  even  a  little  short  of  an  adequate 
supply.  It  is  clear  then  that  neither  irrigation  nor  non-irrigation 
are  in  themselves  principles,  but  are  merely  methods  to  be  em- 
ployed when  conditions  demand  the  one  or  the  other. 

Several  claims  against  irrigated  products  may  be  stated  and 
opposed  in  this  way : 

(1)  The  claim  that  nursery  trees  grown  by  irrigation  are, 
from  that  mere  fact,  inferior  is  based  upon  experience  in  trans- 
planting trees  unduly  forced  by  overirrigation.  Immense  growth 
from  the  bud  in  a  single  season  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter 
and  ten  feet  in  height  tempted  buyers  who  wanted  to  get  as  much 
as  possible  for  their  money.  The  result  of  setting  out  such  trees 
created  a  strong  prejudice  against  irrigated  nursery  stock.  It 
is  now  clearly  seen  that  moderate,  thrifty  growth  is  the  ideal  in 
a  young  tree,  and  if  the  soil  does  not  hold  rainfall  enough  to 
secure  this,  water  enough  to  secure  it  must  be  applied. 

(2)  The  claim  that  irrigated  fruit  lacks  aroma  and  flavor  is 
based  upon  observation  of  monstrous,  insipid  fruit  forced  into 
such  abnormal  character  by  excessive  irrigation.  Growers  who 
concluded  therefrom  that  irrigated  fruit  was  necessarily  inferior", 
denied  water  to  their  trees  and  gathered  small,  tough,  unmarketable 
fruit,  because  there  was  not  enough  rainfall  to  enable  the  trees  to 
perform  their  proper  function.  As  it  is  now  conceded  that  the 
highest  quality,  including  the  delicate  aromas  and  flavors,  can 
be  secured  only  by  adequate  moisture,  it  matters  not  how  long 
since  it  fell  from  the  clouds  nor  by  what  route  it  reaches  the 
roots  of  the  trees. 


172 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


(3)  The  claim  that  irrigated  fruit  could  not  endure  shipment 
was  based  upon  the  bruising  and  collapse  of  fruit  which  was 
unduly  inflated  by  overirrigation.  The  best  fruit  for  shipping 
is  the  perfect  fruit  and  that  is  secured  as  just  stated.  The  fact 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  fresh  fruit  shipped  across  the  conti- 
nent from  California  has  been  more  or  less  irrigated,  according 
to  the  needs  of  different  localities,  has  settled  the  point  beyond 
further  controversy. 

(4)  The  claim  that  canners  objected  to  irrigated  fruit  was 
based  upon  the  early  experience  with  overirrigated  fruit,  which 
lacked  quality  and  consistency.  At  present  the  canners  encourage 
irrigation  and  all  other  arts  of  growing  which  bring  the  product 
up  to  the  standards  they  insist  upon. 

(5)  The  claim  that  irrigated  fruit  is  inferior  for  drying  has 
the  same  foundation  as  the  preceding  claims  and  is  just  as  clearly 
based  upon  misapprehension.  Watery  fruit  is  obviously  inferior 
for  drying,  but  such  fruit  is  the  fault  of  the  irrigator,  not  of  irri- 
gation. One  of  the  plainest  deductions  from  experience  is  that 
small,  tough  fruit  makes  unprofitable  dried  fruit,  and  that  the 
best  development  of  the  fruit  is  essential  to  the  best  results  from 
drying.  Many  comparative  weighings  have  shown  that  the  great- 
est yield  in  dried  form  has  been  secured  from  trees  which  have 
had  water  enough  to  produce  good,  large  fruit.  Even  to  bear 
fruit  for  drying,  then,  the  tree  must  have  moisture  enough  to 
develop  size  and  quality.  If  lacking  moisture,  the  tree  serves  its 
own  purpose  in  developing  pit  and  skin  and  reduces  the  pulp, 
in  which  lie  the  desirability  and  value  of  dried  fruits. 

Of  course  the  water  should  be  applied  at  proper  times,  in 
proper  amount,  and  in  a  proper  way. 

HOW    MUCH    WATER   SHOULD    BE   USED? 

This  is  by  its  very  nature  an  elusive  question  and  any  attempt 
to  answer  it  by  a  definite  prescription  is  more  apt  to  produce  folly 
than  wisdom.  For  as  it  appears  that  whether  irrigation  is  at  all 
needed  or  not  depends  upon  several  conditions  which  must  be 
ascertained  in  each  place,  so  the  amount  of  water,  which  is  really 
an  expression  of  the  degree  of  that  need,  depends  also  upon  local 
conditions  of  rainfall,  of  soil  depth  and  retentiveness,  of 
rate  of  waste  by  evaporation,  of  the  particular  thirst  of 
each  irrigated  crop,  etc.  The  result  secured  by  the  use 
of  water  is  really  the  ultimate  measure  of  the  duty  of  water  in 
each  instance.  In  the  case  of  fruit  trees  and  vines,  then,  what- 
ever amount  of  water  secures  thrifty  and  adequate  wood  growth 
and  strong,  good-colored  foliage,  but  not  excessive  or  rank  growth ; 
and  abundance  of  good-sized  and  rich,  but  not  monstrous  and 
watery,  fruit,  is  the  proper  amount  for  that  place  and  that  product, 


INQUIRY    INTO    IKKIGATION    PRACTICE  -.170 

-and  to  the  ascertainment  of  that  amount,  by  local  experience  of 
himself  and  others,  the  grower  should  employ  his  most  earnest 
J:hought  and  his  keenest  insight. 

During  recent  years  the  writer  has  continually  renewed  his 
data  of  the  irrigation  practice  of  California  fruit  growers  by  sys- 
tematic inquiry  and  has  prepared  four  bulletins*  which  have  been 
published  by  the  Irrigation  Investigations  of  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

A  study  of  local  practice  shows  that  infinite  variety  exists  and 
in  the  nature  of  the  case  must  exist,  and  that  any  definite  prescrip- 
tion of  the  duty  of  water  under  various  conditions  is  impossible. 
In  some  cases  the  amount  of  water  at  each  irrigation  must  be 
small,  as,  for  instance,  the  frequent  irrigation  in  Sacramento  and 
Placer  Counties,  where  the  soils  are  shallow,  over-lying  bed-rock, 
and  a  small  amount  saturates  them.  In  other  places  an  acre-foot 
of  water  is  readily  absorbed  and  retained  in  the  deep  soil.  The 
annual  rainfall  also  has  little  relation  to  the  amount  of  irrigation, 
because  neither  fine  shallow,  nor  deep  coarse  soils,  can  retain  the 
volume  of  water  which  falls  upon  them  during  the  rainy  season. 
Then  the  varying  rate  of  evaporation,  the  character  of  the  tilth, 
etc.,  enter  as  factors  and  it  becomes  clear  that  he  is  fortunate 
who  knows  how  much  water  to  use  on  his  own  place. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  results  of  close  inquiry  by  the  Irri- 
gation Investigations  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  to 
ascertain  the  amounts  of  water  used  by  measurement  of 
water  running  in  main  ditches  and  by  estimate  of  the  acreage 
to  which  '  the  water  is  applied,  do  not  agree  closely  with 
the  growers'  estimates  of  the  amounts  of  water  which 
they  actually  use.  There  are  of  course  always  issues  between 
water-purveyors  and  water-buyers  which  can  not  be  entered  upon 
in  this  connection.  A  rough  conclusion  from  data  secured  from 
the  ditch  flow,  etc.,  is  that  from  12  to  30  acre-inches  of  water  are 
used  annually  in  irrigated  orchards  and  vineyards,  according  to 
local  conditions  involved.  It  is  quite  clear  that  the  amounts  chiefly 
used  would  not  be  the  average  but  would  tend  toward  the  lower 
figure.  The  details  of  these  inquiries  are  found  in  the  publications 
on  irrigation  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.* 


*  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  116,  "Irrigation  in  fruit  growing."  Farmers'  Bulletin, 
No.  138,  "Irrigation  in  garden  and  field,"  Bulletin  of  Experiment  Stations,  No.  108, 
"Irrigation  practice  among  fruit  growers  of  the  Pacific  coast."  Annual  report  of 
Irrigation  and  Drainage  investigations,  1904,  "Relation  of  irrigation  to  yield,  size, 
quality,  and  commercial  suitability  of  fruits." 


*  Definite  citation  is  not  made  because  these  publications  are  continually  appear- 
ing with  additional  data  on  the  effective  use  of  water.  The  whole  series  should  be 
examined. 


174  CALIFOIINIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

RELATION    OF    RAINFALL   TO    IRRIGATION 

The  amount  of  rain  and  the  time  it  falls  are  clearly  the  most 
important  factors  in  determining  the  necessity  for  irrigation. 
Absence  of  rainfall  makes  a  desert  of  the  richest  soils  at  all 
elevations  and  at  all  exposures.  Its  only  remedy  is  irrigation. 
But  there  are  degrees  of  poverty  in  rainfall,  and  thorough  tillage 
will  often  lessen  the  ill  effects  of  a  scanty  supply,  so  that  an  oasis 
may  be  made  to  appear  without  water  beyond  that  supplied  from 
the  clouds.  This  is  the  triumph  of  tillage  in  the  arid  region  which 
is  to  be  considered  in  another  connection. 

The  line  between  adequate  and  insufficient  rainfall  can  not  be 
closely  drawn.  In  the  growth  of  common  orchard  fruits,  irriga- 
tion is  not  resorted  to  at  a  number  of  points  where  the  local 
rainfall  sometimes  is  as  low  as  15  or  16  inches,  but  with  less 
than  that  amount,  unless  the  soil  receive  additional  moisture  by 
underflow,  it  is  essential.  On  the  other  hand,  irrigation  is  regu- 
larly practiced  in  some  localities  where  the  rainfall  sometimes 
rises  to  45  inches.  Under  average  conditions  of  soil  depth  and 
retentiveness,  the  amount  of  rainfall  which  may  be  considered 
adequate  for  deciduous  orchard  trees  under  good  cultivation  is 
about  20  inches.  So  definitely  is  this  amount  fixed  in  the  minds 
of  some  California  growers  as  meeting  the  needs  of  the  tree  for 
satisfactory  growth  and  fruitage  that,  when  rainfall  for  a  season 
is  less  than  that  amount,  irrigation  is  at  once  resorted  to  to  supply 
the  shortage. 

But  owing  to  local  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  the  rainfall, 
no  matter  how  large,  may  not  be  relied  upon  to  carry  the  trees 
through  the  dry  season.  The  fact  is  that  the  soil  is  not  capable 
either  of  receiving  the  heavy  rainfall  or  of  long  retaining  such 
portions  as  actually  enter  it.  There  is,  then,  a  considerable  part 
of  the  rainfall  which  is  worse  than  worthless,  because  it  does 
injury  by  soil  washing  and  soil  leaching,  and  places  where 
extremely  heavy  rainfall  occurs  may  be  actually  worse  ofif  than 
other  places  with  less  rainfall.  Some  localities  of  large  rainfall 
lead  in  amounts  of  water  supplied  by  irrigation.  The  converse  is 
also  true,  for  some  localities  of  light  rainfall  report  success  with 
deciduous  fruit  trees  with  a  minimum  amount  of  irrigation  water. 

Deciduous  Fruits. — Without  making  too  much  of  individual 
reports  there  appear  instances  enough  to  warrant  the  conclusion 
that  the  deciduous  fruit  tree  can  winter  successfully  with  a  small 
moisture  supply  and  is,  in  fact,  in  less  danger  from  lack  of  moisture 
than  from  oversupply  at  this  time  of  the  year.  If  there  be  enough 
moisture  to  prevent  injury  from  evaporation,  the  tree  will  start 
good  growth  as  the  season  advances  and  continue  it  if  irrigation 


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175 


176  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

is  given  promptly  and  in  sufficient  quantity.  There  nnist  always 
be  a  determination  of  what  is  an  adequate  supply  by  reference 
to  local  conditions,  but  as  an  estimate  of  necessary  rainfall  has 
been  made  at  20  inches,  it  is  evident  that  adequate  irrigation  may 
be  very  much  less  than  that.  The  rainfall  of  20  inches  is  dis- 
tributed through  six  or  seven  months.  Some  of  it  consists  of  light 
rains,  with  long,  dry  intervals,  where  there  is  slight  penetration 
and  quick  evaporation.  Some  of  it  is  lost  by  run  off  and  by 
drainage.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  some  growers  having 
deep  valley  loams  to  render  their  irrigation  effective,  report  success 
with  deciduous  trees  with  8  or  10  inches  of  water  applied  just  at 
the  time  of  the  tree's  greatest  needs  and  used,  no  doubt,  with 
maximum  efficiency.  It  seems  to  be  a  warranted  deduction,  from^ 
all  data  known  to  the  writer,  that  10  inches  of  water,  applied  at 
the  right  time  to  soils  of  good  depth  and  fair  retentiveness,  and 
accompanied  by  good  tillage  for  conservation,  is  an  adequate  sup- 
ply for  five  months  of  growth  and  fruiting  even  when  the  rainfall 
is  only  about  enough  to  prevent  drying  out  during  the  winter 
season.  Some  growers  report  use  of  less  than  this.  Certainly 
less  will  do  for  young  trees  under  favorable  conditions,  and  some 
of  the  least  amounts  are  reported  from  the  newly  planted  regions. 
As  the  trees  advance  in  age  and  bearing,  larger  amounts  will  be 
required.  Instances  of  greatest  frequency  of  application  may  be 
taken  as  indicating  soils  lacking  retentiveness,  either  through  shal- 
lowness or  coarseness,  or  either  of  these  accompanied  by  extreme 
summer  heat  and  aridity. 

Citrus  Fruits. — As  these  trees  are  evergreens,  and  as  their  habit 
is  to  make  their  chief  fruit  growth  in  the  autumn  after  the  work 
of  the  deciduous  tree  has  been  finished  for  the  season,  the  irriga- 
tion season  for  them  is  much  longer.  As  they  are,  in  fact,  almost 
always  active  and  sustaining  uninterrupted  evaporation  from  their 
leaf  surfaces,  they  must  always  be  provided  with  moisture  or  ill 
will  result  to  tree  or  fruit.  They  thus  require  more  water  than  do 
deciduous  trees.  There  is  the  same  relation  between  irrigation 
and  rainfall  with  citrus  as  with  deciduous  fruit  trees,  but  the  degree 
of  relation  is  different.  Many  trials  have  shown  that  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  grow  satisfactory  citrus  fruits  without  irri- 
gation, unless  there  be  underflow,  and  this  is  attended  by  the  usual 
difficulties  of  high  ground  water  and  undesirable.  There  is  no 
combination  of  heavy  rainfall,  or  winter  irrigation,  and  soil  reten- 
tiveness which  will  supply  the  summer  and  autumn  thirst  of  the 
orange  or  lemon  in  California.  Irrigation,  too,  must  be  maintained 
both  summer  and  winter  wherever  the  rainfall  is  not  well  dis- 
tributed and  adequate.  In  the  chief  citrus  regions  of  the  State 
rainfall  is  seldom  adequate  except  during  January  and  February, 
and  not  always  then.     Under  such  conditions  an  estimate  of  the 


I 


IRRIGATION    AND    SOILS  ^  y« 


average  requirements  of  citrus  fruit  trees  in  bearing-  would  be 
about  20  inches  of  irrigation,  irrespective  of  rainfall,  although 
there  are  localities  of  larger  rainfall  and  more  retentive  soils  where 
crops  of  these  fruits  can  be  made  with  10  inches  used  at  just  the 
right  time. 

RELATION   OF   SOIL  TO   IRRIGATION 

As  already  stated,  the  desirability  of  irrigation  is  unquestion- 
ably, in  many  cases,  conditioned  upon  soil  depth  and  character. 
This  relation  has  received  careful  attention  from  soil  physicists, 
and  an  understanding  of  it  involves  problems  of  plant  growth  and 
the  movement  of  water  in  soils,  the  leading  facts  of  which  are 
available  in  popular  form."^ 

Analysis  of  such  phenomena  can  not  be  undertaken  in  this  con- 
nection but  a  few  striking  contrasts  in  existing  practice  are  very 
suggestive. 

On  the  famous  river-bank  fruit  land  of  the  Sacramento  Valley, 
with  loams  of  great  depth  and  good  retentiveness,  and  with  an 
average  rainfall  of  approximately  20  inches,  irrigation  is  resorted 
to  only  in  years  of  minimum  rainfall,  when  the  precipitation  is 
perhaps  only  about  half  the  average.  At  nearly  the  same  level, 
as  already  cited,  where  the  soil  is  shallow  and  overlies  hard-pan, 
regular  irrigation  is  required.  But  still  more  marked  contrast 
is  found  in  the  foothills  within  sight  of  these  valley  fruit  lands, 
where  with  twice  the  average  rainfall  irrigation  must  begin  early 
in  the  summer  and  continue  until  autumn  is  well  advanced,  because, 
first,  the  slope  is  so  rapid  that  much  rainfall  is  lost  by  run  oflf; 
second,  the  soil  is  too  shallow  above  bed  rock  to  hold  much  water. 
Even  here,  however,  there  comes  in  a  local  variation  of  measurable 
effect.  When  the  soil  lies  upon  vertical  plates  of  bed  rock  much 
water  is  retained  between  them,  and  is  capable  of  being  reached 
by  tree  roots,  while  soil  lying  upon  flat  plates  of  rock  has  no 
such  subterranean  reservoir.  In  the  foothill  region  there  also 
occurs  exceptional  exposure  from  slopes  facing  the  midsummer 
sun  in  an  atmosphere  whose  dryness  is  but  slightly  ameliorated 
by  the  influence  of  air  currents  from  the  coast. 

In  the  valley  and  foothill  contrast,  just  cited,  the  unirrigated 
valley  looks  up  to  the  irrigated  foothills.  There  are  also  places 
where  unirrigated  hillslopes  look  down  upon  irrigated  valleys. 
The  uplands  of  San  Diego  County  are  nearer  the  coast  than  those 
above  the  Sacramento  Valley.  They,  too,  have  a  rainfall  usually 
ample  for  deciduous  fruits  suited  to  their  elevation.     Their  rolling 

*  Relations  of  soils  to  climate,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Weather  Bureau  Bui.  3.  Water 
as  a  factor  in  the  growth  of  plants,  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1894,  p.  165.  Some 
interesting  soil  problems,  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1897,  p.  429.  The  movement 
and  retention  of  water  in  soils,  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1898,  p.  399.  The 
mechanics  of  soil  moisture,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Division  of  soils  Bui.  10. 


178 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THFM 


plateaus  of  deep  soil,  free  from  excessive  heat  and  evaporation 
which  occur  on  the  highlands  farther  inland  and  500  miles  farther 
north,  produce  very  successfully  without  irrii^ation.  In  this  region, 
however,  the  rainfall  in  the  valleys  below  is  often  less  than  the 
needs  of  even  the  deciduous  fruit  trees,  and  waters  flowing  from 
mountain  snows  through  a  region  of  unirrigated  uplands  must  be 
used  to  irrigate  them. 

Still  another  striking  contrast,  and  one  involving  another  and 
wholly  dififerent  factor,  is  found  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  Near 
Visalia,  2  feet  above  river  bottom  and  4  feet  above  the  surround- 
ing plains,  there  is  a  large  area  of  deep  alluvial  soil  with  much 
decayed  vegetable  matter.  The  land  is  moistened  by  underflow 
from  the  river,  and,  though  the  rainfall  is  but  IVi  inches,  decid- 
uous fruits  are  grown  without  irrigation.  In  the  same  county, 
and  only  18  miles  distant,  there  are  areas  of  rich  loam  mixed  with 
granitic  sand  16  to  18  feet  deep.  In  this  locality,  though  the  rain- 
fall is  11J4  inches,  irrigation  is  practiced  freely,  as  the  loss  of 
moisture  in  summer  is  very  great. 

RELATION  OF  TILLAGE  TO   IRRIGATION 

Tillage,  particularly  during  the  dry  season  of  the  year,  under 
some  conditions,  directly  determines  the  need  of  irrigation,  and 
is  to  a  certain  extent,  as  the  popular  phrase  goes,  a  substitute 
for  irrigation.  Under  all  conditions  surface  tillage  by  promoting 
conservation  of  soil  moisture,  is  determinative  of  the  actual  duty 
of  water,  whether  it  be  from  rainfall  or  irrigation.  The  efifect  of 
frequent  surface  tillage  has  been  accurately  determined  by  investi- 
gation and  experiment,  both  in  humid  and.  arid  regions.  These 
experiments  fully  support  the  view  taught  by  the  experience  of 
about  half  a  century  in  California,  in  accordance  with  which 
thorough  tillage  has  been  so  widely  practiced  in  the  arid  sections 
as  an  essential  to  successful  fruit  growing. 

As  already  maintained  in  Chapter  XIII,  the  relations  of  tillage  to 
soil  moisture  include  both  reception  and  conservation.  For  the 
reception  of  moisture,  deep  work  with  the  plow,  and  sometimes 
with  the  subsoiler  also,  is  almost  indispensable.  To  retain  this 
moisture  and  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  its  escape  into  the  thirsty 
air  of  the  arid  region  by  surface  evaporation,  less  depth  and  more 
thorough  surface  pulverization  are  required.  Recent  practice  has 
been  tending  toward  deeper  summer  cultivation,  so  that,  as  previously 
claimed,  5  or  6  inches  of  loose,  finely  divided  soil  is  now  obtained 
where  formerly  half  that  depth  was  considered  adequate.  It  has 
also  been  shown  that  frequent  stirring  of  this  fine  surface  layer 
checks  evaporation,  even  when  no  water  is  applied  to  compact  the 
surface  or  where  no  weeds  grow  to  draw  upon  the  soil  moisture. 
In  a  word,  the  aim  of  tillage  in  the  arid  region,  so  far  as  it  relates 


k 


IRRIGATION     AND     COVER     CROPS 


179 


to  moisture  supply  in  the  soil  consists  in  opening  the  soil  to  rain, 
or  to  irrigation,  and  in  subsequently  closing  it  to  evaporation.  These 
are  the  principles  which  were  recognized  and  applied  in  California 
half  a  century  ago  and  are  now  enjoying  somewhat  sensational 
renaissance  in  the  "dry  farming"  agitation  in  the  interior  of  the 
United  States. 

A  Negative  Declaration. — It  is  interesting  that  current  practice 
affords  full  demonstration  of  the  foregoing  claims  both  positively 
and  negatively.  The  negative  argument  in  favor  of  moisture  con- 
servation by  clean  summer  cultivation  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
growers  in  regions  of  heaviest  rainfall  approve  the  growth  of  cover 
crops,  like  clover,  after  the  trees  reach  bearing  age,  and  also  that 
others  employ  scant  summer  cultivation,  or  cultivation  for  a  short 
period  only.  The  idea  of  these  growers  is  that  such  practices  relieve 
the  soil  of  excessive  moisture,  either  by  the  growth  of  the  cover 
crop  or  by  facilitating  surface  evaporation,  and  so  prevent  the  tree 
from  being  stimulated  to  too  large  wood  growth,  or  maintaining 
growth  so  late  in  the  season  as  to  enter  the  frost  period  in  too 
active  a  condition  and  with  new  wood  not  properly  matured.  Quite 
in  contrast  with  this  is  the  practice,  which  is  gaining  ground  in  the 
hottest  parts  of  the  irrigated  region,  of  growing  alfalfa  as  a  cover 
crop  for  the  purpose  of  shading  the  soil  and  thus  reducing  soil  tem- 
perature and,  perhaps,  of  avoiding  the  ill  effects  of  the  reflection  of 
burning  sun  heat  from  a  smooth  surface  of  light-colored  soil,  or 
the  ill  effect  of  "burning  out  of  humus"  by  clean  summer  culture. 
In  such  cases  more  irrigation  is  needed  to  supply  enough  water  for 
the  growth  of  both  trees  and  cover  crop.  But  at  present  these  ex- 
ceptions are  of  rare  occurrence. 

Cultivation  Not  Determined  by  Irrigation. — The  adoption  of  a 
policy  of  clean  cultivation  in  the  dry  season  is  not  conditioned  upon 
the  amount  of  moisture  available  either  by  rainfall  or  irrigation.  It 
is  pursued  both  where  irrigation  is  practiced  and  where  it  is  not, 
and  also  where  the  rainfall  is  greatest  and  where  it  is  least.  It  pre- 
vails in  the  humid  region  where  rainfall  may  rise  to  60  inches  or 
more  and  in  the  arid  region  where  it  may  not  exceed  one-tenth  as 
much.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  a  good  fruit 
soil  so  deep  and  retentive  that  it  can  retain  enough  even  of  a  very 
heavy  rainfall  to  effect  good  tree  growth  and  fruit  bearing  if  it  is 
forced  to  sustain  the  loss  by  evaporation  from  a  compact  surface 
during  the  long  dry  season  following.  There  may  be,  it  is  true,  soils 
weak  in  capillary,  in  which  water  can  not  rise  from  a  great  depth 
and  in  which  deep  rooting  plants  may  find  ample  water  in  the  sub- 
soil, providing  it  is  held  there  by  impervious  underlying  strata. 
There  are  many  more  instances  where  loss  by  natural  drainage  is 
added  to  loss  by  evaporation.  But,  disregarding  exceptions,  the 
loss  of  moisture  by  both  drainage  and  evaporation  during  the  dry 


-j^gQ  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

season  is  so  great  that  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  feet  loses 
practically  all  the  water  which  is  available  for  plant  growth,  and 
the  trees  fail  or  become  unprofitable.  Loss  by  drainage  can  not, 
practically,  be  prevented,  but  loss  by  evaporation  can  be  so  reduced 
that  trees  and  vines  will  be  adequately  supplied  in  spite  of  the  loss 
by  drainage.  Because,  therefore,  the  soil  can  not  retain  enough 
water  in  its  natural  state,  no  matter  how  much  it  may  receive,  clean 
summer  cultivation,  involving  quite  complete  and  more  or  less 
frequent  stirring  of  the  surface  to  the  depth  of  5  or  6  inches,  as  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  XIII,  is  the  almost  universal  practice,  irre- 
spective of  local  rainfall  or  of  irrigation. 

Cultivation,  However,  Determines  Success  of  Irrigation. — The 

prevailing  motive  for  cultivation  in  the  dry-summer  region  is  moist- 
ure retention.  In  this  respect  good  surface  tilth  is  so  effective  that, 
though  enough  moisture  can  not  be  retained  without  it,  so  much 
can  be  retained  with  it  that,  even  where  irrigation  or  rainfall  is 
moderate  in  amount,  it  may  serve  all  purposes  of  the  tree  or  vine. 
Thus  cultivation  enters  into  the  fruit-growers'  practice  in  the 
region  under  consideration,  not  to  make  large  rainfall  effective  as  it 
does  in  some  parts  of  the  region,  but  to  make  moderate  rainfall 
effective,  or  to  make  small  irrigation  effective,  by  increasing  the 
duty  of  water  which  is  applied.  It  becomes  not  only  a  ruling  con- 
sideration in  the  effectiveness  of  a  certain  amount  of  rainfall,  as 
has  already  been  suggested  in  another  connection,  but  it  also  deter- 
mines the  success  of  irrigation  and  the  amount  of  water  required ; 
for,  although  it  was  an  early  and  rude  practice  to  rely  upon  irri- 
gation to  support  uncultivated  fruit  trees  and  to  irrigate  more  and 
more  frequently  as  the  ground  became  harder  from  its  use,  this 
policy  has  now  no  standing  in  commercial  fruit  growing.  Not  only 
was  it  wasteful  of  water,  but  it  was  otherwise  detrimental  to  the 
thrift  of  trees. 

Cultivation  and  Irrigation  Work  for  Soil  Improvement. — Thor- 
ough cultivation,  both  in  winter  and  summer,  has  other  very  impor- 
tant ends  in  view.  It  opens  the  soil  and  promotes  aeration ;  it  en- 
courages deeper  rooting  and  thus  encourages  the  tree  to  take  pos- 
session of  a  greater  soil  mass  both  for  moisture  and  other  plant 
food.  It  is  part  of  the  very  valuable  policy  of  increasing  humus  by 
plowing  under  the  natural  growth  of  weeds  or  specially  sown 
legumes,  which  is  discussed  in  Chapter  XIV.  This  affords  oppor- 
tunity to  use  water,  beyond  the  amount  the  trees  require,  for  soil 
improvement. 

WHEN    TO    IRRIGATE 

When  to  irrigate  is  governed  by  local  conditions  and  the  needs 
of  different  fruits,  and  can  not  be  stated  in  general  rules.  There 
are,  however,  some  principles  involved  which  may  be  hinted  at. 


WHEN    TO    IRRIGATE 


181 


Winter  Irrigation. — On  lands  with  sufficient  depth  of  fairly  re- 
tentive soil,  the  grower  may  artificially  supplement  a  scanty  rainfall 
by  thoroughly  soaking  the  land  by  winter  irrigation  and  then  by 
careful  summer  cultivation  he  will  be  able  to  conserve  enough 
water  in  the  soil  to  carry  deciduous  fruit  trees  or  vines  through 
bearing  and  autumn  bud  formation  without  further  water  supply. 
But  there  are  other  situations  in  which  no  amount  of  winter  irri- 
gation nor  rainfall  will  suffice  for  these  ends.  There  are  foothil! 
orchard  areas  in  which  the  winter  rainfall  is  two  or  three  times 
as  great  as  in  the  valley  situations  where  fruit  is  successfully 
grown  without  irrigation,  and  yet  water  must  be  applied  in  summer 
on  those  foot-hills  or  the  fruit  would  be  unmarketable  and  the  trees 
in  distress.  The  forty  or  more  inches  of  rainfall  falling  on  a  shallow 
soil  underlaid  by  a  sloping  bed-rock  in  some  cases  nearly  sluices 
the  cultivated  soil  from  its  foothold,  and  yet  the  oversaturation  in 
winter  avails  nothing  for  summer  growth,  because  most  diligent 
cultivation  can  not  retain  moisture  enough  in  shallow  soil  thus 
situated  to  sustain  bearing  trees  in  good  crops  of  full-sized  fruit. 
The  same  is  true  of  valley  soils  underlaid  by  hard-pan.  In  such 
cases  winter  irrigation  could  add  nothing  but  distress  to  the  soil 
oversoaked  by  rainfall,  and  summer  irrigation,  well-timed  and  ade- 
quate, is  the  secret  of  success  in  the  orchard.  The  same  conclusion, 
although  for  very  different  reasons,  must  hold  for  soils  underlaid 
by  gravel  or  sand,  and  thus  too  rapidly  dried  by  leaching. 

But  even  this  generalization  must  be  accepted  only  for  sirua- 
tions  endowed  with  conditions  which  justify  it.  There  may  be 
sloping  hills  with  shallow  soil  where  winter  rainfall  does  not 
amount  to  saturation'.  Then  winter  irrigation  to  supply  such  irri- 
gation is  desirable,  and  then,  too,  summer  irrigation  in  proper 
amount  and  at  proper  intervals,  will  also  be  demanded.  Among  the 
foot-hills,  also,  there  may  be  localities  with  depth  of  retentive 
soil  in  which  water  enough  can  be  applied  in  winter  to  carry  trees 
through  the  year.  Thus  we  come  again  to  the  only  safe  generaliza- 
tion which  can  be  made,  and  that  is,  that  everywhere  water  must  be 
adequate  to  the  demands  of  the  tree  at  the  time  it  is  needed,  and 
whether  it  can  best  be  applied  in  summer  or  winter,  or  both,  or 
v^hether  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  any  artificial  application  at  all, 
depends  upon  existing  coniditions  which  the  grower  must  ascertain 
and  to  which  his  policy  and  practice  must  conform.  It  is  a  fact, 
however,  that  all  soils,  which  under  good  cultivation  are  fairly 
retentive,  winter  irrigation,  when  water  is  most  abundant,  and 
usually  carries  most  sediment,  can  be  made  to  go  far  toward  mak- 
ing summer  irrigation  unnecessary  for  all  deciduous  fruits. 

As  to  winter  irrigation,  practice  varies,  some  relying  upon  a 
single  heavy  flooding  by  using  checks  on  contour  lines,  by  which, 
perhaps,  a  foot  in  depth  or  more  of  water  is  allov^ed  to  soak  into  the 
soil;  others  use  the  same  method  of  application  in  winter  as  in 


-j^g2  CALIFORNIA     FKUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

summer,  and,  therefore,  give  a  number  of  irrigations  in  winter. 
There  is,  of  course,  much  less  danger  of  injury  by  water  to  decid- 
uous growths  in  winter,  because  they  are  dormant,  though  an  eye 
should  be  kept  on  drainage  for  excessive  irrigation  as  for  excessive 
rainfall.  The  grape  and  the  pear  are  known  to  endure  long  sub- 
mergence, but  some  other  fruits  are  sensitive  about  it. 

Summer  Irrigation. — When  this  shall  begin  and  when  end  are 
to  be  locally  determined.  In  some  places  even  the  earliest  fruits 
can  not  reach  satisfactory  size  and  quality  without  irrigation.  In 
others  rainfall  with  winter  irrigation  will  suffice  for  proper  devel- 
opment of  early  fruits,  but  not  for  late.  In  both  cases  the  fruit 
may  be  satisfactory,  but  the  tree  unable  to  hold  its  leaf  vigor  until 
the  work  of  the  growing  season  is  properly  completed.  It  is  then 
apparent  that  local  practice  must  vary  in  order  to  reach  the  uni- 
versal fact,  and  that  is  that  all  through  its  active  season  the  tree 
must  have  constant  and  adequate  moisture  supply.  Many  evils  in 
lack  of  bearing,  in  dying-back,  in  unseasonable  activity  and  the 
like  are  due  to  inadequate,  intermittent  and,  in  some  cases,  to  exces- 
sive moisture  in  the  soil. 

Cultivation  and  Irrigation. — Although  the  relations  of  irrigation 
and  cultivation  have  been  freely  discussed,  it  must  be  remarked 
in  this  connection  that  with  such  an  extension  of  irrigation  practice 
as  is  now  realized,  there  is  danger  that  those  who  have  previously 
trusted  so  fully  upon  good  cultivation  may  swing  to  the  other 
extreme  and  trust  too  much  to  the  stream  of  water  and  too  little 
to  the  plow  and  cultivator.  There  is  a  temptation  this  way  when 
one  finds  that  he  can  run  water  in  large  amounts  very  cheaply. 
Not  only  is  there  danger  of  over-irrigation  in  the  growth  of  tree 
and  fruit,  but  the  ill  effects  of  water  upon  the  soil,  when  unattended 
by  good  cultivation,  are  constantly  threatened.  The  tree  needs 
air  as  well  as  water;  i't  needs  a  certain  free  condition  of  the  soil 
for  its  best  root  action.  These  needs  can  be  amply  secured  when 
adequate  application  of  water  is  quickly  followed  by  soil-stirring. 
Irrigated  soil  rightly  treated  is  delightfully  mellow  and  free  and 
of  condition  to  invite  the  fullest  activity  on  the  part  of  the  tree. 
Irrigated  ground  not  properly  treated  becomes  compacted,  fissured, 
cloddy  and  generally  hateful,  losing  moisture  rapidly,  setting 
around  the  roots  like  cement  and  tearing  them  by  its  subsequent 
shrinkage.  These  conditions  do  not  occur  on  the  lighter  soils, 
and  yet  even  these  are  best  when  cultivated  in  a  rational  manner. 

METHODS    OF    IRRIGATION 

There  are'  various  methods  employed  in  California  for  the  con- 
veyance and  application  of  water  to  trees  and  vines.  Some  of  the 
principal  ones  will  be  described. 


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183 


184 


CALIFOBKIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW    THEM 


As  this  writing  does  not  prejtend  to  be  a  treatise  on  irrigation 
engineering,  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  describe  the  more  ambi- 
tious undertakings,  which  should  never  be  entered  upon  without 
the  engagement  of  a  qualified  engineer.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  dis- 
cuss the  numerous  devices  which  are  covered  by  patents.  Invest- 
ment should  always  be  preceded  by  visits  to  irrigation  works  now 
in  operation,  and  procedure  should  be  guided  by  observation.  The 
hints  presented  herewith  relate  chiefly  to  things  the  irrigator  can 
do  for  himself. 

Free  Flooding. — Flooding — that  is,  the  free  flow  of  water  over 
the  whole  surface,  or  the  flow  between  rows  with  furrows  near 
the  trees  to  retain  the  water  in  the  interspaces — is  only  employed 
on  some  flat  lands  where  winter  irrigation  is  used  to  supplement 
rainfall  when  the  latter  is  occasionally  below  normal.  In  such 
cases  water  is  available  in  large  quantities,  and  the  lay  of  the  land 
favors  quite  even  distribution.  Even  under  these  conditions  the 
experience  of  growers  soon  leads  to  the  adoption  of  deep  furrows 
or  lateral  ditches,  or  some  simple  check  system,  as  superior  to 
flooding.  Summer  flooding  is  done  only  by  those  who  are  unac- 
quainted with  better  methods  or  who  count  their  trees  of  too  little 
account  to  warrant  extra  effort.  It  seems,  therefore,  a  fair  con- 
clusion that  flooding  is  only  resorted  to  as  a  temporary  expedient 
and  has  little  standing. 

The  Check  System. — With  soils  of  such  character  that  vertical 
percolation  is  very  rapid,  flooding  in  checks,  by  which  water  is 
held  upon  a  particular  area  until  it  sinks  below  the  surface,  is 
considered  necessary.  There  is  a  tendency  to  change  from  this 
method  to  a  furrow  system  wherever  practicable,  because  the 
former  requires  more  soil  shifting,  a  larger  head  of  water  for  eco- 
nomical operation,  more  labor  to  handle  it,  more  working  in  water 
and  mud,  and  more  difficult  cultivation  to  relevel  the  land  and  to 
reduce  a  puddled  surface  to  satisfactory  tilth.  For  these  and  other 
reasons,  perhaps,  on  loams  of  medium  fineness  one  may  find  two 
adjacent  growers  pursuing  different  methods,  while  on  coarse, 
porous  loams  the  check  system  prevails,  and  on  fine,  retentive  loams 
the  furrow  system  is  without  a  rival. 

The  check  system  can  be  seen  on  the  most  extensive  scale  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  where  the  land  is  so 
level  and  water  so  abundant  that  the  checks  can  be  measured  by 
acres  or  fractions  of  acres.  In  its  most  perfect  form  it  is  found 
in  Orange  County  and  some  parts  of  Los  Angeles  County,  where 
the  checks  are  measured  by  feet,  rarely  by  rods.  Very  large  checks 
are  chiefly  used  for  field  crops,  although  also  employed  for  winter 
irrigation  of  vineyards  and  orchards  of  deciduous  fruits.  With 
fruits,  however,  even  in  the  same  district,  the  tendency  is  toward 
using  smaller  checks  carefully  leveled  before  planting.     With  the 


THb]     WAY     TO     MAKE     CHECKS 


185 


large-check  system  permanent  levees,  either  in  rectangular  form 
or  on  the  contour  plan,  are  generally  used.  The  small-check  system 
is  chiefly  laid  off  with  temporary  levees,  quickly  made  with  special 
appliances  and  as  quickly  worked  back  to  a  level  as  soon  as  the 
ground  dries  sufficiently  after  irrigation,  and  the  whole  surface 
kept  well  cultivated  until  the  time  arrives  for  a  restoration  of  the 
levees  for  the  next  irrigation.  The  latter  is  the  leading  horticul- 
tural mode.  It  is  carefully  described  by  Mr.  Sydmer  Ross,  of 
Fullerton,  Orange  County,  California,  as  follows : 

The  check  system,  as  carried  out  in  the  best-handled  orchards,  entails 
much  hard  work,  but  after  you  are  through  with  an  irrigation  you  know  that 
each  and  every  tree  has  had  its  full  supply  of  water  or  you  know  the  reason 
why.  The  ground  must  be  cultivated,  say,  about  5  inches  deep,  so  as  to  have 
plenty  of  loose  soil  with  which  to  throw  up  a  high  ridge.  Then  a  four  or 
six  horse  "ridger"  should  be  run  once  each  way  between  the  rows,  if  it  is  a 
citrus  or  deciduous  orchard,  or  twice  should  the  trees  be  walnuts,  because 
these  trees  are  grown  about  40  feet  apart.  After  this  is  done  the  ridger 
should  be  run  entirely  around  the  outside  of  the  piece  to  be  irrigated,  so  as 
to  have  as  perfect  a  ridge  as  possible  on  the  outside.  One  man  will  ridge 
about  15  acres  in  a  day.  The  ridger  should  be  built  with  a  steel  plate  extend- 
ing along  the  bottom  of  both  sides,  bolted  to  the  inside  and  projecting  about 
2  inches,  so  as  to  take  good  hold  of  the  ground.  Then  with  one  horse 
attached  to  what  is  locally  known  as  a  "jump  scraper,"  one  side  of  the  checks 
should  be  closed  up,  for  the  ridger  in  making  the  cross  ridges  breaks  down 
the  first  ridge  at  its  intersection.  These  repairs  were  at  first  made  with  a 
shovel,  but  the  jump  scraper,  also  called  locally  the  "horse  shovel,"  closes 
up  the  gaps  very  quickly.  The  practice  generally  followed  is  to  close  up  the 
high  side  of  the  checks  if  the  land  does  not  cut  by  running  water,  but  if  it 
cuts,  close  up  the  lower  side. 

After  closing  up  the  checks  the  ditches  are  plowed  out  and  then  the  V- 
shaped  "crowder"  is  run  twice  through  them.  On  lands  inclined  to  cut  it  is 
advisable  that  the  length  of  the  rows  to  be  irrigated  should  not  be  over  250 
feet,  but  in  heavy  land  this  distance  can  be  considerably  increased,  if  neces- 
sary, without  danger  of  cutting  the  ridges  by  too  long  a  run  of  water. 

If  the  checks  have  been  closed  up  on  the  low  side  of  the  ridge,  it  is 
better  to  run  the  water  to  the  ends  of  the  ditch  and  water  the  last  row  first; 
but  if  the  high  side  has  been  closed  up,  it  is  best  to  water  first  the  row 
nearest  the  gate  or  the  main  ditch,  as  the  case  may  be,  as  in  each  instance 
dry  earth  will  thus  be  available,  if  necessary,  to  close  up  the  checks.  The 
water  is  run  down  the  row  to  the  end  tree,  and  as  soon  as  the  last  check  is 
filled  it  is  closed  up,  and  so  on  till  all  are  filled  and  closed,  when  the  water 
is   turned  down  the  next  row. 

To  do  good  work  it  is  usual  to  allow  three  men  for  every  50  inches  of 
water,  but  in  our  own  practice  we  have  had  much  better  results  by  dividing 
up  our  water  and  running  from  35  to  40  inches  to  a  ditch  and  allowing  two 
men  for  such  streams.  In  doing  this  we  get  better  work  and  find  it  much 
easier  for  the  men.  If  everything  is  well  in  hand,  each  man  will  irrigate 
about  30  acres  in  a  day. 

For  turning  the  water  from  the  ditches  into  the  checks  metal  dams  or 
tappoons  are  used.  Some  of  these  have  a  gate  for  the  division  of  the  water 
when  the  stream  is  too  large  and  is  divided,  and  two  rows  are  watered  at  the 
same  time.  The  gate  is  not  a  great  success,  as  the  water  is  apt  soon  to 
cut  its  way  under  the  tappoon,  but  it  may  be  much  improved  by  having  a 
shelf  for  the  water  to  drop  on  after  it  passes  through  the  opening.  The  com- 
mon practice  for  dividing  water  is  to  throw  a  tappoon  partly  across  the  ditch, 
putting  a  gunny  sack  on  the  opposite  side  to  prevent  cutting  by  the  water. 
This  is,  on  the  whole,  fully  as  satisfactory  as  using  the  tappoon  with  a  gate. 

All  who  follow  this  system  should  get  ready  for  the  water  before  it  comes. 
A  great  many  seem  to  think  that  if  they  ridge  up  their  land,  close  up  the 
checks,  and  plow  out  their  ditches,  everything  necessary  has  been  done. 
Such  is  not  the  case,  a^  ditches  that  are  liable  to  cut  should  be  fixed  in  the 


186 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THKM 


weak  places  with  brush  or  burlaps.  Old  gunny  sacks  cut  open  and  spread 
out  are  excellent  for  this  purpose.  Occasionally  there  are  places  where  it 
is  impossible  to  get  a  perfect  ridge.  These  should  be  looked  up  and  fixed 
with  a  shovel.  The  jump  scraper  will  not  entirely  close  up  a  check;  it  gen- 
erally requires  a  shovelful  or  two  to  complete  it.  It  is  usual  after  the  water  is 
turned  down  one  row  to  fix  up  the  next  one,  but  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to 
have  a  few  rows  fixed  up  ahead,  for  there  come  times  when  breaks  occur 
and  there  is  not  time  to  make  the  necessary  repairs,  and  when  water  once 
gets  the  start  there  is  apt  to  be  much  trouble  and  hard  work  before  it  can 
be  put  under  control,  besides  doing  poor  work. 

After  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work,  the  ridges  are  split  with  a  listing 
plow  or  a  furrower  attached  to  a  cultivator.  Then  the  ground  should  be  run 
over  with  a  harrow,  setting  the  teeth  to  go  well  in,  so  as  to  pulverize  the 
surface  thoroughly.  By  using  the  harrow  the  ground  can  be  worked  about 
one  day  earlier  than  with  the  cultivator,  and  it  also  prevents  the  ground  from 
baking  till  such  time  as  it  can  be  worked  with  the  latter  implement,  besides 
doing  far  better  work  than  with  the  cultivator  alone,  especially  when  there 
is  much  land  to  go  over,  as  some  of  it  is  certain  to  get  too  dry  before  it  can 
be  reached,  and  then  it  will  not  pulverize  well.  All  trees  should  be  worked 
around  by  hand  with  either  a  fork  or  hoe  as  soon  after  irrigation  as  the 
ground  becomes  dry  enough  and  before  it  becomes  hard. 

Specifications  for  Homemade  Implements  for  the  Check  System. 
— The  following  implements,  used  in  preparing  the  ground  for  irri- 
gation by  the  check  system,  were  made  on  the  fruit  ranch  of  J. 
B.  Neff,  Anaheim,  California,  with  the  tools  ordinarily  found  on 
a  ranch  and  with  but  little  help  from  the  blacksmith : 


The  "Ridger." 

For  levee  making  in  the  check  system  of  irrigating  trees  and  vines. 

The  ridger. — This  has  sides  of  2  by  16  inch  pine  7  feet  long, stand- 
ing 18  inches  apart  at  the  rear  and  5  feet  apart  at  the  front  end.  The 
sides  may  be  made  of  two  2  by  8  inch  pieces  with  2  by  3  inch 
battens'  bolted  on  securely.  The  front  crossbar  is  of  2  by  4  inch 
pine  6  feet  2  inches  long  and  is  set  20  inches  from  the  end.  The 
rear  crossbar  is  of  2  by  4  inch  pine  4  feet  4  inches  long.  It  is  set 
7  inches  from  the  end  of  the  sides.  The  diagonal  braces  are  1  by  3 
inch  pine  6  feet  10  inches  long.  The  short  side  braces  are  2  by  3 
inch  pine  15  inches  long.  The  lower  inside  edge  should  be  pro- 
tected by  a  strip  of  steel  or  iron  1-8  by  2  inches  extending  to  and 
around  the  front  ends,  which  should  be  beveled  to  a  sharp  edge. 


TOOLS    FOR    RIDGING 


187 


i 

H?-^  The  inside  should  also  be  lined  with  sheet  iron  6  or  8  inches  above 
W  the  1-8  by  2  inch  piece,  and  should  have  sheet  iron  pieces  extending 
I  16  inches  beyond  the  rear  end  of  the  sides,  tapered  and  braced  in 
f      the    manner   shown    in    the    cut,    for   the    purpose    of    making   the 


««: 

Use  of  homemade  ridger,  orange  orchard  of  A.  D.  Bishop, 
Orange  County,  Cal. 

ridger  firmer  at  the  top.  Every  part  of  the  ridger  should  be 
firmly  bolted  with  3-8  inch  bolts,  except  the  1-8  by  2  inch  iron, 
which  should  have  3-16  inch  bolts,  and  the  sheet  iron,  which  may  be 
put  on  with  nails.  The  hooks  on  sides  for  hitching  draft  chain 
are  3-8  by  1  1-2  inches,  and  the  draft  chain  is  3-8  inch  cable  chain. 

The  V-shaped  Crowder  or  Ditcher. — This  has  sides  of  2  by  12 
inch  pine  and  cross-brace  of  2  by  9  inch  pine.  The  long  side  is 
7  feet  8  inches  long  and  short  side  3  feet  6  inches  long.  This  is 
also  protected  by  a  piece  of  steel  or  iron  extending  entirely  around 
the  ditcher  and  bolted  with  3-16  inch  bolts.  The  sides  come 
together  in  a  point  and  stand  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  The  brace 
is  placed  2  feet  10  inches  from  the  point  on  short  side  and  3  feet 
10  inches  from  the  point  on  long  side.  It  also  has  two  handles, 
as  shown  in  cut,  3  feet  long.  These  are  made  of  2  by  3  inch  pine 
reduced  so  as  to  hold  conveniently.     The  sloping  handle  is  bolted 


188 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THRM 


The  "Crowder." 

Used  in  the  preparation  for  distribution  of  water  in  the  check  system. 

to  the  short  side.  When  in  use  this  implement  stands  with  the 
short  side  elevated  at  an  angle  of  about  35  degrees,  and  a  floor  is 
placed  in  the  triangular  space  so  that  it  will  be  level  when  in  use.  An 
ordinary  wide  clevis  is  used  for  the  draft  and  is  placed  as  shown 
in  the  cut.  A  vertical  hole  may  be  made  in  front  of  the  clevis  pin 
and  a  small  rod  driven  in  to  strengthen  the  hold  of  the  clevis. 


"The  Jumper." 

Used  to  complete  levees  by  the  "ridger"   for  the  check  system. 

The  Jump  Scraper  or  Horse  Shovel. — This  is  used  for  filling 
gaps  in  the  ridges  and  is  the  work  of  the  blacksmith.  The  beams 
are  1-4  by  1  1-4  inches  and  30  inches  long  from  the  draft  ring  to  the 
bend  downward.  The  shovel  is  of  No.  16  sheet  iron  24  inches  long 
by  18  inches  deep.  The  handles  are  those  used  on  any  cultivator. 
The  beams  are  bent  to  stand  6  inches  forward  of  a  square  placed 
on  top  of  the  beams.  The  braces  are  of  3-8  inch  round  iron.  The 
shovel  is  slightly  cupped  to  make  it  hold  more  earth. 

The  Portable  Gate  or  Tappoon. — These  are  for  shutting  ditches, 
and  are  made  of  No.  16  sheet  iron  2  feet  wide  and  of  any  desired 


o 
u 

V 

6 

>» 
C/3 

u 


189 


190 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


length,  but  usually  3  feet,  4  feet  or  5  feet  long.  The  corners  are 
cut  off  to  a  circle,  starting  about  1  foot  back  of  the  corner.  The 
handles  are  made  of  two  pieces  of  1  by  3  inch  pine,-  12  inches  longer 
than  the  gate,  and  are  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  sheet  iron 
and  secured  by  1-4  inch  bolts. 

The  Combined  Check  and  Furrow  Method. — An  effort  to  escape 
in  some  measure  the  puddling  of  the  surface  which  results  from 
allowing  water  to  sink  away  upon  finely  pulverized  soil,  lies  in 
the  direction  of  breaking  up  the  soil  roughly  in  the  bottoms  of  the 
checks,  which  facilitates  the  quick  passage  of  the  water  into  the 
subsoil.  This  is  done  by  running  a  small  plow  or  three  large  culti- 
vator teeth  attached  to  a  single  frame  before  the  ridger  is  used  to 


},  «_    FURRO'WS 


Combined  check  and  furrow  irrigation. 

form  the  levees.  Mr.  A.  D.  Bishop  of  Orange  County,  California, 
uses  a  combined  furrow  and  check  system,  as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying diagram.  He  furrows  the  land  first  with  a  three-tooth 
furrower  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  water  is  to 
flow,  and  then  uses  the  ridger  to  make  levees  in  line  with  the  water, 
laying  out  the  work  so  as  to  get  the  closest  approximation  to  a 
level.  When  the  levees  are  made,  the  jump  scraper  is  used  and 
the  end  of  each  third  or  fourth  furrow  bank  is  connected  with  the 
levees  at  alternating  sides  of  the  check  made  by  the  levees.  This 
causes  the  water  to  flow  through  the  furrows  from  side  to  side  and 
distribute  itself  evenly  over  the  whole  ground.  The  number  of 
furrows  which  can  be  passed  before  connecting  with  the  bank 
depends  upon  the  slope  of  the  land — the  nearer  level  the  land  the 


HILLSIDE     IRRIGATION  j^g-j^ 

greater  the  distance  that  can  be  left  between  the  connections,  and 
vice  versa.  In  this  way  the  water  is  taken  slowly  down  a  grade 
where  it  would  flow  too  rapidly  were  it  admitted  to  furrows  in  the 
direction  of  its  flow. 

Another  combination  of  the  check  and  furrow  system  is  found 
where  the  lowest  spaces  of  a  slope  irrigated  by  furrows  are  laid  off 
in  checks  to  catch  the  overflow  from  the  furrows  and  compel  its 
percolation  at  a  point  which  would  otherwise  receive  too  little 
water.  The  parts  of  a  furrow  system  which  lie  farthest  from  the 
source  of  supply  are  obviously  least  supplied,  because  long  flow 
can  not  be  maintained  there  without  much  loss  from  overflow. 
Holding  the  water  in  checks  at  the  lower  end — usually  for  two 
rows  of  trees — is  quite  a  help  toward  even  distribution. 

The  Basin  System. — The  term  basin  should  be  restricted  to 
inclosures  which  do  not  aim  at  covering  the  whole  surface,  but 
only  a  small  area  immediately  surrounding  the  tree.  The  check 
system  is  clearly  a  more  rational  and  perfect  method  of  flooding. 
When  basins  were  used  on  ground  capable  of  irrigation  by  the 
check  or  furrow  systems,  it  was  probably  due  to  a  misconception 
which  has  prevailed  also  in  the  practice  of  fertilization,  that  the 
tree  derived  its  chief  benefit  from  the  soil  immediately  surround- 
ing and  beneath  its  bole,  and  that  distant  applications  were  likely 
to  be  wasted.  Years  ago  it  was  held  that  the  lateral  root  exten- 
sion of  a  tree  was  equal  to  the  spread  of  its  branches,  but  recent 
investigations  have  shown  that  under  favorable  soil  conditions  the 
root  extension  is  vastly  greater.  It  is  not  reasonable  then  to  restrict 
water  or  other  plant  food  to  the  region  chiefly  occupied  with 
the  stay  roots  and  not  the  feeding  roots  of  the  tree,  and  it  is  a 
frequent  observation  that  basined  trees  do  not  do  so  well  and  that 
they  show  distress  sooner  than  those  under  systems  which  secure 
more  complete  water  distribution. 

To  the  basin  system  may,  however,  be  conceded  these  possibili- 
ties :  (1)  Trees  may  be  grown  on  hillsides  too  steep  for  other  means 
of  irrigation  unless  the  hillside  be  previously  terraced;  (2)  the 
basins  afford  an  opportunity  to  use  a  very  small  stream  of  water 
by  allowing  it  to  run  for  a  long  time  in  each  basin,  thus  making 
a  miniature  reservoir  at  the  base  of  each  tree ;  (3)  for  young  trees 
a  small  amount  of  water  may  sustain  growth,  while  with  other 
methods  the  same  amount  of  water  would  be  almost  wholly  lost 
by  evaporation  or  percolation,  or  both;  (4)  the  expense  of  wider 
application  of  water  and  the  necessary  after  cultivation  is  obviated. 

In  planting  on  hillsides,  terracing  is  the  foundation  of  the  basin 
system.  Terraces  are  plowed  and  scraped  out  until  they  have 
width  enough  to  accommodate  a  line  of  basins  and  a  ditch  at  the 
foot  of  each  bank  to  supply  them.  The  terraces  are  given  a  little 
fall,  alternating  in  direction  so  that  the  water,  starting  from  the 


^Q2  CALlFOliNlA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

ridge  above,  is  dropped  through  a  box,  or  otherwise  let  down,  from 
the  low  end  of  one  terrace  to  the  high  end  of  the  next,  and  so  on 
until  the  stream  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  slope.  As  a  basin  is 
reached  it  is  filled  and  closed  and  the  water  sent  along  to  the  next 
and  so  on.  As  these  basins  are  usually  small  and  shallow  they 
are  filled  two  or  three  times  in  succession  at  each  irrigation. 

Wherever  water  can  be  handled  in  contour  ditches  or  furrows, 
terracing  should  seldom  be  undertaken  for  commercial  purposes. 
With  slopes  which  do  require  terracing,  basins  on  the  steeper  parts 
are  largely  made  by  hand  labor,  after  plowing  to  loosen  the  whole 
surface,  and  the  operation  consists  in  moving  the  earth  from  the 
upper  side  of  the  tree,  so  as  to  form  a  circular  levee  on  the  lower 
side,  until  the  tree  stands  in  a  level,  roundish  pan  as  large  as  can 
be  made  without  too  much  excavation  and  filling.  As  the  slope 
becomes  less  the  basins  enlarge  and  reach  a  diameter,  finally, 
where  the  sides  can  be  made  by  turning  a  small  horse  or  mule 
around  the  tree  with  a  plow,  the  ^rim  being  further  raised  and 
shaped  by  hand  so  as  to  hold  3  inches  or  more  of  water  without 
danger  of  breaking  away. 

The  basins  are  filled  with  a  small  stream  by  ditch  or  hose  or 
pipe  line,  according  to  the  ground  and  notion  of  the  irrigator.  They 
are  filled  at  such  intervals  as  the  water  supply  admits  or  the  growth 
seems  to  need.  The  basin  bottom  is  rarely  disturbed.  The  crack- 
ing soil  is  finally  given  another  dose  of  water  to  close  up  its 
wounds;  meantime  the  frequent  surface  soaking  puddles  the  soil 
and  the  conditions  unfavorable  to  growth  arrives  sooner  or  later, 
according  to  the  disposition  of  the  soil  to  run  together  by  water 
settling.  Drying  and  cracking  is  lessened  by  filling  the  basin 
with  manure  or  rotten  straw  or  other  light  rubbish,  or  by  a  layer 
of  coarse  sand  on  the  bottom.  As  the  tree  grows  the  foliage 
shades  the  basin  and  thus  reduces  evaporation. 

The  Furrow  System. — The  furrow  system  is  the  prevailing 
method  of  irrigating  fruit  lands  except  with  some  soils  which  can 
be  better  handled  with  less  water  by  the  check  system.  The  fur- 
row system  has,  however,  a  very  marked  theoretical  advantage 
in  the  escape  from  saturating  the  surface  soil,  which  has  to  dry 
out  again  before  it  can  be  cultivated,  and  it  is  only  with  difficulty 
reduced  to  fine  tilth  after  such  puddling.  Another  advantage  is  in 
saving  the  water  used  in  moistening  soil  which  has  to  be  dried 
by  evaporation.  Other  theoretical  advantages  lie  in  the  even  dis- 
tribution of  the  water  with  the  least  displacement  of  the  soil  and 
the  introduction  of  the  water  to  the  subsoil,  where  deep-rooting 
plants  should  derive  their  chief  sustenance.  It  is  becoming  quite 
clear  that  all  these  theoretical  advantages  have  not  been  realized 
by  the  furrow  system  as  generally  practiced,  and  a  number  of 
modifications  are  now  being  introduced  which  promise  their  fuller 


I 


LARGE     FURROW     SYSTEM 


193 


realization.  The  changes  now  taking  place  tend  toward  reducing 
the  difference  between  what  are  known  as  the  "large-furrow"  and 
the  "small-furrow"  methods,  because  the  improvement  lies  chiefly 
in  introducing  the  water  more  deeply  in  the  soil,  as  will  be  shown 
later,  and  this  is  done  by  using  fewer  and  deeper  furrows. 

Irrigating  by  Large  Furrows. — Where  one  to  four  furrows  are 
used,  these  are  large  furrows,  while  the  small-furrow  system  uses 
from  five  to  eight  or  more  between  two  rows  of  trees.  Large  fur- 
rows are  made  with  the  double-mpldboard  plow,  or  with  a  single 
plow  followed  by  the  "crowder,"  or  by  plowing  out  dead  furrows 
between  the  rows,  etc.  Their  number  depends  upon  the  size  of 
the  trees  and  the  fitness  of  the  soil  for  lateral  seepage.  They  are 
wide  enough  and  deep  enough  to  carry  or  hold  a  large  stream 
of  water  and  is  a  method  used  chiefly  for  winter  irrigation  on  land 
which  is  so  nearly  level  that  the  water  will  flow  slowly  into  the 


<^ 


.^^ 

■h'.^ 


SOUTH     FURROW 


NOETH     nURKOW 


Large  furrow. 

Large  furrow  irrigation  of  orange  trees  at  Palermo,  Butte  County,  Cal. 


furrows  and  stand  there  until  it  disappears  by  percolation.  It  is 
also  used  where  one  of  two  summer  irrigations  are  all  that  are 
required  to  carry  the  trees  through.  It  is  obviously  adapted  only 
to  land  of  slight  and  uniform  grade.  Irrigation  by  a  single  furrow 
cut  near  to  the  row  of  trees  is  a  v/idely  prevalent  method  with 
yoimg  trees.     When   the   trees   are   larger,   or   when    intercultures 


]^94  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

are  undertaken,  the  large  furrows  are  multiplied.  In  this  case  the 
water  is  admitted  to  the  furrows  from  a  board  flume.  Large  fur- 
rows are  often  used  in  a  bearing  orchard,  the  furrows  being  filled 
from  a  lateral  ditch,  this  lateral  being  parallel  to  the  main  ditch. 
In  this  case  the  board  dam  is  used  to  divert  the  lateral  into  one 
large  furrow  after  another,  and  when  the  furrow  is  filled  dirt  is 
thrown  in  to  prevent  the  reflow  of  the  water  into  the  lateral. 

The  great  variety  in  large  furrow  practice  is  suggested  in  the 
foregoing.  A  systematic  manner  of  proceeding  is  that  of  Mr.  A. 
Trost,  of  Palermo,  California,  as  described  by  himself : 

The  soil  is  red,  gravelly  clay,  the  upper  12  inches  without  rocks;  below 
this  the  gravel  is  more  rock.  At  the  depth  of  3  or  4  feet  the  red  clay  changes 
into  a  whitish  one  and  water  enters  it  very  slowly.  My  orchard  is  12  acres — 
1,120  feet  long  from  north  to  south  and  510  feet  from  east  to  west.  The 
northeast  corner  is  the  highest.  Here  the  water  ditch  enters,  and  I  run 
my  head  ditch  along  the  east  side  from  north  to  south.  There  are'  51  rows 
of  trees  in  that  direction,  the  north  and  soutji  outside  rows  being  olives. 
There  are  23  orange  trees  in  the  row  from  east  to  west  and  1  olive  tree  on 
the  west  end.  All  trees  are  20  feet  apart.  I  use  24  miner's  inches  per  day 
for  5  days  in  the  following  manner:  I  use  4  furrows  about  5  or  6  inches  deep 
and  about  3  feet  apart  between  rows,  leaving  the  furrows  nearest  the  trees 
from  5  to  6  feet  from  the  trunks.  The  4  lower  rows  on  the  west  side  I  cross 
furrow  with  2  furrows  between  the  trees.  I  divide  the  24  inches  into  51 
equal  streamlets  by  using  one  gate  for  each  4  rows.  First  turn  this  amount 
in  the  furrow  south  nearest  to  tree.  When  the  water  has  moved  to  the  olive 
tree,  I  divide  the  water  between  the  4  furrows  for  the  lower  6  trees  and 
through  the  cross  furrows.  The  next  morning  I  divide  the  water  at  the  tenth 
tree  for  the  4  furrows.  On  the  third  day  I  let  only  one-half  the  water 
go  down  in  the  furrow  south  of  tree,  the  other  in  the  one  north  nearest 
to  tree.  On  the  fourth  day  I  turn  part  of  it  in  the  middle  furrows  near 
the  head  ditch,  and  by  the  fifth  day  I  have  my  place  equally  wet  from  one 
end  to  the  other,  taking  care  that  the  top  soil  near  the  trunks  of  trees  remains 
dry  on  the  surface.  I  keep  the  soil  around  the  trunks  of  the  trees  about 
2  inches  higher  for  a  width  of  3  feet.  In  this  way  I  use  all  the  water  with- 
out running  any  off,  and  lose  only  the  evaporation.  The  whole  amount  of 
water  used  is  120  inches,  equal  to  10  inches  or  130,000  gallons  per  acre,  or 
4.5  acre-inches  or  1,200  gallons  per  tree. 

I  irrigate  about  every  four  weeks,  running  the  water  five  days  and  turning 
it  on  again  three  weeks  after  it  is  taken  off.  I  have  irrigated  as  early  as  the 
1st  of  April  and  as  late  as  the  middle  of  October,  depending  on  late  rains 
in  spring  and  early  rains  in  fall;  usually  from  five  to  six  irrigations  per  year. 
After  four  or  five  days  I  cultivate  14  feet  wide  between  the  trees  from  6  to  8 
inches  deep;  for  this  I  use  a  7-foot  cultivator  and  four  horses.  Near  the 
trunk  of  the  tree  I  work  about  2  inches  deep  and  a  little  farther  away  4 
inches  deep,  using  the  three-cornered  orchard  plow  with  a  cultivator  4  feet 
w^ide  and  two  horses. 

Irrigation  by  Large  Furrows  Without  Summer  Cultivation. — • 
An  exception  to  the  continuous  cultivation  of  orchard  ground 
which  is  prevalent  in  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  Pacific  coast  is 
found  in  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  California,  where 
furrows  are  made  at  the  beginning  of  each  irrigating  season  and 
used  continuously  during  that  summer.  The  ensuing  winter  plow- 
ing and  early  spring  cultivation  arc  relied  upon  to  keep  the  soil 
in  good  condition.  Although  this  constitutes  an  exception  and 
the  practice  is  widely  followed  for  what  seems  to  the  growers  of 


I 


i 


FOOT-HILL    IRRIGATION  195 

the  region  to  be  a  good  and  sufficient  reason,  it  does  not  militate 
against  the  truth  of  the  continuous  summer  cultivation  policy 
which  elsewhere  prevails,  nor  does  it  follow  that  this  policy  would 
not  be  better  in  some  respects  even  in  the  region  where  it  is 
abandoned.  It  is  a  district  of  very  large  water  supply,  and  the 
arrangements  of  the  water  company  are  such  that  the  grower  must 
pay  for  a  certain  number  of  inches  of  water  by  the  year  and  is 
entitled  to  this  amount  of  continuous  flow.  He  has  to  use  it  or 
neglect  it  as  it  flows,  and  can  not  get  more  at  one  time  by  not  using 
it  at  another.  For  this  reason  he  has  not  the  motive  for  close 
observation  which  prevails  under  other  conditions,  and  to  escape 
the  cost  of  summer  cultivation  and  fresh  furrowing  out  he  has 
recourse  to  frequent  flows  in  the  old  furrows.  The  following 
interesting  account  of  the  prevailing  method  was  prepared  by  Mr. 
W.  R.  Fountain,  of  Newcastle : 

Water  is  supplied  almost  exclusively  by  one  company,  which  has  met 
requirements  up  to  date  and  seems  fixed  to  supply  in  excess  of  demand.  It 
is  supplied  by  the  miner's  inch;  price  $45  per  inch  per  season  for  a  constant 
supply.     The  inch  is  measured  under  6-inch  pressure. 

Beginning  May  1st,  five  months  is  called  the  irrigating  season,  but  the 
purchaser  can  have  the  water  twelve  months  per  annum  if  he  wants  it.  The 
water  company  collects  monthly.  The  purchaser  can  not  start  the  season 
with  little  and  increase  at  pleasure,  except  upon  payment  for  the  full  season  on 
the  basis  of  the  largest  amount  used  at  any  time. 

With  this  constant  supply  we  use  it  constantly,  piping  to  high  points  and 
moving  it  from  place  to  place.  When  no  fruit  is  ripening  it  is  attempted  to 
water  a  block  of  trees  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  water  is  not  checked 
back,  but  is  run  in  ditches,  mostly  in  one,  but  occasionally  in  two,  along  each 
row  of  trees  or  vines.  When  a  variety  of  fruit  is  ripening  more  water  is 
given  the  trees,  while  after  a  variety  is  picked  and  before  any  other  is  nearly 
ripe  the  effort  is  made  to  water  each  tree  every  ten  or  twelve  days.  Level 
land  and  low  spots  stand  a  good  chance,  as  a  rule,  to  get  too  much  water, 
and  a  larger  stream  is  used  per  row  to  force  the  water  through  quickly.  Then 
it  is  taken  off  in  a  shorter  time  than  it  would  be  where  the  trees  are  on  a 
side-hill  and  have  good  drainage. 

About  I  inch  for  each  8  acres  is  generally  used.  This  is  for  deciduous 
fruits.  The  citrus  fruits  and  berries  require  wateriilg  about  once  a  week;  if 
there  is  good  drainage  they  would  prosper  if  watered  every  three  days.  In 
such  ground  I  have  not  heard  of  their  getting  either  too  much  water  or  too 
much  fertilizer.  The  general  practice  is  to  plow,  cross  plow,  and  then  after 
each  rain  cultivate,  with  no  cultivation  whatever  after  beginning  the  use  of 
water.     I  think  an  occasional  cultivation  after  watering  would  help. 

There  is  a  tendency  for  the  ditches  to  become  packed  after  water  has 
been  flowing  through  them  for  some  time,  in  which  case  but  little  water 
soaks  into  the  ground.  When  this  occurs,  I  dig  a  pot-hole  in  the  ditch 
to  allow  the  water  to  soak  in,  or  else  loosen  the  ground  about  the  trees 
with  a  spade  and  carry  the  ditch  through  this  loosened  ground.  I  block  out 
my  ditches  so  that  I  can  get  my  stream  through  the  last  tree  in  about  sixteen 
hours.  Where  the  water  has  not  reached  the  end  of  some  of  the  ditches,  I 
turn  the  water  into  it  from  a  stream  that  is  flush,  and  by  keeping  a  man 
with  a  hoe  constantly  with  the  water,  I  manage  to  get  it  over  the  field  at 
about  4  p.  m.  I  wet  about  350  trees  in  a  block  on  hillsides;  on  a  flat  I  wet 
less,  using  more  water  in  each  stream,  and  changing  it  about  every  twelve 
hours  instead  of  every  twenty-four  hours.  My  trees  grow  about  130  to  an 
acre. 


196 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


Systematic  Distribution  of  Water  on  Hillsides. — l^he  common 
method  of  carrying  water  in  pipes  to  the  various  hii;h  points  of 
several  slopes  or  "irrigation  faces"  from  which  it  can  be  admitted 
to  large  furrows  crossing  or  descending  those  faces  is  open  to 
some  difficulties  and  disarrangements.     P.  W.   Butler,  of  Penryn, 


NEARLY   LEVEL 


Zigzag  ditches. 

Large  furrow   system  on  hillsides  with  zigzag  ditches   for  distribution,    catchment, 

and  redistribution. 


has  had  in  successful  operation  for  several  years  a  system  of  zig- 
zag ditches  for  carrying  and  distributing  and  for  catching  outflow 
and  redistributing  on  a  lower  face.  This  is  also  a  system  which 
makes  ditches  and  furrows  but  once  a  year  and  dispenses  with 
summer  cultivation.  Mr.  Butler's  account,  as  illustrated  by  the 
accompanying  diagrams,  is  as  follows : 

The  amount  of  water  generally  used  in  this  section  for  the  irrigation  of 
deciduous  fruit  trees  is  1  inch  to  5  acres  of  orchard  (miner's  inch  under  6- 
inch  pressure),  and  is  applied  to  each  row  of  trees  by  one  stream  of  water 
of  sufficient  quantity  to  just  reach  the  end  of  the  row.  Much  of  the  water 
is  thus  wasted  because  of  inability  to  properly  adjust  its  distribution.  It  is 
usually  run  twenty-four  hours,  then  changed  to  other  parts  of  the  orchard 
until  the  whole  is  covered,  which  takes  about  three  weeks'  time,  when  the 
process  is  repeated,  continuing  throughout  the  summer,  or  from  May  1  until 
October  1.  There  is  no  cultivation  in  the  meantime,  and  at  each  irrigation 
the  water  is  run  in  the  same  ditches.  This  system  is  followed  in  nearly  all 
the  orchards  of  Penryn  and  vicinity,  some  on  quite  steep  hillsides,  which 
suffer  when  the  water  is  thus  applied.  I  have  never  liked  this  method,  and 
for  many  years  have  used  a  different  system  in  irrigating  all  orchards  over 
which  I  have  had  control.  In  my  home  orchard  I  have  a  reservoir  on  the 
highest  land,  from  which  water  can  be  conveyed  as  desired   to  every  part. 


DEEP     FURROWS     AT     RIVERSIDE 


197 


My  ditches  arc  run  on  a  grade  with  a  fall  from  2  to  3  inches  to  the  rod  and 
from  5  to  8  feet  apart.  At  each  irrigation  the  water  is  run  about  thirty-six 
hours  before  changing.  The  round  of  the  orchard  is  made  in  ten  to  fourteen 
days.  None  of  my  small  ditches  exceeds  400  feet  in  length.  When  1  begin 
to  irrigate  a  section  I  turn  on  from  the  reservoir  water  sufficient  to  cover 
that  section  in  a  few  hours,  then  lessen  it  until  it  just  reaches  the  end  of  each 
row,  but  see  that  it  reaches  the  end  of  each  row  if  a  little  surplus  passes 
over.  This  surplus  I  take  up  in  a  main  ditch,  to  be  again  used  on  lower 
ground.  This  is  continued  until  the  lowest  part  of  the  orchard  is  reached, 
and  very  little  water  is  ever  wasted.  By  running  on  a  grade  that  is  so  nearly 
level  the  water  is  applied  uniformly,  even  on  the  driest  parts  of  the  hill 
slopes.  I  run  the  main  distributing  ditches  in  a  zigzag  manner,  taking  water 
from  these  ditches  to  cover  the  lower  sections.  I  formerly  used  pipes  to 
lead  the  water  down  the  steepest  grades,  but  this  system  I  have  abandoned 
and  now  use  open  zigzag  ditches  for  mains.  From  the  main  zigzag  ditches 
I  do  not  take  the  water  at  the  turning  point,  as  there  is  more  liability  of 
breakage  than  if  taken  when  running  straight,  or  at  whatever  point  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  distributing  ditches  on  an  average  of  8  feet  apart.  The 
length  of  the  zigzag  ditches  varies  according  to  the  slope  of  the  hillside. 
When  steep,  the  ditch,  before  turning,  must  be  of  greater  length  than  where 
the  ground  is  more  level.  (See  diagram.)  I  use  no  gates,  but  bush  the 
openings  with  coarse  swale  hay.  I  also  bush  the  turning  points  of  ditches, 
as  they  are  in  permanent  use  throughout  the  season,  and  after  the  first  few 
days'  use  require  but  little  care  to  keep  them  in  order.  These  ditches  are 
torn  up  during  the  season  of  cultivation  and  have  to  be  renewed  every  year. 

I  use  a  level  set  on  a  frame  8.25  feet  long  and  about  2.5  feet  high  (one 
leg  longer  than  the  other)  to  make  any  grade  desired.  Then  I  drag  its  length 
on  the  ground  after  getting  the  level,  and  can  mark  the  line  of  ditch  nearly 
half  as  fast  as  a  man  can  walk. 

During  the  last  ten  years  I  have  used  many  thousand  feet  of  pipe  in  irri- 
gating, but  have  found  it  too  expensive  to  be  practicable,  and  it  frequently 
gets  clogged,  causing  much  trouble.  The  zigzag  method  of  taking  the  water 
down  hills  on  the  dry  ridges,  distributing  to  right  and  left,  picking  it  up 
again  in  zigzag  ditches  at  the  end  of  the  rows  or  system,  to  be  used  again 
on  lower  ground,  brings  into  use  the  largest  quantity  where  it  is  most 
needed  and  utilizes  it  all  without  waste. 

Irrigating  by  Small  Furrows. — It  has  already  been  suggested 
that  recently  the  small  furrow  method  of  irrigation  is  undergoing 
certain    modifications.      The    occasion   for   the    change    is    that    in 


Newer  system  of  furrow  irrigation  at   Riverside,  Cal. 


198 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW     THEM 


certain  of  the  heavier  soils,  particularly,  the  use  of  water  in  many 
shallow  furrows  followed  by  cultivation  results  in  the  formation 
of  a  compact  layer,  and  this  prevents  the  percolation  of  the  water 
into  the  subsoil.  This  discovery  led  many  Southern  growers  to 
resort  to  fewer  and  deeper  furrows  and  to  new  devices  to  enable 
the  tree  to  get  the  benefit  of  the  water.  There  has  been  wide 
use  of  the  subsoil  plow,  with  a  wedge-shaped  foot  attached  to  a 
slim  standard  rising  to  the  ordinary  beam.  The  standard  opposes 
its  thin  edge  to  the  soil  so  as  to  cleave  it  with  the  least  difficulty, 
and  the  foot,  passing  through  or  beneath  the  hardpan,  lifts  and 
breaks  it.  The  result  of  the  subsoiling  is  to  open  a  way  for  the 
water  to  sink  and  spread  below  the  hardpan.  It  is  usual  to  run 
this  plow  once  through  the  center  of  the  interspace  between  the 
rows  of  trees,  sometimes  at  right  angles  to  the  irrigation  furrows. 
When  this  is  done  the  water  is  admitted  to  the  furrows  as  usual, 
but  instead  of  flowing  along  smoothly  it  drops  into  the  track  of 
the  subsoiler  and  runs  there  a  long  time  before  rising  agam  to 
continue  its  course  down  the  furrow.  It  is  the  experience  of  some 
growers  that  the  water  has  taken  five  or  six  days  to  reach  the 
lower  end  of  the  furrows,  a  distance  which  would  have  been 
covered  in  twenty-four  hours  if  the  subsoiler  had  not  intervened. 
This  has  been  shown  to  result  in  much  water  for  the  subsoil  and 
a  notable  invigoration  of  trees  which  had  been  famishing,  although 
shallow-furrow  irrigation  had  proceeded  regularly. 

Recent  changes  in  the  furrow  method  at  Riverside,  California, 
are  described  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Reed  as  follows : 

The  handling  of  the  water  in  the  orchard  has  materially  changed  in  recent 
years.     Instead  of  flooding  up,  basining,  or  using  shallow  furrows,  deep  fur- 


Irrigation  of  fruit  trees  by  large  furrows  between  rows. 


CONDITIONS    FOR    DEEP    FURROWING 


199 


rows,  from  3  to  5  feet  apart,  are  most  generally  used.  In  heavy  adobe  soils 
more  furrows  are  used  than  in  the  more  porous  granite  soils.  The  most 
usual  length  of  furrows  is  40  rods.  Every  precaution  is  taken  to  have  the 
surface  wetted  as  little  as  possible. 

The  amount  of  water  run  at  a  time  is  materially  lessened.  Formerly  the 
common  practice  was  to  run  3  inches  per  acre  for  twenty-four  hours  each 
thirty  days.  Now,  2  inches  continuous  run  for  seventy-two  hours  is  found 
to  serve  a  much  better  purpose,  except  on  loose  soils.  The  general  practice 
in  the  valley  is  to  irrigate  once  each  thirty  days.  A  few  of  the  most  careful 
orchardists  had  found  that  by  intelligent  and  thorough  manipulation  of  the 
soil  they  obtained  as  favorable  results  from  the  application  of  water  every 
sixty  days  or  more,  using  the  same  amount  as  they  formerly  did  at  interva^^ 
of  half  that  time.  The  writer  has  watched  with  much  interest  an  eight-year- 
old  orchard  that  during  the  three  years  preceding  the  present  received  in 
all  but  ten  irrigations,  the  usual  amount  of  water  being  used  only  at  each 
four  irrigations  the  first  year  and  three  irrigations  each  the  second  and  third 
years,  with  results  comparing  favorably  with  those  on  trees  of  the  same  age 
on  the  same  soil  in  neighboring  orchards  that  received  the  ordinary  thirty- 
day  irrigations.  While  there  are  few  orchardists  who  have  the  skill  and 
patience  required  to  secure  such  results,  they  show  the  possibilities  of 
improved  cultivation  in  conserving  moisture.  So  long  as  water  is  abundant 
and  not  expensive,  more  frequent  irrigations  will  probably  be  generally  prac- 
ticed; but  the  advantage  of  running  the  water  slowly  for  a  longer  time,  in 
furrows  as  deep  as  possible,  covering  the  saturated  bottoms  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable and  keeping  the  surface  perfectly  pulverized  and  in  loose  condition, 
is  being  generally  recognized. 

The  usual  practice  is  now  to  have  6  deep  furrows  in  20-foot 
spaces.  The  number  varies  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil, 
but  is  in  any  case  less  than  in  the  small,  shallow  furrow  system 
which  formerly  prevailed. 

The  recourse  to  deeper  furrows  and  to  the  subsoil  plowing 
has  been  made  in  several  citrus  fruit  districts  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia.    Its  success  depends  upon  conditions.     There  are  cases  in 


The  V-shaped  "Crowder"  and  Metal  Dams  or  "Tapoons.' 


c 
6 


200 


CEMENT     IN     IRRIGATION 


201 


which  too  (kcp  use  of  the  subsoiler  has  admitted  the  water  at 
a  point  too  low  for  best  results  to  the  tree  which  grows  on  a  leachy 
subsoil,  and  the  cutting  of  roots  by  the  subsoiler  has  in  some  cases 
brought  shallow-rooting  trees  into  temporary  distress.  The  gen- 
eral conclusion,  however,  is  that  deeper  introduction  of  water  favors 
deeper  rooting  and  is  very  economical  of  water  by  preventing  the 
loss  by  evaporation  from  the  surface,  which,  theoretically,  is  dry, 
but  which  actually,  with  shallow  furrows  over  an  irrigation  hard- 
pan,  becomes  too  often  saturated  over  nearly  the  whole  space 
between  the  trees. 


Continuous  cement  flume  with  weirs  to  raise  water  to  outlet  tubes. 

Cement  Pipes  and  Flumes  for  the  Furrow  System. — The  use  of 
cement  in  the  construction  of  flumes  has  largely  increased  because, 
by  means  of  locally  devised  machinery,  continuous  cement  flume 
has  been  cheapened  so  that  its  first  cost  is  less  than  that  of  lumber 
flume  where  suitably  durable  lumber  is  high.  Similar  machinery 
is  used  for  the  construction  of  continuous  cement  pipe,  which  is 
replacing  open  laterals  in  carrying  water  from  main  ditches  to 
the  land  of  individual  irrigators.  This  pipe  is  made  by  a  machine 
constructed  by  two  Riverside  men  who  are  both  machinists  and 
practical  orchardists.  Sand  and  barrels  of  cement  are  distributed 
along  the  line  ahead  of  the  machine,  as  shown  in  the  background 
of  the  picture.  The  mixing  is  done  in  flat  boxes,  each  being 
carried  forward  when  emptied.     One  of  the  lines  of  large  rubber 


202 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


hose  conveys  steam  to  the  head  of  the  cylinder  of  the  machine 
and  the  other  returns  the  spent  steam.  The  mixed  cement  and 
sand  is  carried  to  the  feeding  box  (shown  in  vertical  position  in 
the  trench),  from  which  it  is  dropped  into  the  steel  pipe  form 
below.  Steam  pressure  is  then  brought  to  bear  upon  it  and  then 
cut  off  by  the  lever;  loose  earth  is  thrown  around  the  steel  forming- 
cylinder  as  it  moves  forward  and  is  firmed  by  the  operator's 
feet  ready  to  sustain  the  walls  of  the  new  pipe  as  the  cylinder  is 
withdrawn  from  it.  More  loose  earth  is  thrown  over  the  new 
pipe,  which  is  allowed  to  harden  before  the  trench  is  filled. 

Continuous  cement  flume  is  made  in  a  similar  manner,  the 
machine  working  on  the  surface  and  the  required  pressure  being 
given  by  a  strong  lever  instead  of  by  steam  power.  Instead  of 
a  cylindrical  form,  one  to  properly  shape  the  flume  is  used.  After 
this  form  is  moved  and  before  the  cement  hardens,  grooves  are 
made  at  intervals  in  the  side  walls  to  insert  board  dams  to  raise 
the  water  so  that  it  will  flow  out  of  zinc  tubes  with  gates,  which 
are  also  put  in  place  while  the  cement  is  plastic.  Not  only  is  such 
flume  sometimes  cheaper  than  board  flumes,  as  stated  above,  but 
annoyance  of  leaking  and  cost  of  extensive  repairs  are  done  away 
with. 


Board  flume  and  furrow  irrigation  at  Fullerton. 

The  Board  Flume  and  the  Furrow  System. — Although  in  the 
older  regions  the  cement  flume  is  advancing  in  popularity,  import- 
ant service  will  always  be  rendered  by  the  homemade  board  flume 
where  suitable  lumber  is  cheap.  A  detailed  account  of  its  con- 
struction and  operation  will  be  widely  useful.  The  following  is 
contributed  by  Mr.  A.  S.  Bradford,  of  Orange  County : 

I  consider  the  board  flume  best  because  it  is  in  many  places  cheapest 
and  because  it  will  last  fifteen  or  twenty  3^ears  in  California  if  made  of  good 
soft  redwood.  The  common  redwood  lumber  is  generally  so,  but  the  so- 
called  flume  lumber  is  hard,  generally,  and  will  warp  the  flume  out  of  shape. 
Even  in  the  common  redwood  lumber  hard  pieces  will  be  found,  and  these 


SOURCES    OP    IRRIGATION    WATER  203 

should  be  avoided.  My  first  flume  has  been  in  use  nine  years  and  is  appar- 
ently as  good  as  ever. 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered  is  getting  a  flume  put  in  properly,  as  this 
alone  will  cause  much  trouble  if  not  done  right.  A  flume  should  run  nearly 
on  a  level.  It  should  be  placed  about  two-thirds  in  the  ground  at  the  com- 
mencement, and,  as  soon  as  it  comes  out  of  the  ground  to  about  two-thirds 
of  its  height,  there  should  be  a  drop  made  of  1,  2,  or  3  inches,  if  necessary, 
and  then  carried  along  as  before,  so  as  to  keep  the  entire  length  of  flume 
practically  on  a  level. 

Sixteen-foot  lumber  is  better  than  longer,  as  it  is  lighter  to  handle.  I 
prefer  8-inch  sides  with  18-inch  bottom,  or,  in  some  cases,  10-inch  sides 
with  16-inch  bottom.  The  first  section,  however,  should  be  about  2  feet 
wide,  narrowed  to  the  size  of  the  flume,  so  as  to  control  the  stream.  Collars 
should  be  put  around  the  flume  every  8  feet  of  distance;  that  is,  one  in  the 
center  and  one  to  cover  the  joints  at  each  end.  These  collars  should  be  2  by 
3  inch  stuff  on  the  bottom  and  sides  and  1  by  3  inches  on  top.  This  makes  a 
strong,  durable  flume.  The  length  of  the  flume  should  be  divided,  so  that 
the  stream  will  decrease  as  it  goes  along.  The  width  should  be  decreased 
also,  say  from  16  inches  to  14,  12,  10,  and  8  inches,  the  sides  being  the  same 
throughout  or  reduced  so  as  to  have  10-inch  sides  on  the  16-inch  bottom 
and  8-inch  sides  on  the  rest,  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  bottom,  making  7 
inches  depth  inside.  Two-inch  holes  should  be  about  30  inches  apart  and 
2-inch  gates  placed  on  the  inside  instead  of  outside,  as  they  will  collect  less 
trash,  the  hole  through  the  wood,  if  uncovered,  making  a  lodgment  for  leaves, 
etc.     In  the  narrow  and  flat  flume  it  is  much  easier  to  fix  the  gates. 

From  8  to  9  furrows  for  trees  set  24  feet  apart  is  sufficient.  The  streams 
should  be  run  from  one-eighth  to  one-half  the  capacity  of  the  holes  in  the 
flume,  according  to  the  soil  and  fall  of  ground.  I  commence  the  stream 
small  and  increase  it  if  necessary  later  on.  The  streams  should  be  kept  as 
near  together  as  possible,  and  when  the  end  is  reached  the  gate  should  be 
nearly  closed  down,  so  as  to  allow  the  stream  to  just  trickle  to  the  end. 
In  this  manner  the  soil  will  become  thoroughly  wet  from  one  end  to  the 
other.  The  streams  should  be  run  very  slowly  on  most  of  our  soils.  A  great 
many  failures  have  been  made  on  hard  soils  by  running  the  stream  too  large 
and  then  reducing  it.  This  seems  to  "slick"  or  cement  the  soil  so  that  it 
will  not  take  the  water,  and  the  consequence  is  a  poor  and  unsatisfactory 
irrigation.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  streams  are  started  small  and  allowed 
to  soak  the  ground  as  they  go  along,  it  is  simply  astonishing  how  much 
water  can  be  put  in  the  ground.  On  sandy  soils  the  streams  should  be 
larger.     A  little  practice  would  give  any  one  the  desired  information. 

About  three  rows  of  trees  at  the  lower  end  should  be  blocked  up,  provided 
one  has  no  place  where  the  overflow  water  could  be  used.  This  last  pro- 
vision is  the  better,  however,  as  there  would  be  only  about  10  inches  of 
water  run  over  the  last  three  or  four  hours,  and  a  thorough  job  would  be 
done  from  one  end  to  the  other. 

In  making  furrows  I  have  an  extension  made  for  by  cultivator  to  bolt  on 
each  side  and  use  four  plows.  With  this  extension  I  can  wet  the  whole 
ground  thoroughly.  The  furrows  will  extend  under  the  limbs  of  the  trees, 
and  by  making  a  slight  curve  around  each  tree  the  ground  will  become  wet 
in  the  rows  as  well  as  between. 

As  compared  with  the  check  system,  the  furrow  method,  properly  handled, 
makes  the  soil  light  and  loose,  while  the  check  system  is  apt  to  pack  the 
soil,  rendering  it  lifeless  and  leaving  it  so  that  it  will  not  retain  moisture 
long.  Besides,  the  cost  of  ridging  and  extra  labor  in  handling  water  in 
checks  for  one  season  will  nearly  pay  for  the  flume  by  which  one  man  can 
do  the  irrigating.  Two  horses  will  furrow  out  10  acres  in  half  a  day,  and  a 
little  hand  labor  at  the  flume  will  connect  the  furrows.  In  the  check  system 
generally  a  disk  is  run  first  where  the  ridges  are  to  be  made,  and  then  the 
ridger  is  run  with  4  horses ;  then  the  jump  scraper  is  run  to  stop  up  one  side  of 
the  blocks;  then  ditches  must  be  made;  then  from  2  to  3  men  are  required 
to  handle  the  water  by  shutting  up  the  checks  when  filled.  Afterwards  the 
ridges  must  be  plowed  down  before  the  ground  can  be  harrowed  and  got 
in  condition  to  cultivate.  At  a  glance  one  can  see  that  it  costs  fully  three 
times  as  much  to  irrigate  by  the  check  system  as  by  the  furrow  system, 
and  with  the  latter  the  soil  acts  more  as  it  does  after  a  ram. 


204 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


DEVELOPMENT   AND   STORAGE   OF   WATER 

It  is,  obviously,  beyond  the  limitations  of  this  work  to  attempt 
an  extended  review  of  irrigation  enterprises  and  practices.  The 
enterprises  undertaken  by  capitalists,  or  by  co-operation  among 
settlers,  require  the  services  of  competent  engineers.  All  these 
matters  are  too  great  in  extent  and  variety  to  be  discussed  in  this 
work.  As,  however,  it  has  been  the  aim  of  the  writer  to  aid  the 
inexperienced  planter  to  help  himself  in  small  efforts,  a  little  space 
will  be  given  to  suggestions  as  to  how  a  planter  may  develops  and 
use  such  small  water  supply  as  may  be  derived  from  spring,  small 
creek  or  well,  on  his  own  land  without  employing  an  engineer. 

Running  Lines  for  Irrigating  Ditches. — How  far  to  go  up  a 
creek  in  order  to  bring  water  out  upon  a  given  piece  of  land  is  a 
question  which  frequently  arises  in  individual  practice.  There  is 
also  doubt  as  to  how  much  fall  should  be  given  to  the  ditch.  The 
fall  required  by  a  ditch  or  canal  depends  upon  the  amount  of  water 
which  it  is  desired  that  it  should  discharge,  and  upon  the  width 
and  depth  with  which  it  is  intended  that  the  water  should  flow. 
It  may  also  be  dependent  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  in  which 
the  ditch  is  to  be  constructed,  and  upon  the  peculiarities  of  the  water 
itself.  A  strong  current  in  soft  soil  may  cause  mischievous  ero- 
sions.    Water  carrying  much  sediment  must  never  be  allowed  to 


homemade  leveling  instrument 


move  sluggishly,  as  clear  water  sometimes  may.  It  is  best  to  state 
the  requirements  to  a  competent  engineer  and  act  on  his  suggestion, 
or  secure  the  counsel  of  a  neighbor  who  has  had  experience  with 
similar  soil  and  water. 

Llaving  decided  what  fall  to  give  the  ditch,  the  nearest  point 
at  which  water  can  be  taken  out  of  the  creek  to  be  brought  to  a 
certain  piece  of  land  is  found  by  commencing  with  the  point  at 
which  the  water  is  to  be  delivered  (generally  the  highest  point  of 


I 


LOCATING    DITCH    LINES 


205 


the  land  to  be  irrigated),  and  running  up  stream  a  line  which  has 
the  inclination  intended  for  the  ditch. 

To  stake  out  this  line  when  no  special  hindrances  are  in  the 
way,  use  a  home-made  leveling  instrument  constructed  as  follows: 

With  sound,  straight-edged  lumber  a  triangle  is  made,  as  indicated  in 
the  sketch.  The  three  pieces,  A  B,  6  feet  long,  B  C,  12  feet  long,  and  C  A, 
4  feet  long,  are  made  fast  to  each  other  at  A,  B,  and  C.  The  board,  A  D, 
IS  fastened  to  the  triangle  at  right  angles  to  B  C.  Near  A,  on  the  board, 
A  D,  a  plumbdine  is  made  fast.  The  plumb,  like  a  mason's  plumb,  hangs  in 
a  hole  at  F,  so  that  when  A  D  is  vertical,  the  string  hangs  very  near  the 
surface  of  the  board,  A  D. 

It  will  be  seen  that  when  A  D  is  exactly  vertical,  5  C  is  exactly  horizontal, 
if  the  angles  at  D  are  true  right  angles.  An  ordinary  carpenter's,  square  used 
in  .the  construction  of  the  apparatus  will  insure  sufficient  accuracy  in  the  position 
oi  A  D. 

In  marking  on  the  board,  A  D,  however,  the  line  in  which  the  string  of 
the  plumb  will  hang  when  B  C  is  exactly  horizontal,  more  care  is  required. 
Two  pegs  are  driven,  as  far  apart  as  B  and  C,  for  these  points  to  rest  on. 
The  highest  one  is  driven  into  the  ground  until  the  plumb-line  follows  about 
the  center  line  of  the  board,  A  D.  Having  marked  this  position  of  the  plumb- 
line,  the  triangle  is  reversed  so  that  the  end  B  rests  on  the  peg  where  be- 
fore we  had  the  end  C,  and  vice  versa.  Should  the  plumb-line  be  in  a  position 
at  variance  with  the  first  one  marked  on  the  board,  then  the  correct  position 
for  the  B  C  horizontal  will  be  exactly  in  the  middle  between  the  two  found  by 
the  aid  of  the  two  pegs. 

It  will  frequently  be  found  convenient  to  have  a  scale  of  feet  marked  off 
on  B  C.  Holes  in  the  pieces  A  B  and  C  A  at  E  E,  or  handles,  will  make  the 
triangle  convenient  to  carry.     Only  two  men  are  necessary  in  using  it. 


Starting  with  the  "Jump  Scraper"  to  close  a  row  of  gates. 

To  use  this  instrument  for  locating  the  line  of  the  ditch,  cal- 
culate the  amount  which  your  line  should  rise  between  each  two 


206  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

pegs.  Drive  a  peg  at  the  starting  point  with  its  top  say  six  inches 
from  the  general  surface  of  the  ground.  Hold  one  end  of  the 
leveling  apparatus  above  this  peg  by  exactly  that  amount  which 
the  line  rises  per  each  instrument-length  (B  C),  and  swing  the 
other  end  around  into  the  direction  from  which  the  ditch  is  to 
come,  until,  when  level,  it  is  just  six  inches  above  the  ground. 
Drive  a  peg  here,  which  will,  like  the  first,  be  six  inches  high,  and 
proceed  as  before.  Care  should  be  taken  to  give  the  top  of  each 
peg  exactly  the  correct  elevation.  The  level  must  be  horizontal 
when  resting  on  any  peg,  and  raised  exactly  that  amount  which  the 
line  rises  per  level-length,  above  the  preceding  peg.  It  will  be 
found  convenient  to  use  a  carefully-prepared  block  to  hold  on  the 
top  of  each  stake  at  the  rear  end  of  the  level  instead  of  trusting 
to  measurement  each  time. 

Locating  Contour  Lines  for  Checks  or  for  Distributing  Ditches. 

— This  work  can  be  done  with  the  aid  of  the  level  above  described. 
For  instance,  to  locate  a  contour  (a  line  of  equal  elevation),  as 
required  in  the  construction  of  a  check  levee,  drive  a  peg  until 
its  top  has  a  convenient  elevation  from  the  ground,  say  one  foot. 
Rest  one  end  of  the  triangle  on  this  peg  and  swing  the  other 
around  until,  when  B  C  is  horizontal,  this  other  end  has  exactly  the 
same  elevation  from  the  ground  as  the  top  of  the  peg.  At  this  point 
drive  a  second  peg  and  proceed  as  before.  If  the  tops  of  the  pegs 
be  chosen  as  the  height  of  the  levee,  they  may  be  retained  as  grade 
stakes  as  well  as  line  stakes  for  the  embankment. 

Storing  Water  from  Small  Sources. — For  individual  uses  quite 
a'  respectable  water  supply  can  sometimes  be  developed  from 
apparently  mean  sources.  This  can  be  done  by  clearing  out  and 
opening  up  hillside  springs,  and  often  by  tunneling  into  the  hillside 
to  intercept  subterranean  water-flows,  or  by  pumping  from  a  well. 
Even  a  small  spring,  yielding  but  two  quarts  per  second,  would  be 
sufficient  to  irrigate  several  acres  in  fruit  trees.  To  derive  the 
greatest  benefit  from  small  springs,  however,  a  reservoir  is  neces- 
sary, in  which  the  flow  of  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  or  even  a 
longer  period,  can  be  accumulated,  and  then  discharged  as  required. 
It  is  by  using  water  in  driblets  that  many  springs  are  wasted. 
A  spring  supplying  even  one  and  a  half  inches  of  water  would  be 
wholly  swallowed  up  by  a  thirsty  soil  within  two  hundred  feet  of 
its  source,  when,  by  arresting  the  flow  and  accumulating  it  in  a 
reservoir  and  discharging  at  intervals  in  a  volume  four  times  as 
large,  it  would  more  than  cover  eight  times  the  surface.  A  spring 
flowing  two  quarts  per  second  will  discharge  forty-three  thousand 
two  hundred  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours.  This  would  require  a 
reservoir  forty  by  twenty  feet,  and  seven  feet  deep,  or  double  that 
width  if  the  depth  is  decreased  one-half.     The  shallower  it  can  be 


LOSSES     OF    WATER  207 

made  the  better,  for  many  reasons,  but  especially  on  account  of  the 
temperature  of  the  water.  That  of  springs  is  generally  too  low  in 
summer  for  immediate  use,  and  its  value  is  greatly  enhanced  by 
being  raised  to  an  equal  or  greater  temperature  than  that  of  the 
air.  This  is  quickly  done  by  exposure  in  a  shallow  pond.  A  res- 
ervoir can  be  constructed  entirely  in  the  ground  where  the  slope 
will  admit  of  it,  and  by  lining  the  bottom  and  sides  with  clay  well 
puddled,  will  answer  for  most  purposes.  Some  are  built  of  adobe, 
backed  with  earth  and  plastered  on  the  inner  side  with  hydraulic 
cement.  Concrete  of  lime,  sand,  and  broken  stone,  is,  however, 
the  best  material,  where  lime  can  be  readily  obtained,  and  any 
person  with  ordinary  mechanical  skill  can  construct  them.  The 
following  hints  on  a  dirt  reservoir  may  be  suggestive  : 

A  reservoir  should  be  built  on  the  highest  part  of  the  tract  sought  to 
be  irrigated  by  scraping  the  earth  from  the  outside  and  from  such  a  large 
area  as  not  to  affect  the  utility  of  the  land  from  which  it  is  taken.  With  a 
levee  all  around  5  feet  high,  5  feet  of  water  could  be  carried  safely.  The 
slopes  ought  to  be  two  to  one  on  the  inside.  A  reservoir  20  feet  square 
and  4  feet  deep  would  hold  12,000  gallons.  With  the  slopes  as  above  the 
reservoir  should  be  measured  2  feet  from  the  bottom,  or  half  way  up  the 
4  feet  of  water;  consequently  to  lay  out  a  reservoir  to  hold  12,000  gallons, 
put  the  stakes  12  feet  square  and  build.  For  any  other  size  one  take  8  feet 
off  the  same  as  in  this.  A  reservoir  25  feet  square  will  hold  18,750  gallons 
and  would  be  17  feet  square  at  the  bottom;  one  30  feet  square  would  hold 
27,000  gallons  and  would  be  22  feet  at  the  bottom;  one  35  feet  square — 27 
at  the  bottom — will  hold  36.000  gallons;  one  40  feet  square — 32  on  the 
bottom — will  hold  48,000  gallons.  This  spread  upon  the  surface  of  an 
acre  would  be  a  little  more  than  134  inches  of  rainfall. 

Almost  any  loam  soil  will  hold  water  with  a  little  puddling.  The  cheapest 
way  to  puddle  is  to  build  a  pen  the  size  of  the  intended  reservoir,  including 
at  least  a  portion  of  that  to  be  under  the  embankment,  wet  it  very  wet, 
put  some  hogs  in  the  pen  and  keep  feeding  them  barlej%  a  little  at  a  time, 
so  as  to  make  them  not  only  walk  around  but  root  for  the  barley.  A  half 
sack  of  barley  fed  to  eight  or  ten  hungry  hogs  in  half  a  day  will  make  a 
good  puddle.  If  it  did  not  work  satisfactorily  the  water  could  be  taken  off 
and  the  bottom  covered  about  an  inch  deep  with  coarse  sand  mixed  one 
part  to  five  with  Portland  cement,  put  in  dry,  and  let  it  be  covered  slowly. 
A  barrel  of  cement  may  be  counted  at  about  4  cubic  feet  and  with  the 
mixture  above  would  cover  the  first-named  reservoir  about  1^  inches.  This 
would  make  it  tight.  The  supply  pipe  should  come  up  from  the  bottom,  so 
that  the  lift  would  never  be  more  than  the  height  of  the  surface. 

Loss  of  Water  by  Seepage. — The  great  loss  of  water  by  seepage 
during  a  long  run  has  led  to  the  cementing  of  ditches,  and  to  the 
use  of  miles  of  large  w^ooden,  concrete  and  iron  pipe  by  the  irri- 
gation companies  of  Southern  California;  also,  where  the  slope  is 
rapid,  paving  ditches  wdth  rock  has  been  resorted  to.  Similar 
efiforts  naturally  suggest  themselves  to  the  user  of  a  small  water 
supply  to  save  his  flow  from  loss.  The  lining  of  ditches  to  prevent 
seepage  is  being  tested  by  the  California  Experiment  Station  at 
Berkeley,  and  publication  of  results  is  being  made.*  Where  lumber 
is  cheap  the  use  of  a  board  flume  is  an  available  means  of  saving 
water,  when  the  soil  is  coarse  and  leachy. 


Bulletin  188  University  of  California  Experiment  Station. 


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I 


THE     CURRENT    WHEEL 


209 


Irrigation  from  Flowing  Wells. — A  considerable  area  of  orchard 
is  irrigated  from  flowing'  wells  in  different  parts  of  the  State. 
Nearly  everywhere  in  the  artesian  districts  there  are  local  well- 
borers  who  have  kept  records  of  the  strata  traversed  in  their  work 
and  can  estimate  closely  the  cost  of  securing  water  by  this  method. 

Lifting  Water  from  Flowing  Ditch  or  Stream. — Where  a  stream 
has  a  rapidity  of  two  miles  or  more  per  hour,  and  a  lift  to  a  height 
of  six  to  sixteen  feet  will  give  head  enough  to  distribute  the  water 
over  a  considerable  area,  there  is  nothing  cheaper  than  the  current 
wheel  which  is  largely  used  in  this  State.  The  engraving  gives  an 
end  view  of  such  a  wheel.  Eight  pairs  of  arms,  carrying  flat 
buckets  like  those  of  a  steamboat  paddle-wheel,  extend  from  a  hub 
rotating  on  metal  bearings.  At  either  end  or  both  ends  of  each 
bucket  are  fixed  wooden  or  tin  water  boxes  which  fill  themselves 
on  entering  the  water,  and  on  being  brought  to  the  highest  point 
of  rotation  empty  themselves  into  a  receiving  trough.  This  trough 
supplies  the  distributing  ditches,  etc.,  and  its  inner  end  is  so  placed 
that  it  comes  under  the  projecting  buckets  of  the  wheel  without 
interference  with  the  motion  of  the  arms.  The  current  of  water 
in  the  channel  underneath  forces  the  buckets  down  stream,  the 
latter  delivering  in  the  opposite  direction  at  the  top.  By  using 
a  double  set  of  boxes,  one  at  each  end  of  each  bucket,  the  water 
may  be  delivered  on  both  sides  simultaneously.  A  little  experi- 
menting will  indicate  the  proper  size  boxes,  which  depends  upon 
the  velocity  and  volume  of  water  in  the  channel  as  well  as  the 
amount  to  be  delivered. 


End  view  of  irrigating  wheel. 


At  the  Fancher  Creek  Nursery,  in  Fresno  County,  a  wheel  is 
used  eighteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  carries  sixteen  buckets,  which 
empty  into  a  trough  sixteen  feet  above  the  ditch.  The  wheel  lifts 
about  one  cubic  foot  in  two  seconds. 


210  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


PUMPING    FOR   IRRIGATION 

The  use  of  pumps  for  irrigation  is  continually  increasing.  The 
capacity  of  pumps,  their  ease  and  cheapness  of  operation  in  this 
land  of  oil  wells  and  of  ponderous  waterfalls  whose  power  can  be 
transformed  into  electric  energy,  warrant  the  conclusion  that  in 
many  places  water  can  be  lifted  from  below  more  cheaply  than 
it  can  be  brought  long  distances  by  ditch;  and  that  the  supply  is 
more  constant  and  subject  to  the  users'  command  and  convenience. 
In  all  parts  of  the  State  well-boring  and  digging  and  pump  con- 
struction have  advanced  very  rapidly.  Pumping  plants  of  all 
capacities,  from  the  greatest  of  the  gasoline  class,  lifting  fivQ 
thousand  gallons  per  minute  from  a  depth  of  twenty-five  feet,  down 
to  the  plant  with  a  throw  of  three  hundred  gallons  per  minute, 
all  styles  of  motors  and  pumps  are  being  constantly  multiplied. 
These  plants  are  being  placed  upon  wells  in  the  orchard  or  in  the 
vicinity,  or  upon  adjacent  streams  or  ponds.  Many  new  designs 
by  California  inventors  are  coming  into  use.  It  would  require 
a  volume  to  contain  any  adequate  account  of  California's  recent 
progress  in  these  lines.  Economic  pumping  is  governed  by  so  many 
considerations  that  no  general  statement  would  be  conclusive  in 
any  specific  case.  Each  orchardist  must  ascertain  his  own  condi- 
tions and  then  confer  with  trustworthy  manufacturers  or  their 
agents  as  to  what  will  meet  his  requirements.* 


WATER  MEASUREMENT 

The  Miner's  Inch. — Although  the  miner's  inch,  as  commonly 
measured,  is  open  to  objection  because  of  inaccuracy,  from  an 
engineer's  point  of  view,  it  is  so  easily  applied  that  it  must  remain 
a  popular  recourse.  It  consists  in  causing  the  water  to  flow 
through  an  opening,  the  capacity  of  which  is  known,  and  which  is 
readily  capable  of  adjustment  to  the  flow  in  any  case.  A  simple 
form  of  this  device  and  its  use  is  shown  in  the  illustration,  which 
represents  a  board  1  inch  thick,  12  inches  wide,  and  about  8  feet 
long.  The  opening  is  1  inch  wide  and  50  inches  long,  and  the  dis- 
tance from  the  top  of  the  board  to  the  center  of  the  opening  is 
exactly  4  inches  on  the  up-stream  side.  On  the  down-stream  side 
the  opening  is  beveled  so  that  the  hole  presents  sharp  edges  to  the 
stream.  A  sliding  board  is  hung  upon  the  top  of  the  first  board, 
with  a  strip  screwed  along  its  upper  edge,  this  sliding  board  being 
wide  enough  to  cover  the  opening  on  the  up-stream  side.     In  the 


*  Full  details  of  the  cost  and  flow  from  pumps  drawing  from  various  depths  and 
operated  by  various  motors  are  given  in  the  publications  of  the  Irrigation  Investiga- 
tions to  which  reference  has  previously  been  made. 


i 


I 


THE    MINERS'    INCH 


211 


slot  there  is  a  closely-fitting  block,  made  to  slide  on  the  beveled 
edges  and  fastened  by  a  screw  to  the  sliding  board.  It  is  obvious, 
then,  that  when  the  sliding  board  is  moved  backward  or  forward, 
by  means  of  its  end,  which  is  extended  for  a  handle,  the  block 
moves  in  the  slot  and  determines  the  length  of  the  opening. 

In  operation  the  board  is  placed  in  the  stream  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  so  as  to  dam  the  flow  completely,  and  the  sliding  board  is 
moved  backward  or  forward  until  the  water  is  all  passing  through 
the  slot,  the  water  being  kept  up  to  the  top  of  the  board,  or  4 
inches  above  the  center  of  the  opening.  The  length  of  the  opening 
measures  the  number  of  miner's  inches  of  water  flowing  through. 


pnp 


Measuring  miner's  inches  in  a  small  stream  or  ditch. 


If  the  flow  is  too  great  to  pass  through  the  opening  1  inch  wide, 
the  opening  may  be  made  wider,  the  water  still  to  be  kept  4  inches 
above  the  center  of  the  opening.  The  laws  of  several  States 
provide  that  in  devices  for  measuring  water  for  sale  by  the  miner's 
inch  the  opening  shall  be  6  inches  high  and  shall  be  provided  with 
a  slide  as  shown  in  the  picture.  The  number  of  miner's  inches 
then  discharged  is  equal  to  the  number  of  square  inches  in  the 
opening.  The  assumption  made  that  the  discharge  is  proportional 
to  the  size  of  the  opening  is  not  true,  but  the  error  in  measuring 
small  quantities  is  not  great  enough  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
By  converting  the  results  of  measurements  in  miner's  inches  to 
gallons,  cubic  feet,  or  some  other  familiar  unit,  it  may  be  deter- 
mined how  long  it  will  take  the  stream  to  fill  a  reservoir  or  cover 
a  given  field  with  the  necessary  depth  of  water.  This  unit  is  readily 
convertible  into  cubic  feet  or  gallons  or  acre-inches  of  water, 
according  to  the  time  the  water  flows. 

The  following  data  will  be  helpful  in  computations :  One 
miner's  inch,  as  described  above,  equals  0.1496  gallons  per  second, 
8.976  gallons  per  minute,  538.56  gallons  per  hour,  12,925.44  gallons 


212 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


per  day;  0.02  cubic  foot  per  second,  1.2  cubic  feet  per  minute,  72 
cubic  feet  per  hour.  One  acre-inch  of  water  (that  is,  1  inch  in 
depth  over  an  acre  of  surface)  equals  27,152  gallons,  or  3,630 
cubic  feet,  and  1  miner's  inch  will  supply  this  quantity  in  about 
50.4  hours.  Thus  a  simple  calculation  shows  that  a  little  stream 
of  5  miner's  inches  will  supply  enough  water  to  cover  an  acre  2.3 
inches  deep  in  about  23  hours — a  fair  amount  for  one  irrigation 
of  soil  of  average  character  if  it  has  not  been  allowed  to  become 
too  dry  before  the  application.  In  fact  this  is  an  average  amount 
actually  used  for  an  irrigation  of  shallow-rooted  plants  like  most 
field  and  garden  crops. 

Weir  Measurement. — The  term  "weir"  is  not  always  understood 
by  those  who  use  it.  The  term  can  properly  be  used  only  for 
structures  designed  to  allow  the  water  to  flow  over  the  crest  with 
a  considerable  fall  on  the  down-stream  side.     There  are  a  large 


Weir  box  in  operation  showing  post  from  which  to  measure  depth  of  stream. 


number  of  forms  of  weirs,  taking  their  names  from  the  shape  of 
the  weir  notch,  or  the  form  of  crest.  The  triangular  weir  has  a 
V-shaped  notch.  The  rectangular  weir  has  a  horizontal  crest  with 
vertical  sides.  Both  of  these  forms  of  weir  are  good,  when  used 
by  the  expert  irrigator  or  engineer  who  understands  the  principles 
and  factors  which  enter  into  their  calculations.  In  order  to  avoid 
the  variable  factors  which  enter  into  the  calculations  for  the  flow 


I 


WEIR    MEASURL]MENT  213 

of  water  over  weirs,  Cipoletti  invented  the  form  of  weir  which 
has  taken  his  name  and  which  is  in  general  use  throughout  the 
irrigated  sections  of  the  world. 

The  Cipoletti  Weir. — The  Cipoletti  weir  has  a  thin  horizontal 
crest,  the  sides  of  the  weir  notch  sloping  back  from  the  vertical 
at  an  angle  equal  to  one  inch  in  horizontal  for  every  four  inches 
in  vertical.  This,  for  each  additional  inch  in  depth  the  weir  notch 
widens  on  each  side  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  or  a  total  addition  of 
width  of  one-half  inch.  A  weir  having  a  length  of  crest  of  one 
foot,  and  designed  to  be  eight  inches  in  depth,  will  have  a  top 
width  of  notch  of  16  inches. 

When  the  weir  box  is  placed,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the 
bottom  of  the  notch,  or  crest,  level.  An  ordinary  carpenter's  spirit 
level  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  When  the  crest  is  horizontal, 
one  end  of  the  spirit  level  is  placed  on  the  center  of  the  crest, 
and  when  level  the  other  end  will  mark  the  point  for  the  zero  of 
the  weir  gauge.  In  rough  w^ork  a  nail  may  be  driven  part  way 
into  the  side  of  the  box,  the  top  of  the  nail  being  level  with  the 
crest  of  the  weir.  A  thin  plate  of  brass  is  to  be  preferred  to  a 
nail.  In  other  cases  gauges  are  inserted  on  the  sides  of  the  flumes 
and  properly  marked  in  tenths  of  feet  or  inches.  At  other  times 
a  post  from  1  to  2  inches  square  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  box 
and  several  feet  above  the  weir  board.  The  top  of  this  post  is  on 
a  level  with  the  crest.  This  is  the  method  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing sketch. 

How  to  Measure  Water  Over  Weirs. — The  method  to  follow 
can  best  be  shown  by  examples.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  farmer  has 
made  and  placed  a  box  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  the  drawing, 
after  turning  in  the  water  and  allowing  it  some  time  to  attain  a 
uniform  flow  he  proceeds  to  the  weir  box  and  with  an  ordinary 
rule  measures  the  depth  of  water  flowing  through  the  weir  notch. 
Bear  in  mind  that  this  measurement  is  not  made  at  the  weir  board, 
but  at  the  regular  gauge,  whether  it  be  a  nail,  brass  plate  or  post, 
as  already  described.  We  will  assume  that  the  depth  as  found  by 
the  rule  is  3^  inches.  Now  by  referring  to  the  table  below  he 
follows  down  the  first  column  until  3^^  is  reached.  The  weir  used 
is  one  foot,  and  under  the  column  marked  *'l-foot  weir"  and  oppo- 
site the  figure  3^  already  found  he  finds  the  cubic  feet  per  minute 
or  the  gallons  per  minute  flowing  over  a  one-foot  weir  when  the 
depth  of  water  is  3^  inches.  The  equivalent  flow  in  gallons  per 
minute  for  any  given  length  of  weir  and  depth  of  water  over  the 
crest  was  obtained  from  the  accompanying  table : 


214 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Discharge  Over  Cipoletti   Weirs. 


Depth  of  water 
on  crest. 

1-foot  weir. 


11^ -foot  weir. 


2 -foot  weir. 


3-foot  weir. 


5  Oft 

1     0.08 

IVs 0.10 

114 0.11 

1% 0.13 

11/^ 0.15 

1% 0.17 

1% 0.19 

lyg 0.21 

2     0.23 

21/8 0.25 

214 0.27 

2% 0.30 

2% 0.32 

2% 0.34 

2% 0.37 

278 0.39 

3     0.42 

31/8 0.45 

314 0.47 

3% 0.50 

Z^ 0.52 

3% 0.56 

3% 0.59 

3% 0.62 

4     0.65 

41/8 0.68 

4^ 0.71 

4% 0.74 

41/^ 0.77 

4% 0.81 

4% 0.84 

4% 0.87 

5     0.91 

51/8 0.94 

514 0.97 

5% 1.01 

5% 1.05 

5% 1.08 

534 1.12 

5% 1.15 

6     1.20 

6V8 

61/4 

6% 

eva 

6% 

6% 

678 

7     


o    . 

ft  ^ 

1.2 

OS 

36 
44 
51 
59 
67 
75 
84 
93 
103 
113 
123 
133 
144 
154 
166 
177 
189 
201 
213 
225 
238 
251 
264 
277 
291 
304 
319 
333 
347 
362 
376 
391 
406 
422 
437 
453 
469 
485 
501 
517 
534 


O  a 

0.12 
0.15 
0.17 
0.20 
0.22 
0.25 
0.28 
0.31 
0.34 
0.38 
0.41 
0.44 
0.48 
0.52 
0.55 
0.59 
0.63 
0.67 
0.71 
0.75 
0.80 
0.84 
0.88 
0.93 
0.97 
1.02 
1.07 
1.11 
1.16 
1.20 
1.26 
1.31 
1.36 
1.41 
1.46 
1.51 
1.57 
1.62 
1.68 
1.73 
1.79 


55 
65 
76 
88 
100 
113 
126 
140 
154 
169 
184 
199 
215 
231 
248 
262 
283 
301 
319 
338 
357 
376 
396 
416 
436 
456 
478 
499 
521 
543 
564 
587 
609 
633 
656 
679 
703 
727 
752 
776 
801 


U  ft 

0.16 
0.19 
0.23 
0.26 
0.30 
0.34 
0.38 
0.42 
0.46 
0.50 
0.55 
0.59 
0.64 
0.69 
0.74 
0.80 
0.84 
0.90 
0.95 
1.00 
1.06 
1.12 
1.18 
1.24 
1.30 
1.36 
1.42 
1.48 
1.55 
1.61 
1.68 
1.74 
1.81 
1.88 
1.95 
2.02 
2.09 
2.16 
2.23 
2.31 
2.38 
2.46 
2.53 
2.61 
2.68 
2.76 
2.84 
2.92 
3.00 


o  s 

73 

87 

101 

117 

139 

150 

168 

187 

206 

225 

245 

266 

287 

309 

332 

355 

378 

402 

426 

451 

476 

502 

528 

554 

582 

609 

637 

665 

694 

723 

753 

782 

813 

843 

874 

906 

938 

970 

1,002 

1,034 

1,069 

1,102 

1,136 

1,170 

1,205 

1,240 

1,275 

1,310 

1.346 


a   <V 

.^   m 

•5  ^ 
U  a 

0.24 
0.29 
0.34 
0.39 
0.45 
•0.50 
0.56 
0.62 
0.68 
0.75 
0.82 
0.89 
0.96 
1.03 
1.11 
1.18 
1.26 
1.34 
1.42 
1.51 
1.59 
1.68 
1.76 
1.85 
1.94 
2.04 
2.13 
2.22 
2.32 
2.42 
2.52 
2.62 
2.72 
2.82 
2.92 
3.03 
3.13 
3.24 
3.35 
3.46 
3.57 
3.68 
3.80 
3.91 
4.03 
4.14 
4.26 
4.38 
4.50 


109 

130 

152 

175 

200 

226 

252 

280 

308 

338 

368 

399 

431 

464 

497 

531 

566 

602 

639 

676 

714 

753 

792 

832 

872 

913 

956 

998 

1,041 

1,084 

1,129 

1,174 

1,219 

1,266 

1,312 

1,359 

1,407 

1,455 

1,503 

1,553 

1,603 

1,653 

1,704 

1,755 

1,807 

1,859 

1,912 

1,966 

2,020 


SPECIAL    POINTS    FOR    IRRIGATORS  215 


RANDOM  SUGGESTIONS 

Without  attempting  an  impossible  thing,  to-wit,  to  furnish 
explicit  directions  for  the  practice  of  irrigation,  for  much  of  it 
every  man  must  learn  for  himself  by  experience,  a  few  suggestions 
may  be  noted,  even  though  more  important  ones  do  not  come  to 
mind. 

Usually  water  should  be  prevented  from  actual  contact  with  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  Citrus  trees  are  especially  sensitive  to  such 
contact,  and  resent  it  by  "gum  disease,"  which  was  formerly  far 
more  prevalent  in  the  State  than  now.  Care  must,  therefore,  be 
taken  not  to  set  trees  which  are  to  be  irrigated,  too  low.  It  is 
better  to  raise  them  up  a  little  and  draw  the  earth  up  around  them 
to  prevent  approach  of  the  water,  but  this  must  not  be  overdone. 

If  possible,  the  ditch  should  run  on  the  shady  side  of  the  tree, 
because  reflected  sunshine  from  the  water  surface  may  burn  the 
bark. 

In  examining  soil  to  ascertain  dryness,  one  must  dig  deeply, 
for  often  an  upper  layer  will  be  fairly  moist,  if  well  cultivated, 
while  lower  layers,  where  the  feeding  rootlets  are,  will  be  arid. 
Therefore,  when  trees  or  vines  are  suffering,  dig  far  down  in  exam- 
ining the  soil. 

In  irrigating,  thorough,  deep  soaking  is  necessary,  and  exam- 
ination must  be  made  to  see  if  an  artificial  hard-pan  which  prevents 
the  descent  of  the  water  has  been  formed. 

Be  careful  not  to  continue  irrigation  too  late  in  the  season.  It 
will  prevent  the  proper  dormancy  of  deciduous  trees,  and  if  more 
fall  irrigation  is  given  citrus  trees  than  they  need  for  perfecting 
the  fruit,  the  trees  will  continue  growing  tender  shoots  until  they 
are  injured  by  severe  frosts.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  often  desir- 
able to  give  deciduous  trees  a  draft  of  water  after  the  fruit  has 
been  gathered,  if  the  soil  is  so  dry  that  the  tree  is  likely  to  drop 
its  leaves  too  soon,  and  wake  from  its  dormancy  with  the  first 
rains.  Many  times  the  fall  blooming  of  deciduous  trees,  which  is 
very  undesirable,  may  be  prevented  by  keeping  them  growing  later 
in  the  summer  by  moderate  irrigation. 

If  trees  or  vines,  in  regions  usually  irrigated,  are  to  be  grown 
without  irrigation,  it  is  important  that  the  grower  be  more  than 
usually  thorough  and  constant  with  his  summer  cultivation.  In 
trying  the  non-irrigation  experiment,  one  should,  of  course,  begin 
with  young  trees  which  have  not  been  irrigated,  and  not  usually 
expect  success  by  withdrawing  the  water  from  trees  which  have 
been  accustomed  to  it,  and  have  developed  a  root  system  accord- 
ingly. 


210  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


SUB-IRRIGATION    IN    CALIFORNIA 

The  word  "sub-irrigated"  is  freely  used  in  California  to  describe 
land  which  is  moistened  below  by  underflow  or  seepage  from 
streams  or  springs,  or  from  open  irrigation  ditches,  traversing 
higher  levels.  This  land  is  sub-irrigated,  it  is  true,  but  there  is 
no  system  about  it,  except  the  natural  distribution  of  water,  which 
is  to  seek  its  level.  Some  of  our  most  productive  lands  are  of  this 
character,  and  where  the  soil  and  subsoil  are  fitted  to  the  move- 
ment of  this  living  water,  and  not  apt  to  retain,  it  up  to  the  point 
of  saturation,  most  satisfactory  growth  of  deep-rooting  field  crops 
and  of  trees  and  vines  are  secured.  But  this  is  not  sub-irrigation 
in  the  ordinary  signification  of  the  term. 

Several  systems  of  sub-irrigation  by  subterranean  pipes  have 
been  devised  by  California  inventors,  but  none  have  passed  beyond 
the  experimental  stage,  and  no  considerable  acreage  has  been  con- 
tinually operated. 

DRAINAGE    IN    CALIFORNIA 

There  was  for  a  long  time  a  very  erroneous  popular  generaliza- 
tion that  California  soils  do  not  need  drainage;  that  in  a  dry  state 
the  aim  should  be  to  retain  the  moisture,  not  to  part  with  it.  It 
is,  of  course,  true  that  we  have  vast  areas  of  naturally  well-drained 
soil,  upon  which  any  money  spent  for  drainage  would  be  in  great 
part  thrown  away,  but  we  have,  also,  both  in  the  valley  and  on  the 
hillsides,  localities  where,  by  peculiar  character  and  conformation 
of  the  subsoil,  water  is  held  in  the  soil  until  evaporated  from  the 
surface,  and  the  result  is  a  boggy,  miry  condition,  which  prevents 
proper  winter  cultivation,  and  at  the  same  time  injures  the  roots 
of  the  trees  or  vines.  This  defective  cultivation,  added  to  the 
puddling  effect  of  standing  water,  makes  the  soil  dry  out  completely 
under  the  fervid  sun  of  summer,  and  the  result  is  that  the  wettest 
soil  of  the  winter  is  the  driest  in  the  summer,  and  plants  which 
are  injured  by  soaking  in  winter  suffer  again  from  lack  of  moisture 
and  sustenance  in  summer.  Thus  it  is  a  fact,  clearly  proven  by 
observation  and  experience,  that  thorough  under-drainage  removes 
surplus  water  in  winter,  and  ministers  to  the  retention  of  moisture 
in  summer.  More  than  this,  a  soil  puddled  by  standing  water  can 
not  present  its  contents  in  available  form  for  plant  nutrition,  and 
besides,  it  loses  the  fertilizing  effects  of  atmospheric  currents,  which 
pass  through  an  open,  well-dried  soil.  Wet  land  is  cold  and  late 
in  spring,  and  hot  as  a  baked  brick  under  the  summer  sun;  it  is 
no  fiction  of  the  imagination  to  say  that  well-drained  land  is 
warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer — that  is,  cool  to  a  degree  which 
favors  quick  and  free  root  growth,  and  cool  enough  to  escape  the 
parching  effect  of  deeply  baked  soil. 


DRAINAGE    AND    IRRIGATION 


217 


These,  and  a  host  of  similar  considerations,  which  have  made 
nnderdrainage  popular  in  older  countries,  are  of  weight  in  Cali- 
fornia. Possibly,  as  a  rule,  because  of  our  vast  area  of  deep,  kind 
loams,  the  proportion  of  land  needed  drainage  in  this  State  is  less 
than  elsewhere,  and  yet  there  is  a  vast  extent  of  country  to  be 
improved  by  tilling.  There  have  been  large  losses  of  trees  from 
planting  upon  soils  defective  in  this  respect.  The  evil  has  resulted 
from   excessive   rainfall  and   excessive   irris^ation,   either   direct   or 


Furrower  at  work  in  orange  orchard  of  A.  D.  Bishop. 

by  underflow  from  adjacent  irrigations.  In  some  places  this  latter 
movement  of  water  has  brought  alkali  to  assist  in  the  ruin  of  the 
trees  and  vines.  The  cure  is  drainage  to  sufficient  depth  and  with 
good  outlet  for  the  drainage  water. 

Information  on  the  construction  of  under-drains  is  too  available 
through  other  sources  to  call  for  its  presentation  in  this  connection. 

Drainage  and  Irrigation. — A  special  importance  attaches  to  com- 
plete and  systematic  drainage  in  connection  with  irrigation.  There 
is  pressing  need  of  such  provision  where  the  soil  has  become  over- 
loaded by  seepage  w^atcr  from  irrigation  ditches,  and  it  is  well  that 
people  in  such  situations  are  waking  up  to  the  need  of  coupling 
drainage  outlets  with  their  irrigation  inlets.    Another  matter  closely 


21g  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

allied  to  this  is  the  action  of  alkali  on  soils  thus  artificially  water- 
soaked.  This  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  special  publication 
by  Professor  Hilgard,  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made 
in  Chapter  III.  Drainage  is  plainly  essential,  both  in  individual 
farms  and  in  districts  where  the  water  level  is  rising  too  high,  and 
the  striking  statements  given  below  by  Professor  Hilgard  should 
incite  all  to  give  immediate  attention  to  the  needs  of  vines  and 
trees  in  this  regard. 

The  following  summary  of  drainage  needs,  and  the  advantage 
ot  providing  drainage  when  needed,  is  made  by  Professor  Hilgard : 

In  the  valleys  and  plains  of  the  arid  irrigation  countries  the  soils  are  pre- 
dominantly of  a  light,  sandy  or  silty  nature,  easily  penetrated  to  great  depths 
by  water  and  air.  With  these  the  roots  of  plants  also  reach  to  such  depths, 
drawing  therefrom  not  only  moisture  but  also  plant  food,  which  in  these 
soils  is,  as  a  rule,  very  abundant.  The  plants  of  the  arid  region  thus  are 
enabled  to  utilize  nearly  as  many  feet  of  soil  mass  as  in  the  regions  of 
summer  rains  inches  would  be  drawn  upon;  and  it  is  evident  that  this  advan- 
tage, which  postpones  for  a  long  time  the  need  of  fertilization,  should  not 
be  lightly  thrown  away.  Each  farm  in  the  arid  region  has  several  similar 
ones  underground,  which  with  proper  management  can  be  fully  utilized. 

But  this  presupposes  that  the  water,  air  and  roots  can  all  penetrate 
under  irrigated  culture  as  they  do  in  the  natural  condition.  It  means  that 
the  ground  water  level  shall  not  be  allowed  to  rise  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  prevent  the  penetration  and  healthy  life  of  the  roots  in  the  depths  of  the 
soil  mass.  If  by  intentional  or  careless  over-irrigation,  or  by  leakage  from 
the  ditches,  the  water  level  is  allowed  to  rise  within  a  few  feet  of  the  sur- 
face, the  wonderfully  productive  lands  of  the  arid  valleys  are  reduced  to 
the  same  condition  as  are  those  of  the  humid  countries:  a  shallow  layer 
of  surface  soil,  within  which  alone  the  roots  can  exercise  their  functions 
of  plant  nutrition.  The  natural  result  is  that  this  layer  soon  becomes 
exhausted,  and  copious  artificial  fertilization  is  required  to  maintain  prof- 
itable production. 

And  even  this  is  the  most  favorable  case.  When,  in  addition,  the  upward 
movement  of  the  soil  water  carries  with  it  the  entire  mass  of  salts  of  various 
kinds  which  exist  in  all  arid  soils,  and  brings  theni  within  reach  of  surface 
evaporation,  these  "alkali"  salts  impregnate  the  soil  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
render  the  cultivation  of  many  crops  unprofitable,  or  sometimes  altogether 
impossible. 

Summarizing  the  advantages  of  systematic  land  draining  it  may  be  said 
that: 

1.  It  prevents  the  drowning  out  of  the  deeper  roots  of  plants  by  the 
rise  or  fluctuations  of  the  ground  water,  by  which  the  vineyards  and  orchards 
are  so  frequently  rendered  unprofitable. 

2.  It  prevents,  or  at  least  limits  definitely  the  shallowing  of  the  soil 
caused  by  high-lying  ground  water,  resulting  in  the  need  of  early  and 
copious  fertilization,  which  would  otherwise  not  have  been  called  for  in 
many  years.  The  annual  cost  of  such  fertilization  will  soon  exceed  the  first 
cost  of  drainage. 

3.  Drainage  does  away  definitely  with  the  alkali  evil.  When  drainage  is 
established  the  land  can  easily  be  so  handled  as  either  to  remove  all  the 
alkali,  or  to  leave  in  the  soil  so  much  of  it  as  may  be  rationally  considered 
beneficial,  on  account  of  its  usual  content  of  valuable  and  highly  available 
plant  food.  To  prevent  the  waste  of  much  of  this  soluble  plant  food,  the 
use  of  gypsum  is  also  valuable;  but  subsequent  swamping  of  the  land  would 
cause  a  return  of  the  black  alkali  unless  drainage  were  provided  for. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
COMMERCIAL    FRUIT,  VARIETIES 

In  preparation  for  revision  of  this  work  and  to  serve  also  asso- 
ciations of  nurserymen  and  fruit  growers  who  requested  specific 
information  as  to  the  relative  standing  of  commercial  varieties  of 
different  fruits  in  the  various  states  which  participate  in  the  over- 
land fruit  trade,  the  writer  undertook  a  careful  inquiry  into  the 
present  standing  of  varieties  of  the  fruits  chiefly  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia for  commercial  purposes.  The  objects  in  this  inquiry  were, 
first,  to  secure  exact  data  which  would  be  of  business  advantage  to 
large  propagators  of  fruit  trees ;  second,  to  make  widely  known 
the  particular  requirements  of  California  production  and  trade  for 
the  information  of  originators  of  new  varieties,  which  might  pre- 
serve, with  improvements,  types  which  ministered  to  specific  oppor- 
tunities and  demands;  third,  to  enforce  upon  local  planters  the 
conviction  that  their  clearest  path  toward  satisfactory  income  lies 
in  choosing  varieties  which  have  demonstrated  two  fundamental 
characters,  viz :  adaptation  to  the  locality  and  to  the  uses  of  the 
fruit  trade. 

It  may  surprise  the  casual  reader  to  find  that  our  production 
proceeds  so  largely  upon  old  standard  varieties  and  that  the  striking 
achievements  of  Mr.  Burbank  are  not  more  prominent.  Anyone, 
however,  who  is  acquainted  with  commercial  fruit  growing  knows 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  revolutionize  an  established  and  profitable 
industry  in  less  than  a  decade  by  the  substitution  of  new  varieties 
for  the  old  standards.  It  takes  not  less  than  half  that  period  to 
determine  whether  the  new  variety  is  really  trustworthy  and  suit- 
able, and  it  takes  much  longer  to  get  a  large  acreage  in  bearing 
either  by  grafting  or  new  plantings  because  people  are  slow  and 
conservative  in  making  changes.  It  is  little  more  than  thirteen 
years  since  Burbank  distributed  the  first  grafts  of  ''Wickson,"  the 
first  of  his  plums  to  make  a  deep  impression  upon  the  commercial 
fruit  growing  of  California. 

Another  reason  why  new  varieties  do  not  figure  more  largely 
in  California  fruit  growing  is  the  smallness  of  the  amateur  interest. 
There  is,  in  fact,  almost  an  absence  of  pure  amateurs — enthusiastic, 
critical,  discriminating,  athirst  for  novelties.  Even  suburban  plant- 
ers follow  the  lead  of  commercial  orchardists  and  plant  chiefly 
that  which  has  shown  adaptations  to  local  growing  conditions, 
and  few  are  averse  to  making  what  they  can  by  sale  of  small  sur- 
pluses.     The    result    is    that    California    fruit    growing    is    almost 

219 


220  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO    GROW     THEM 

wholly  commercial  in  spirit,  policy  and  point  of  view,  which  is 
perhaps  only  natural  in  a  state  where  the  fruit  products  reach  an 
annual  aggregate  value  of  something  like  seventy  millions  of  dollars. 
The  effect  is  to  concentrate  attention  upon  varieties  which  have 
achieved  fame  for  profit,  and  to  repress  amateur  devotion  and  in- 
dulgencies. 

At  the  same  time  there  is,  and  has  always  been,  quite  a  disposi- 
tion toward  trial  of  novelties  among  commercial  growers,  espe- 
cially manifested  in  search  for  specific  characters  which  are  seen 
to  be  desirable  rather  than  desire  of  newness  for  its  own  sake,  which 
is  often  a  point  of  pride  among  amateurs.  To  this  enterprising 
and  discriminating  search  is  due  the  prominence  of  some  of  the 
leading  varieties,  which  are  chance  seedlings  recognized  as  meeting 
special  requirements  and  having  grown  great  because  they  really 
did  so.  The  California  grower  is,  therefore,  quite  certain 
that  he  needs  not  varieties  new  throughout  and  of  startling  charac- 
ters, but  improved  varieties  which  hold  the  good  points  of  the  old 
and  add  other  points.  For  instance,  he  calls  for  trees  resistant  to 
disease,  for  improvement  of  the  fruit  in  beauty,  flavor  and  keeping 
qualities ;  for  varieties,  similar  in  kind,  which  fill  gaps  in  the  ripen- 
ing season  so  that  he  can  employ  help  continuously,  and  shippers 
and  canners  agree  with  him  so  that  they  can  keep  the  cars  moving 
and  the  cannery  plants  at  work.  The  grower  says  he  must  be  care- 
ful not  to  plant  something  different  from  what  is  already  growing 
and  selling  well  in  his  region,  and  this  is  also  the  advice  of  the 
trade  to  him.  He  can  not  risk  much  on  varieties  of  entirely  differ- 
ent types,  although  most  growers  are  always  doing  a  little  experi- 
menting. Nor  should  he  undertake  too  many  varieties,  because  a 
profitable  orchard  is  not  a  pomological  museum.  There  must  be  a 
large  quantity  of  uniform  fruit  to  make  any  district  commercially 
prominent. 

For  these  reasons  the  number  of  varieties  now  planted  is  but  a 
fraction  of  what  it  was  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  and,  stopping  at 
this  point,  one  might  get  the  idea  that  the  California  grower  was  a 
monument  of  conservatism  and  lacking  in  enterprise  and  adventure. 
Subsequent  chapters  will,  however,  show  that  he  has  very  definite 
ideas  of  what  he  wants  that  is  new,  and  that  he  has  problems 
enough  to  keep  plant  breeders  busy  for  a  century.  This  will  be 
done  for  each  fruit  by  citing  in  its  chapter  particularly  desirable 
characters  which  California  growers,  shippers  and  canners  have 
described  in  response  to  the  wide  inquiry  upon  which  this  statement 
rests.  The  writer  was  fortunate  in  securing  1,601  observations 
from  men  who  have  their  livelihood  and  fortunes  involved  in  profit- 
able growth  and  handling  of  California  fruits,  and  what  are  given 
as  specific  requirements  of  new  varieties  in  California  are  not  vain 
imaginings,  but  deeply  felt  wants. 


THE    MOST    POPULAR    FRUITS 


221 


It  will  be  noted  by  the  reader  that  the  preference  for  certain 
varieties,  which  isembodicd  inthis  statement,  does  not  involve  pomo- 
logical  standards  as  a  leading  factor.  The  claim  is  distinctly  not 
made  that  these  varieties  are  chosen  on  the  basis  of  quality, 
beauty,  hardiness  or  health.  In  the  case  of  nearly  all  the  fruits,  there 
are  other  varieties  which  might  equal  or  even  surpass  them  in 
one  or  more  of  these  respects.  The  choice  is  made  because  they 
are  most  profitable  to  grow;  not  alone  because  they  are  good,  but 
because  they  are  good  for  something.  This  particular  suitability 
or  serviceability  may  involve  pomological  considerations  and  com- 
mercial and  manufacturing  considerations  as  well.  The  planter 
must  use  these  lists  in  connection  with  what  he  may  find  about  the 
varieties  in  subsequent  chapters,  without  neglecting  to  confer  also 
with  older  growers  hi  the  district  in  v/hich  he  may  plan  to  plant. 

Perhaps  an  intelligent  use  of  the  statement  can  be  concretely 
suggested  by  bpefly  discussing  the  first  group  of  varieties  men- 
tioned— the  apples  most  approved  in  California.  First  comes  the 
yellow  Newtown  Pippin,  and  that  means  that  most  apples  commer- 
cially grown  are  winter  apples  and  this  variety  is,  on  the  whole, 
the  most  profitable  of  them.  But  a  planter  in  a  hot  interior  valley 
should  usually  reject  them  for  all  winter  apples  are  apt  to  be  unsat- 
isfactory, and,  if  he  plants  apples  at  all,  should  choose  early  vari- 
eties like  the  Red  and  White  Astracan,  because  they  ripen  early, 
thus  escaping  the  highest  heat  and  at  the  same  time  being  ready 
for  the  early  market. 

Similar  comments  might  be  made  upon  other  varieties.  Some 
years  ago  the  distribution  of  commercial  fruit  varieties  was  taken 
into  account  in  a  biological  way  because  it  was  taken  to  be  certain 
that  the  grower  would  select  varieties  which  "did  best"  in  his 
district.  Enough  has  been  said  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  lists 
of  fruits  are  not  made  of  those  who  do  best  alone,  but  of  those  which 
sell  to  best  advantage,  and  that  has  no  biological  significance  what- 
ever. 

The  varieties  are  arranged  not  according  to  ripening  season  but 
in  the  order  in  which  the  greatest  number  of  growers  consider 
them  worth  planting. 

Fruit  varieties  most  popular  in  California : 

Apples. — Newtown  Pippin,  Bellflower,  W.  W.  Pearmain,  Gra- 
venstein,  Red  Astracan,  R.  I.  Greening,  E.  Spitzenberg,  W.  Astra- 
can,  Red  June. 

Apricots. — Royal  Blenheim,  Moorpark,  Hemskirk,  Peach.  New- 
castle, Tilton. 

Cherries. — Royal  Ann,  Black  Tartarian,  Black  Republican,  Rock- 
port,  Bing,  Chapman,  Purple  Guigne,  May  Duke,  Centennial,  Black 
Bigarreau,  Lambert. 


222 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Peaches. — Miiir,  Phillips,  Salway,  Lovell,  Early  Crawford, 
Tuskena,  Foster,  Elberta,  Late  Crawford,  Orange  Cling,  Susque- 
hanna, Nichols,  Sellers,  Lemon,  St.  Johns,  Henrietta,  Mary's 
Choice,  Hales,  Alexander,  Heath. 

Pears. — Bartlett,  Winter  Nelis,  Seckel,  Easter,  De  Comize, 
Doyenne  D'Ete,  Clapp's  Favorite,  Glout  Norceau,  Barry,  Comet. 

Plums.— Wickson,  Hungarian,  Kelsey,  Yellow  Egg,  Tragedy, 
Washington,  Satsuma,  Burbank,  Jefferson,  Climax,  Grand  Duke, 
Clyman. 

Prunes. — French,  Imperial,  Sugar,  Giant,  Robe  de  Sergeant, 
German,  Silver,  Splendor. 

Grapes. — Muscat,  Tokay,  Cornichon,  Thompson,  Emperor, 
Malaga,  Rose  of  Peru,  Zinfandel,  Black  Morocco,  Sweet  Water, 
Verdal,  Carignane,  Black  Prince,  Alicante,  Sultana. 


I 


i 


I 


CHAPTER    XVII 

THE  APPLE 

During  the  last  decade  notable  progress  has  been  made  in  apple 
growing  in  California.  The  old  idea  that  our  conditions  did  not 
favor  excellence  in  the  apple  has  given  way  to  full  assurance  that 
in  wisely  selected  elevations  and  exposures  the  very  highest  points 
of  size,  beauty,  flavor,  keeping  and  shipping  qualities  are  secured. 
Even  before  the  wonderfully  satisfactory  test  of  both  northern 
and  southern  California  apples  at  the  New  Orleans  World's  Fair, 
it  was  clear  that  the  right  variety  grown  in  the  right  place  yields 
an  apple  in  California  than  which  a  better  can  not  be  grown  any- 
where, and  during  the  last  five  years  California  early  apples  have 
been  in  sharp  request  for  shipment  to  all  regions  of  the  Northwest 
and  British  Columbia,  and  California  winter  apples  have  been  sold 
at  the  highest  prices  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  in  Europe. 
Shipments  beyond  State  lines  of  above  one  thousand  and  seven 
hundred  and  forty-four  car-loads  in  1905  testify  to  these  facts. 

Localities  for  Apples. — Speaking  generally,  it  may  be  laid  down 
that  the  great  valleys  of  the  interior  are  not  well  suited  to  the 
apple ;  also,  there  are  some  situations  which  are  much  better  than 
others.  In  the  early  regions  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  foot- 
hills, however,  excellent  early  apples  are  profitably  produced.  In 
the  great  valley  and  lower  foot-hill  region  of  the  State,  the  late 
apple  usually  lacks  character  and  keeping  quality.  On  the  great 
plains  the  tree  is  liable  to  sunburn,  or  sun  blight,  as  it  is  called. 
Some  varieties,  because  of  the  character  of  their  foliage,  are  less 
liable  to  this  injury  than  others,  and  it  is  possible  that  this  evil 
may  be  finally  overcome  by  the  selection  of  varieties  with  blight- 
proof  foliage,  as  will  be  mentioned  later.  In  the  great  valley,  how- 
ever, on  the  rich  river-bottom  land  of  the  Sacramento  and  the  San 
Joaquin  and  its  tributaries,  the  apple  roots  deeply,  attains  good  size, 
bears  good  fruit,  with  fair  keeping  quality,  while  but  a  few  miles 
away  on  the  plains  it  is  inferior. 

In  the  interior  the  region  of  adaptation  to  the  apple  lies  at  an 
elevation  on  the  foot-hills  on  both  the  east  and  west  rims  of  the 
great  valley.  Its  limits  are  not  well  defined,  but  there  are  flour- 
ishing orchards  at  an  elevation  of  about  four  thousand  five  hundred 
feet  on  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  and  from  two 
thousand  to  three  thousand  five  hundred  feet  is  cammonly  regarded 
the  best  apple  region  of  the  mountains.  The  trees  attain  large 
size  and  bear  heavily,  and  the  fruit,  of  well-adapted  varieties,  is 

223 


224  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO    CROW     THKM 

large,  crisp,  juicy  and  has  exceptional  keeping  qualities.  On  the 
Tule  River  in  Tulare  County,  at  an  eleration  of  4100  feet,  eight- 
year-old  Winesaps  have  borne  300  pounds.  Yellow  Newtown 
Pippins  250  pounds,  and  White  Winter  Pearmains  300  pounds 
per  tree.  At  such  elevations,  however,  there  is  constant  danger 
of  spring  frost  injury. 

Along  the  coast  the  apple  succeeds  well  from  end  to  end  of 
the  State,  and  very  close  to  the  ocean  excellent  fruit  is  produced 
on  good  soil.  There  is  a  certain  advantage  in  elevation  in  the  coast 
region  as  well  as  in  the  interior,  but  the  advantage  is  not  so  marked 
nor  is  the  required  elevation  so  great.  Coast  valleys  in  the  central 
and  upper  portion  of  the  State,  where  the  soil  is  suitable,  produce 
most  excellent  apples,  but  even  here  the  lower  hillsides,  with  deep, 
well-drained  soils,  are,  perhaps,  preferable  to  the  floors  of  the 
valley.  Departing  from  immediate  coast  influences  and  approach- 
ing the  interior,  with  its  greater  heat  and  aridity,  the  greater  ele- 
vation becomes  desirable.  The  apple,  excepting  the  very  early 
varieties,  does  not  relish  the  forcing  heat  which  brings  such  per- 
fection to  the  peach,  but  to  insure  late  ripening  and  long  keeping, 
with  accompanying  crispness,  juciness,  and  flavor,  it  must  have 
atmospheric  surroundings  which  favor  slower  development. 

Localities  for  apple  growing  in  southern  California  are  to  be 
chosen  with  much  the  same  rules  as  in  the  upper  parts  of  the 
State.  As  has  already  been  said,  valleys  in  which  coast  conditions 
largely  predominate  produce  good  apples,  on  suitable  soils,  but 
away  from  the  coast,  proper  elevations  must  be  sought,  and  they 
should  be  above  the  so-called  thermal  or  frostless  belts.  Good 
apples  are  grown  on  low  lands  near  the  coast  in  Los  Angeles  and 
Orange  Counties.  Sixty  miles  inland,  in  San  Bernardino  County, 
winter  apples  fail  in  the  valleys,  but  are  most  excellent  at  a  suffi- 
cient elevation  upon  the  slopes  of  the  surrounding  mountains  or  in 
elevated  valleys  like  the  Yucaipe  Valley  above  Redlands,  where 
a  Rome  Beauty  of  excellent  quality  Avas  grown  in  1903  to  a  weight 
of  twenty-seven  ounces  and  a  circumference  of  fifteen  inches.  In 
the  elevated  interior  of  San  Diego  County,  as  in  the  Julian  and 
Smith  Mountain  districts,  excellent  apples  are  produced  in  hrge 
quantities  and  profitably  carried  long  distances. 

Second  and  Third-Crop  Apples. — There  is  a  peculiar  behavior 
of  the  apple  tree,  most  noticeable  when  winter  temperature  is  mild- 
est, and  that  is  blooming  and  fruiting  out  of  season.  In  the  case 
of  early  apples  the  second  bloom  may  appear  about  the  time  the 
first  fruit  ripens  and  the  third  bloom  when  the  second  crop  is  half 
grown.  Even  such  behavior  may  be  followed  by  regular  blooming 
the  following  spring.  Second  crops  of  apples  are  not  of  amount 
nor  regularity  enough  to  be  of  much  economic  importance,  as  the 
second  crop  of  pears  and  grapes  sometimes  are.     The  third  crop 


CONDITIONS    FOR    THE    APPLE  225 

occasionally  ripens.  An  instance  is  on  record  at  Chino,  San  Ber- 
nardino County,  where  in  1903  a  tree  ripened  its  first  crop  in  June, 
ami  its  last  fruit  was  picked  on  Christmas  day  following.  Such 
behavior,  of  course,  indicates  conditions  ill  suited  to  the  apple. 

Exposures  for  the  Apple. — The  choice  of  exposure  for  an  apple 
orchard  may  almost  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  said  about 
localities.  In  regions  with  high  summer  temperature  the  apple 
will  do  best  on  cool,  northerly  slopes,  and  this  exposure  becomes 
doubly  desirable  when  the  location  has  high  temperature  with  only 
moderate  annual  rainfall,  or  where  the  soil  is  not  well  adapted  to 
the  retention  of  moisture.  With  such  prevailing  conditions,  the 
apple  will  be  grateful  for  the  cooler  air  and  the  greater  moisture 
of  the  northerly  slope.  Where  the  temperature  is  moderately 
cool,  and  the  rainfall  adequate,  the  matter  of  exposure  is  of  less 
account,  and  the  grower  can  make  the  existence  of  the  best  soil 
the  test  of  location  of  his  orchard.  At  elevations  on  the  sides  of 
high  ranges  where  late  cold  storms  are  liable  to  rush  down  from 
higher  snow  fields,  protection  from  the  usual  course  of  such  storms, 
or  from  the  course  of  cold  winds  generally,  must  be  sought ;  and 
directly  up  the  coast,  especially  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State, 
in  certain  places  where  the  peach  does  not  usually  succeed  even 
the  apple  needs  protection,  and  the  benefit  of  all  heat  available, 
and  then  a  southerly  or  southeasterly  exposure  becomes  desirable. 
The  choice  of  exposure  is  thus  seen  to  be  largely  a  local  question 
and  to  be  determined  by  a  knowledge  of  local  conditions.  A  new- 
comer in  a  region  can  best  learn  these  conditions  by  conference 
with  older  residents,  or  by  personal  observation  of  older  orchards. 

Soils  for  the  Apple. — Experience  with  the  apple  in  California 
confirms  what  has  long  been  set  forth  as  its  choice  of  soils  in  older 
regions.  If  one  avoids  an  extremely  light,  sandy  soil  on  the  one 
hand,  and  a  very  stifif  clay  or  adobe  on  the  other,  he  may  plant 
apples  on  almost  any  soil  which  allows  extension  of  the  roots  to 
a  considerable  depth  without  reaching  standing  water.  The  apple 
thrives  in  a  moist  soil,  but  it  must  be  well  drained,  naturally  or 
otherwise.  A  soil  which  may  be  called  best  for  the  apple  is  a  deep, 
rich,  moist,  calcareous  loam,  but  the  tree  will  thrive  on  coarser 
materials.  The  subsoil,  whatever  its  nature,  must  be  sound  and 
open  to  the  passage  of  moisture.  The  most  unfavorable  condition 
for  the  tree  is  a  subsoil  of  clay  which  holds  water.  There  is  some 
difference  in  varieties  as  to  choice  of  soil.  The  Yellow  Bellflower, 
for  instance,  will  do  well  on  a  lighter  soil  than  the  Yellow  New- 
town Pippin. 


226  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     TiiFM 

PROPAGATION    OF   THE   APPLE 

The  apple  is  chiefly  propagated  by  root-grafting  upon  apple  seed- 
ling roots  either  whole-roots  or  root  pieces.  Budding  is  also  practised 
to  a  certain  extent.  For  dwarf  trees  the  Paradise  stock  is  used. 
Repeated  trials  with  working  the  apple  on  the  pear,  chiefly  by  top 
grafting,  have  secured  growth  of  limited  life  but  without  fruiting. 

The  resistance  of  certain  roots  to  the  woolly  aphis  has  been 
fully  demonstrated  by  local  experience  in  the  use  of  the  Northern 
Spy  and  Winter  Majetin,  chiefly  the  former.  Seedlings  of  North- 
ern Spy  car^  not  be  relied  upon  as  resistant  to  the  woolly  aphis. 
It  is  necessary  to  get  a  root  actually  grown  from  the  Northern 
Spy  wood.  The  best  way  to  get  a  start  is  to  buy  some  Northern  Spy 
trees  from  some  reputable  nurseryman,  specifying  that  they  shall 
be  Northern  Spy  root  and  top.  With  these  resistant  roots  and 
wood  growth  for  scions  or  cuttings  can  be  grown.  Resistant  trees 
are  made  by  root  grafting  the  scion  of  the  variety  which  it  is 
desired  to  propagate  upon  a  piece  of  Northern  Spy  root  and  then 
being  careful  that  the  scion  does  not  send  out  roots  of  its  own, 
but  is  wholly  dependent  upon  the  Northern  Spy  root.  It  is  cus- 
tomary with  nurserymen  selling  resistant  trees  to  save  the  root 
pieces  which  are  removed  in  digging  and  packing  for  subsequent 
propagation.  It  is  also  possible  to  get  a  resistant  tree  by  starting 
from  the  cutting  of  a  Northern  Spy.  To  facilitate  the  rooting  of 
these  cuttings  a  small  piece  of  any  kind  of  apple  root  is  put  in  by 
side  graft  near  the  bottom  of  the  cutting.  This  acts  as  a  starter, 
but  the  cutting  will  also  make  roots  of  itself.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  year  then  the  cuttings  are  taken  up,  the  piece  of  root  used 
as  a  starter  is  cleanly  cut  away  and  the  rooted  cutting  replanted; 
henceforth  it  is  dependent  upon  its  own  roots  and  is  resistant. 
The  variety  desired  is  then  grafted  in  a  little  way  above  the  ground 
surface  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  its  making  its  own  roots. 
By  either  of  these  processes  it  is  more  troublesome  and  takes  more 
time  to  produce  a  tree  with  a  resistant  root  than  in  the  ordinary 
way,  and  for  that  reason  trees  on  resistant  roots  are  sold  at  a  higher 
pHx:e.  This  may  be  the  reason  why  resistant  trees  are  not  yet 
largely  used  in  this  State. 

Other  suggestions  applicable  to  the  growth  of  young  apple  trees 
are  given  in  Chapters  VIII  and  IX. 

''■DISEASES    AND    PESTS    OF   THE    APPLE 

The  apple  is  subject  to  various  diseases'  and  insect  enemies 
which  must  be  resolutely  fought  or  they  will  render  the  trees  un- 
profitable. Chief  of  the  diseases  are  the  ''pear  blight"  and  the 
apple  scab,  and  the  apple  mildew.  Of  the  insect  enemies  the  codlin 
moth,    the    apple-leaf    aphis,    various    leaf-eating    caterpillars    and 


PRUNING    THE    APPLE 


227 


several  scale  insects  must  be  kept  in  check  and  the  latest  approved 
means  of  reducing  these  troubles  will  be  described  in  detail  in  later 
chapters. 

PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  APPLE  ORCHARD 

The  chapters  on  planting,  and  pruning  contain  suggestions  to 
which  the  reader  is  referred.  Care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  trees 
w^ith  clean,  healthy  roots,  not  knotted  and  scarred  by  woolly  aphis. 

Distance  in  Planting. — The  distance  between  the  trees  is  of  the 
highest  importance.  All  the  old  apple  orchards  are  overcrowded. 
More  recently  trees  have  been  set  at  greater  distances,  and  such 
planting  is  now  generally  advised.  There  is  some  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  proper  distance,  but  certainly  twenty-five  to  thirty 
feet  is  near  enough,  and  some  of  the  best  new  orchards  have  been 
planted  at  forty  feet,  the  ground  being  used  for  a  time  with  other 
crops  or  planted  with  early  bearing  trees,  for  which  the  soil  is 
suited,  between  them. 

Pruning  the  Apple. — The  manner  of  shaping  fruit  trees 
described  in  the  chapter  on  pruning  succeeds  admirably  with  the 
apple.  Yearling  trees  are  usually  planted,  and  they  are  regularly 
pruned  until  proper  form  is  secured. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Rodgers,  a  leading  apple  grower  of  the  Watsonville 
district,  near  the  coast  in  central  California,  gives  the  following 
excellent  outline  of  a  simple  and  economical,  yet  successful,  method 
for  apple  tree  building  under  ordinary  conditions : 

First  Year:  On  planting  cut  the  stem  from  30  to  36  inches  in 
height,  with  the  terminal  bud  toward  the  southwest.  In  the 
spring,  when  growth  begins,  strip  off  all  shoots  from  the  ground 
up  to  about  20  inches.  Above  this  point  let  all  growth  remain 
during  the  summer.  If  for  any  cause  during  earjy  summer  a  bud 
does  not  start  where  wanted,  a  short  transver&e  cut  through  the 
bark  just  above  the  bud  will  cause  it  to  develop  into'a  limb. 

Beginning  of  Second  Year:  Cut  off  all  limbs  except  those 
selected  to  remain  permanently.  Two,  three,  four,  and  not  more 
than  five  limbs  should  be  allowed  to  remain,  the  number  depend- 
ing on  their  position.  It  should  be  the  aim  to  distribute  them 
evenly  on  all  sides,  and  to  give  all  possible  space  between  limbs 
up  and  down  the  trunk.  This  latter  precaution  is  to  give  room 
for  expansion  of  limbs  in  after  years.  Cut  back  the  limbs  that  are 
to  remain,  taking  off  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  previous 
season's  growth.  If  the  tree  is  of  a  spreading  habit,  and  it  is  de- 
sired to  have  it  grow  erect,  cut  to  inner  buds.  If  desired  to  spread 
the  top  cut  to  outer  buds. 


228 


THINNING    THE    APPLE  229 

Beginning-  of  Third  Year:  Allow  two  or  three  lateral  limbs  to 
remain  on  each  of  the  main  branches.  Top  the  tree  again,  taking 
off  from  one-third  to  one-half  the  previous  year's  growth.  Con- 
tinue this  method  during  the  first  four  years  ,at  which  time  the 
tree  should  begin  to  bear,  and  if  surrounding  conditions  are  favor- 
able, it  will  prove  strong,  vigorous  and  capable  of  sustaining  a 
heavy  load  of  apples.  The  after  treatment  will  consist  mainly  in 
keeping  the  top  properly  thinned. 

After  coming  into  bearing  there  must  be  intelligent  pruning 
according  to  the  growth-habit  of  the  variety.  Some  varieties,  like 
the  Yellow  Bellflower,  resent  heavy  pruning  after  coming  into  bear- 
ing, and  slow  growers  like  the  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin,  do  not 
need  it.  On  the  other  hand  varieties,  like  the  Winesap  and  Smith's 
Cider,  are  apt  to  make  long  slim  branches  and  bear  at  the  ends. 
This  can  be  corrected  by  cutting  back  to  secure  more  short  shoots 
which  will  bear  better  fruit.  Some  varieties,  like  the  Jonathan,  will 
make  plenty  of  short  spurs  under  this  treatment  while  others  like 
Rome  Beauty  and  Rhode  Island  Greening  are  persistent  tip-bearers, 
but  can  be  gradually  drawn  in  without  reducing  the  crop  too  much. 
The  grower  must  study  his  varieties  not  only  with  reference  to 
this  but  in  forming  the  tree,  cutting  to  an  inside  bud  all  varieties 
which  naturally  take  a  horizontal  direction,  and  cutting  to  an 
outside  bud  varieties  which  have  a  tendency  to  send  up  tall,  straight 
shoots.  By  thus  throwing  the  new  growth  upward  in  the  first 
case,  and  outward  in  the  second,  one  can  shape  each  kind  to  greater 
symmetry  and  strength  for  fruit  carrying,  and  bring  up  all  spread- 
ing varieties  to  a  form  which  admits  near  approach  of  the  plow 
and  cultivator.  This  manner  of  shaping  the  tree  must  continue 
as  long  as  seems  necessary  to  secure  a  tree  which  will  come  to 
bearing  age  shapely  and  strong,  and  within  reach. 

Bearing  trees  should  not  be  allowed  to  carry  too  many  branches, 
and  pruning  will  largely  consist  of  thinning  out  surplus  shoots  and 
removing  interference  between  branches.  It  is  not  desirable  to 
shorten-in  the  apple  as  is  done  with  the  apricot  and  peach. 

Summer  pruning  to  reduce  wood  growth  and  promote  bearing 
is  practiced  to  a  limited  extent  in  some  districts  upon  varieties 
inclined  to  shy  bearing.  In  regions  of  the  most  intense  summer 
heat,  less  pruning  is  admissible  than  in  the  coast  and  elevated 
regions.  It  is  necessary  that  the  foliage  be  dense  to  protect  the 
tree  and  the  fruit  from  sunburn.  Nor  does  the  tree  seem  to  relish 
cutting  back.  Slight  thinning  out  if  the  tree  becomes  too  brushy, 
seems  to  be  the  best  treatment  in  some  of  the  hot  valleys. 

Thinning  the  Fruit. — One  of  the  most  important  items  in  the 
handling  of  an  apple  orchard  is  the  faithful  thinning  out  of  the 
fruit  of  all  varieties  which  are  prone  to  over-bear,  and  this  work 
is  now  regularly  provided  for  by  the  leading  commercial  growers. 


230  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Only  one  apple  should  grow  at  a  place  and  spacing  of  four  to  six 
inches  is  commended.  Although  this  work  is  tedious  and  expen- 
sive, it  is  profitable,  because  of  the  improved  price  which  can  be 
had  for  the  larger  fruit  which  will  be  secured,  and  it  is  desirable 
in  the  effects  of  thinning  on  the  tree.  It  will  be  relieved  from  the 
exhaustion  of  overbearing,  induced  to  yield  annual  crops,  and  often 
saved  from  breaking  down  with  a  too  heavy  burden. 

Cultivation  and  Irrigation. — All  that  has  been  urged  in  measures 
to  secure  adequate  moisture  supply  has  full  force  with  the  apple. 
Excepting  the  early  varieties,  it  is  a  fruit  with  a  long  growing  sea- 
son and  therefore  requires  continuous  moisture  to  secure  size  and 
quality.  Most  California  apples  are  grown  on  deep,  retentive 
soils  in  regions  of  large  rainfall  and  if  this  is  conserved  by  thor- 
ough cultivation,  good  fruit  can  be  secured.  It  is  doubtless  true 
that  apples  in  even  such  places  in  California  would  sometimes  be 
improved  by  irrigation  just  as  they  are  in  interior  and  mountain 
districts. 

Fertilizers  have  been  thus  far  but  little  used  in  California 
apple  orchards  but  they  are  manifestly  nfeeded. 

There  has  arisen  recently  evidence  of  the  unfinished  character 
of  the  fruit  in  some  districts  because  it  has  shown  blemishes  after 
picking  and  during  shipment  which  can  not  be  attributed  to  any 
parasitic  encroachment.  This  is  probably  due  to  some  unfavorable 
condition  in  the  local  climate  or  to  some  other  stress  upon  the  tree 
which  prevents  it  from  doing  perfect  work. 


GATHERING   AND    STORING    APPLES 

The  disposition  in  this  State,  as  elsew^here,  is  to  allow  the  fruit 
to  hang  too  long  upon  the  tree  before  gathering.  It  was  long  ago 
demonstrated  that  an  apple  for  long-keeping  must  be  picked  a 
little  in  advance  of  full  maturity.  As  late  fall  weather  in  California 
is  so  delightful,  there  is  more  temptation  to  delay  the  picking  than 
where  the  approach  of  winter  admonishes  the  grower  to  get  his 
fruit  under  cover.  Picking  apples  for  shipment  should  be  done 
just  when  the  seeds  begin  to  blacken  and  when  the  fruit  yields  to 
pressure.  If  left  on  until  fully  ripe,  and  the  seeds  all  black,  the 
fruit  is  apt  not  to  keep  well.  This  rule  applies  to  fall  apples  for 
shipment  to  distant  markets,  or  for  apples  to  be  stored  at  home. 

Mr.  H.  G.  Keesling  of  Edenvale,  Santa  Clara  County,  gives  a 
sketch  of  his  way  of  handling  apples  on  a  small  scale :  In  picking 
apples  we  insist  on  just  as  careful  handling  as  in  picking  other 
fruits,  and  we  find  that  the  picking  pail  made  of  tin  or  light  gal- 
vanized iron,  holding  about  twelve  quarts,  or  nearly  twenty  pounds 
of  apples,  is  the  best  vessel  to  pick  in,  and  we  use  them  right 
through  the  season  for  cherries,  apricots,  peaches  and  even  prunes. 


STOREHOUSJi]S     FOR    APPLES  231 

A  pail  of  this  size  is  not  too  heavy  to  handle  even  on  high  ladders, 
and  it  carries  the  fruit  without  bruising.  Our  plan  is  to  pick  and 
sort  into  boxes  in  the  orchard.  If  a  number  of  pickers  are  at  work, 
then  one  or  more  men  will  do  the  sorting.  As  each  picker  fills  his 
pail,  he  carries  it  a  short  distance  to  the  sorting  station,  taking  an 
empty  one  and  returning  to  his  work.  The  apples  are  sorted  out 
of  the  pails  and  very  carefully  examined.  The  perfect  apples  go 
into  one  box,  seconds  into  another  and  culls  into  another.  They 
are  then  loaded  onto  a  truck  or  wagon  with  springs  and  hauled  to 
the  house.  A  good  sorter  will  keep  pails  empty  for  several  pick- 
ers, all  of  course  depending  on  the  crop,  size  of  apples,  etc.  I  put 
my  winter  apples  in  redwood  boxes,  which,  when  piled  one  on  top 
of  another,  five  or  six  high  and  close  together,  and  covered  with 
canvas  or  muslin,  are  in  a  condition  to  keep  their  flavor  and  juici- 
ness a  long  time.  Storing  apples  in  boxes  saves  a  lot  of  work  in 
handling  if  they  are  to  be  examined  or  sorted  during  the  winter. 

Nearly  all  the  ways  of  keeping  winter  apples  have  been  tried 
in  California.  The  main  difficulty  in  keeping  apples  in  good  con- 
dition during  the  dry  months  of  the  autumn  is  the  loss  of  moisture 
from  the  fruit  by  evaporation.  This  causes  shriveling  and  operates 
against  long  keeping.  It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  apples 
keep  perfectly  until  late  in  the  spring  by  piling  under  the  trees 
and  covering  with  leaves,  etc.,  allowing  the  rains  to  fall  upon  them. 
When  dry  north  winds  blow,  the  fruit  should  be  sprinkled  occa- 
sionally. They  come  out  from  the  cover  fresh,  smooth,  and 
plump,  and  for  family  use  such  rough  storage  will  often  answer 
a  good  purpose.  For  commercial  storage,  even  on  a  small  scale, 
however,  good  fruithouses  are  used.  The  requisites  of  such  houses 
are  an  evenly  cool  temperature,  moist  air,  and  good  ventilation,  the 
fruit  being  open  to  free  access  of  the  air.  In  the  mountains  where 
stone  is  abundant  excellent  apple  houses  are  made  of  it,  which 
resist  temperature  changes  notably. 

Mr.  Edward  Berwick,  of  Monterey,  apple  grower  of  experience 
in  the  coast  region,  handles  his  fruit  in  this  way : 

The  apples  are  carefully  hand-picked  into  baskets  and  at  once  trans- 
ferred to  ordinary  apple  boxes — just  put  in  loose,  not  packed  tight  as  for 
shipping.  These  boxes  are  hauled  to  the  fru^t  house  with  as  little  jar  as 
possible. 

This  fruit  house  is  built  of  rough  boards  (fastened  on  a  heavy  frame) 
with  inch-thick  battens  covering  the  cracks,  and  rustic-nailed  outsid<'  the 
battens,  thus  leaving  an  inch  air-space  between  the  boards  and  the  rustic. 
It  is  of  two  stories — the  upper  devoted  to  tools  and  stores,  the  lower  used 
for  fruit,  and  arranged  with  shelves  accordingly.  This  lower  story  has 
only  an  earthen  floor.  One  object  of  this  is  to  give  as  lodgment  for  rats 
or  mice,  the  other  is  to  serve  as  a  means  of  maintaining  a  cool,  damp 
atmosphere.  To  this  end  it  is  kept  well  watered  in  apple-keeping  season; 
and,  to  avoid  mildew  or  mold,  it  is  also  liberally  sprinkled  with  ground 
sulphur.  By  day  doors  and  windows  are  mostly  kept  shut,  by  night  open; 
this,  of  course,  is  to  exclude  the  heat  and  allow  free  circulation  of  the  cool 
night  air. 


232  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW     TO    GROW    THEM 

A  rather  more  open  house  is  used  in  the  coast  region  of  south- 
ern California,  by  Mr.  T.  W.  Ward,  of  Carpinteria : 

It  is  a  slat  house  made  of  strips  1x2^/4  inches,  put  on  one  inch  apart. 
The  roof  is  similarly  constructed.  There  are  two  passages,  on  either  side 
of  which  are  two  shelves,  one  above  the  other,  i.  e.,  eight  in  all.  The  shelves 
are  made  of  slats  placed  one-half  inch  apart,  with  sides  a  foot  high.  The 
apples  are  spread  on  these  shelves  a  foot  or  more  deep.  The  floor  is  made 
of  slats,  and  there  are  bins  on  this  also.  The  fruit  must  receive  a  thorough 
sprinkling  weekly,  unless  sufficient  rain  falls.  The  slats  are  close  enough 
to  prevent  birds  doing  damage,  and  the  whole  building  is  raised  six  inches 
from  the  ground. 

In  the  mountain  regions  arrangements  must  be  made  for  frost 
exclusion, — a  consideration  which  does  not  apply  to  the  valley  and 
coast. 

PICKING  AND   PACKING  APPLES  ON  A   LARGE  SCALE 

Mr.  C.  H.  Rodgers,  a  leading  grower,  and  president  of  the 
Santa  Cruz  County  horticultural  commission,  gives  the  best  meth- 
ods in  his  district  as  follows : 

In  the  matter  of  picking,  experience  has  evolved  a  number  of  rules 
which  should  be  strictly  adhered  to: 

(1.)  Do  not  pull  the  apple  ofif  the  tree.  By  so  doing,  the  stem  may 
be  detached  from  the  apple,  thus  making  a  second  grade  of  what  otherwise 
would  be  choice. 

The  proper  method  of  plucking  the  apple  is  to  grasp  it  with  the  full 
hand,  not  with  the  fingers  only,  and  by  a  gentle  twist  and  lateral  movement 
detach  it  with  the  stem  attached.  Especially  must  finger  pressure  be  avoided 
in  the  picking,  as  bruises  thereby  produced  injure  the  value. 

(2.)  The  apple  must  never  be  dropped  into  a  receptacle  or  fro:n  box 
to  box,  but  should  be  transferred  as  carefully  as  so  many  eggs. 

(3.)  Under  all  circumstances  use  vehicles  having  springs  in  moving  the 
fruit. 

Once  within  the  packing-house  the  more  perishable  varieties  should  be 
handled  immediately  and  forwarded  to  market,  while  the  long-keeping 
varieties,  especially  those  intended  for  export,  should  be  held  at  least  a 
month  before  sorting  and  packing.  This  latter  precaution  enables  the 
packer  to  discover  and  eliminate  all  diseased  and  defective  fruit — a  thing 
that  would  be  impossible  if  the  fruit  were  packed  at  an  early  date  after 
picking. 

Three  grades  or  qualities  are  recognized  in  the  "trade" — first,  second 
and  third.  First  grade  includes  only  perfect  fruit.  Second  grade  includes 
the  fruit  having  a  trivial  surface  blemish  or  stem  absent.  The  third  or  cull 
class  includes  all  wormy,  badly  bruised  or  skin-broken  apples. 

Though  grading  for  size  varies  somewhat  in  different  localities,  in  the 
Watsonville  district,  the  leading  apple-prcducmg  center  of  the  West,  there 
are  but  three  sizes  recognized.  These  are  3^/4,  4,  and  4y2  tier.  The  unit 
of  size  is  the  4-tier,  which  comprises  all  apples  running  from  2^  to  3^ 
inches  in  diameter,  and  derives  the  name  from  the  fact  that  when  packed 
in  the  box  there  are  four  rows  of  four  apples  each,  both  vertically  and  hori- 
zontally across  the  end  of  the  box.  Apples  in  excess  of  3^/4  inches  are 
classed  as  3^  tier  size.  The  third  size,  or  4y2-t\er,  includes  those  apples 
ranging  between  2^4  and  25/^  inches  in  diameter.  Both  the  3^-tier  and 
4^-tier  are  packed  in  the  manner  known  as  "diamond"  pack  or  "pear  pack. 
Apples  smaller  than  4^  tier  are  thrown  into  the  cull  pile.  The  sorter 
ascertains  the  size  by  passing  the  apples  through  circular  holes  in  a  board. 


APPLES    FOR    SPECIAL    PURPOSES  233 

n7/^u  ^^'X^^^oo^  .^^''^  standard  box  is  made  of  pine.  Its  measurements  are 
y%  by  11  by  22  m.,  and  it  holds  about  50  pounds  of  fruit.  A  modified  box 
of  extra  thick  material,  reinforced  by  iron  straps,  is  frequently  used  for 
export  trade.  Redwood  boxes  are  used  only  for  cheap  grades  of  apples 
packed  for  the  local  market. 

After  being  sorted,  the  apples  are  passed  to  the  packer,  who,  before 
placing  them  in  the  box,  wraps  each  apple  in  a  piece  of  paper  prepared  for 
the  purpose. 

The  apples  must  be  so  packed  in  the  box  as  to  permit  the  nailing  firmly 
of  the  lid  at  each  -end,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  a  gradual  swell  of  about 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  at  the  middle  of  both  top  and  bottom.  On  account 
of  the  resultant  shape  of  the  boxes,  they  can  be  stacked  up  with  safety 
only  on  their  sides. 

The  packed  boxes  after  being  neatly  labeled,  are  next  transferred  to 
the  cars  and  stacked  four  or  five  tiers  high.  An  air  space  of  three  or  four 
feet  is  left  between  the  top  tier  and  the  roof  of  the  car,  also  the  entire  space 
between  the  doors  is  left  vacant  for  the  better  circulation  of  air.  The  boxes, 
after  being  systematically  placed  in  the  car,  are  so  braced  with  timbers  as 
to  prevent  any  movement.  The  usual  carload  consists  of  about  650  boxes. 
Refrigerator  fruit  cars  are  employed  mainly  for  apple  shipment,  but  no  ice 
is  used. 

Summer  and  Fall  Apples. — In  some  regions  noted  for  early 
maturing  of  fruit,  it  is  profitable  to  grow  early  apples,  providing 
there  are  facilities  for  reaching  profitable  avenues  of  trade.  Except 
to  minister  to  some  special  local  or  distant  trade  which  can  be 
thus  foreseen,  it  must  be  said  that  very  early  apples  are  hardly 
worth  the  attention  of  the  commercial  planter.  These  sorts  are  apt 
to  come  into  direct  contest  with  the  magnificent  peaches,  grapes, 
and  other  summer  and  autumn  fruits,  and  suffer  thereby. 

On  the  other  hand  the  fall  apples,  chiefiy  the  Yellow  Bellflower 
and  Gravenstein,  are  so  good  and  profitable  in  regions  where  they 
bear  well  that  they  are  among  the  varieties  which  constitute  our 
chief  commercial  reliance. 

Winter  Apples. — For  large  ventures  in  apple  growing,  in  local- 
ities carefully  chosen  for  especial  adaptations,  a  few  of  the  finest 
varieties  of  winter  apples  should  generally  be  selected.  It  is  the 
judgment  of  the  most  experienced  apple  growers,  many  of  whom 
have  old  orchards  including  many  varieties,  that  new  plantations 
of  winter  apples  should  contain  only  about  six  sorts.  Of  these, 
in  all  parts  of  the  State,  two  would  be  the  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin 
and  White  Winter  Pearmain ;  the  other  four  would  vary  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  State,  as  can  be  learned  from  the  table  which  will 
follow. 

Apples  for  Long  Shipment. — There  has  been  for  years  quite  an 
important  trade  in  shipment  of  California  apples  to  various  ports 
in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  and  recently  there  has  been  a  sharp 
demand  for  California  apples  for  shipment  to  the  eastern  states 
and  England.  The  characteristic  size,  quality  and  keeping  of  the 
fruit,  together  with  the  size  and  style  of  package,  have  strongly 
commended  the  fruit.  The  center  of  this  trade  is  Watsonville, 
in  a  coast  valley,  in  the  central  part  of  the  State.    The  two  apples 


234 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


which  are  most  popular  are  the  Yellow  Bellflower  and  the  Yellow 
Newtown  Pippin.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  these  varieties  by 
virtue  of  quality  have  overcome  the  popular  fervor  for  a  red  apple. 

For  the  Interior  Valleys. — In  choosing  varieties  for  the  hot  val- 
leys of  the  State  those  making  a  heavy  leaf  growth  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred. The  Spitzenburg,  for  example,  is  a  failure  in  the  valleys  of 
the  interior,  though  satisfactory  at  points  on  the  valley  borders. 
From  experience  already  had  it  seems  likely  that  some  of  the  Rus- 
sian varieties,  with  thick,  large  leaves,  will  prove  best  for  such 
situations.  The  behavior  of  the  Astracans,  the  Duchess  of  Olden- 
burg, and  others  of  Russian  origin,  are  illustrations  of  this  fact. 
Other  varieties  have  been  on  trial  for  several  years,  but  no  great 
distribution  of  them  has  yet  been  attained. 

SELECTION   OF  VARIETIES   FOR  CROSS-POLLINATION 

Selection  of  varieties  of  the  same  blooming  season  to  secure 
whatever  advantage  there  may  be  in  cross-pollination  to  promote 
bearing  arises  chiefly  with  reference  to  White  Winter  Pearmain, 
which  is  sometimes  very  shy  when  grown  alone.  Association  can 
be  arranged  with  a  number  of  our  most  popular  varieties  by  con- 
sulting the  following  dates  of  blooming  as  prepared  by  Mr.  Fred- 
erick Maskew  based  upon  observations  in  the  coast  region  of  Los 
Angeles  County. 

Blooming  Season  of  our  most  popular  varieties. 


VARIETIES. 
White  Winter  Pearmain.. 

Red  Astracan 

Bell    Flower 

Fall   Pippin 

Rhode  Island  Greening... 

Kentucky  Red  Streak 

Early  Harvest 

Shockly 

Fameuse 

Ben  Davis 

Winesap    

Yellow    Transparent 

None-such 

Missouri    Pippin 

Alexander    

Smiths    Cider 

Transcendent   Crab 

Hyslop   Crab 

Montreal  Crab 


General  fall 

rst  bloom. 

Full  bloom. 

of  bloom. 

April 

11 

April 

27 

May      5 

April 

17 

April 

30 

May    12 

April 

20 

April 

30 

May    16 

April 

20 

May 

5 

May    15 

April 

20 

May 

5 

May    15 

April 

20 

May 

10 

May  -20 

April 

21 

May 

6 

May    12 

April 

27 

May 

15 

May    20 

April 

27 

May 

15 

May    22 

April 

29 

May 

15 

May    23 

May 

5 

May 

17 

.June     1 

May 

5 

May 

16 

.Tune     1 

May 

7 

May 

16 

June     1 

May 

10 

May 

20 

June     1 

May 

15 

May 

25 

.June     1 

May 

15 

May 

25 

.June     6 

Mar. 

30 

April 

7 

April  22 

April 

11 

April 

22 

April  30 

April 

16 

April 

24 

May      7 

This  is  a  later  range  of  bloom  than  will  be  found  in  many  parts 
of  the  State,  but  the  same  relation  may  be  expected  everywhere. 


235 


236  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

VARIETIES    OF    APPLES    CHIEFLY    GROWN    IN 
CALIFORNIA 

Of  the  hundreds  of  varieties  tested  in  CaHfornia  comparatively 
few  are  now  grown,  as  has  already  been  suggested.  Those  named 
below  have  been  reported  by  growers  as  succeeding  in  localities 
named  with  the  description,  or  indicated  in  the  table  which  will 
follow.  The  descriptions  of  the  standard  sorts  are,  in  the  main, 
condensed  from  Downing,*  with  local  notes  interpolated  when 
thought  necessary.  The  arrangement  is,  approximately  in  the 
order  of  ripening. 

Carolina  Red  June  (Southern). — IMedium  size  oval,  irregular,  inclined  to 
conic;  deep  red  covered  with  light  bloom;  stalk  in  small  cavity;  calyx  closed; 
flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,   subacid ;  core   rather  large. 

Early  Harvest  (American). — Medium  size,  roundish;  straw  color  with  few 
faint  white  dots;  stalk  half  to  three-fourths  inch,  slender,  set  in  moderate 
cavity;   calyx  in   shallow  basin;   flesh  very   white,   tender,   crisp,   pleasant. 

Early  Strazvberry  (New  York). — Medium  size,  roundish,  narrowing  towards 
the  eye;  skin  smooth,  deep  red  on  yellow  ground;  stalk  one  and  a  half  inches, 
rather  slender  and  uneven,  in  deep  cavity ;  calyx  small,  in  shallow  basin ;  flesh 
white,  tinged  with  red  next  the  skin,  tender,  subacid,  sprightly. 

Red  Astracan  (Russian). — Large  roundish;  skin  deep  red,  save  greenish 
yellow  in  the  shade ;  pale  white  bloom  ;  stalk  short,  and  deeply  inserted ;  calyx 
partially  closed  and  set  in  slight  basin ;  flesh  white,  juicy  and  crisp,  pleasant 
acid ;  tree  hardy  and  vigorous,  and  an  early  bearer.  The  main  reliance  in 
California   for  an  early  apple. 

IVhite  Astracan  (Russian). — Large,  roundish;  skin  smooth  and  nearly 
white,  with  faint  streaks  of  red,  and  covered  with  white  bloom;  flesh  white. 
Considerably  grown  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  foot-hills  for  early  ship- 
ment. Sometimes  attains  a  weight  of  29  ounces.  Excellent  in  the  Modesto 
district  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley. 

Duchess  of  Oldenburg  (Russian). — Large,  roundish,  oblate;  yellow,  streaked 
with  red;  calyx  large,  nearly  closed,  set  in  wide,  even  hollow;  flesh  juicy, 
subacid. 

Gravenstein  (German). — Large,  rather  flattened;  a  little  one-sided  or 
angular ;  broadest  at  base ;  stalk  short,  strong,  deeply  set ;  calyx  large,  closed, 
in  a  large  basin ;  skin  yellow,  freely  marked  with  light  and  deep  red  and 
orange ;  flesh  tender,  crisp,  highly  flavored,  aromatic ;  a  strong-growing  and 
heavily-bearing  tree ;  a  standard  fall  apple  in  this   State. 

-  Red  Bietigheimer  (German). — Large  to  very  large,  oblate,  slightly  conical, 
regular ;  smooth,  whitish  or  yellowish  white,  shaded  with  light  and  dark  red, 
and  purplish  crimson  in  the  sun ;  stalk  short,  rather  stout ;  calyx  closed  in 
large,  deep,  slightly  corrugated  basin ;  flesh  white,  Arm,  juicy,  brisk  subacid. 

Maiden's  Blush  (New  Jersey). — Rather  large,  smooth,  regular;  yellow, 
with  evenly  shaded  red  cheek ;  stalk  short,  in  rather  wide,  deep  hollow ;  calyx 
closed  in  moderate  depression ;   flesh  white,  tender,  sprightly. 

Fall  Pippin. — Very  large,  roundish,  a  little  flattened;  stalk  three-fourths 
inch,  projecting  considerably  beyond  the  fruit  (which  distinguishes  it  from 
the  Holland  Pippin)  ;  calyx  open,  not  very  large,  rather  deeply  sunk  in  round, 
narrow  basin ;  skin  smooth,  yellowish  green,  becoming  pure  yellow ;  brownish 
blush  and  few  scattered  dots;   flesh   white,  tender,  mellow,   rich,  aromatic 

Alexander  (Russian). — Very  large,  showy,  conical,  greenish  yellow,  streaked 
with    red   in   shade,   bright   red   in   the   sun ;    calyx   large,   in    deep   basin ;    stalk 


*  "Downing' s  Fruit  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America."     John  Wiley  &   Sons,   New 
York, 


VARIETIES    OP    APPLES 


237 


slender,   long,   in   deep   cavity;    flesh   yellowish   white,   crisp,   tender,   and   juicy. 
Tree  vigorous  but  not  always  a  good  bearer. 

Gloria  Mundi. — Very  large,  roundish,  oblate;  ribbed;  greenish  yellow  A 
popular  show  apple  on  account  of  great  size  attained  in  this  State.     (See  table.) 

Fanieuse;  syn.  Snozv  Apple  (Canada).— Medium  size,  roundish,  somewhat 
flattened;  deep  crimson,  nearly  concealing  pale  yellowish  ground;  flesh  snowy 
white,  tender,  juicy,  slight  perfume;  stalk  slender,  one-half  inch,  in  narrow 
funnel-shaped  cavity;  calyx  small,  in  shallow,  rather  narrow  basin;  "tree 
vigorous,  with  dark  wood;  one  of  the  finest  dessert  fruits;  succeeds  particu- 
larly well  in   the   foot-hills." — John  Bidwell. 

King  of  Tompkins  County. — Large,  globular,  angular,  inclining  to  conic; 
yellowish,  mostly  shaded  with  red,  striped  and  splashed  with  crimson;  stalk 
short  and  stout,  in  large,  somewhat  irregular  cavity ;  calyx  small,  closed ;  flesh 
yellowish,  rich  juicy,  vinous,  aromatic ;  chiefly  grown  in  mountain  regions 

Rambo  (Pennsylvania). — Medium  to  large,  flat;  yellowish  white  with  pale 
yellow  and  red  in  the  sun,  with  large,  rough  dots;  stalk  long,  rather  slender, 
curved,  deeply  set;  calyx  closed,  in  broad  basin;  flesh  greenish  white.  Reported 
a   failure  in   some   counties. 

Ben  Davis. — Large,  roundish,  sides  often  unequal;  light  red  and  deep  red 
on  yellowish  ground;  stalk  medium,  rather  slender,  in  deep,  narrow  cavity; 
calyx  partially  open.  Commended  as  a  market  apple  by  the  Southern  Cali- 
fornia Nurserymen's  Association.  Grown  in  the  upper  Sacramento  Valley, 
sometimes  keeps  until  July   i. 

Baldwin  (Massachusetts). — Large,  roundish,  narrowing  a  little  towards  the 
eye ;  deep  bright  red  over  a  yellow  ground ;  few  russet  dots ;  calyx  closed  and 
set  in  narrow  basin ;  stalk  one-half  to  three- fourths  inch,  rather  slender,  set 
in  deep,  even  cavity;  flesh  yellowish-white,  crisp,  juicy,  subacid.  Best  in 
northern  and  elevated  regions ;  coloring  varies  greatly  according;  to  locality. 

Hoover  (South  Carolina). — Large,  roundish,  slightly  oblique;  yellowish, 
mostly  overspread  with  red,  with  conspicuous  light  dots ;  stalk  rather  long,  in 
large  cavity;  calyx  open  in  furrowed  basin;  flesh  yellowish,  juicy,  crisp,  acid. 

Rhode  Island  Greening. — Large,  roundish,  a  little  flattened,  pretty  regular; 
dark  green,  becoming  yellowish  green ;  calyx  small,  woolly,  closed,  in  shallow 
basin;  stalk  three-fourths  inch,  curved,  thickest  at  the  bottom;  flesh  yellow, 
fine  grained,  tender,  crisp,  juicy,  aromatic,  slightly  acid;  tree  healthy  and 
the  variety  widely  popular. 

Vandevere;  syn.  Newton  Spitsenhurg. — Medium  size,  oblate,  slightly  conic; 
fine  yellow,  washed  with  light  red,  striped  and  splashed  with  dark  red  and 
shaded  with  carrnine  in  the  sun;  light  bloom  and  peculiar  gray  specks;  stalk 
short,  in  wide  cavity ;  calyx  small,  closed ;  flesh  yellow,  rich,  sprightly,  vinous. 

Jonathan  (New  York).— Medium  to  large,  roundish,  conical  or  tapering 
to  the  eye ;  light  yellow  nearly  covered  with  red  stripes  and  deep  red  in  the 
sun;  stalk  three-fourths  of  an  inch,  rather  slender,  in  deep,  regular  cavity; 
calyx  in  deep,  broad  basin;  tender,  juicy,  rich,  vinous;  a  great  favorite  in 
California;  specially  commended  as  a  market  apple  by  Southern  California 
Nurserymen's  Association ;  keeps  till  midwinter. 

Winesap. — Medium  size,  roundish  oblong ;  dark  red  with  traces  of  yellow 
in  the  shade ;  stalk  nearly  an  inch,  slender,  set  in  an  irregular  cavity ;  calyx 
small,  in  regular  basin ;  flesh  yellow,  crisp,  high,  rich  flavor ;  largely  grown ; 
tree  a  good  bearer. 

Stayman  Winesap. — An  old  improvement  on  the  Winesap  now  becoming 
more  prominent.  Some  growers  reporting  favorably  on  Winesap  have  this 
variety  which  'is  larger  and  better  and  the  tree  a  stronger  grower  and  more 
productive.     Approved  by  Mr.  Frank  Femmons  of  Madera  county. 

Ortley;  syn.  White  Bellflower,  etc.  (New  Jersey). — Large,  oblong,  greenish 
yellow,  becoming  fine  yellow  with  slight  blush ;  stalk  medium,  slender,  Sfet  in 
deep,  acute  cavity ;  calyx  closed,  set  in  abrupt  corrugated  basin ;  flesh  white, 
fine-grained,  juicy,  subacid. 


^38  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Swaar  (New  York). — Large,  roundish;  golden  yellow  with  numerous  brown 
specks ;  stalk  slender,  three-fourths  inch,  in  very  round  cavity ;  calyx  small, 
greenish,  set  in  shallow  basin ;  flesh  yellowish,  fine-grained ;  very  rich,  aromatic 
flavor  and  spicy  smell. 

Lawver.—'Large,  roundish,  oblate,  dark  red,  covered  with  small  dots ;  stalk 
medium,  cavity  deep,  regular ;  calyx  small,  closed,  in  medium  furrowed  basin ; 
flesh  white,  sprightly,  aromatic ;  a  promising,   late  keeping  variety. 

Yellow  Bellf lower  (New  Jersey). — Very  large,  oblong,  irregular,  tapering 
toward  the  eye ;  smooth ;  lemon  color,  with  blush ;  stalk  long  and  slender,  in 
deep  cavity;  calyx  closed,  in  rather  narrow  basin;  flesh  tender,  juicy,  crisp, 
with  sprightly,  subacid  flavor;  keeps  well  into  the  winter;  tree  a  strong  grower 
and  healthy;   one  of  the  universal   favorites  in   California. 

Romanite. — Small  to  medium,  roundish,  conical,  truncated ;  yellow,  mostly 
covered  with  clear,,  handsome  red ;  indistinct  light  dots ;  stalk  slender ;  calyx 
in  an  abrupt  basin ;   flesh  yellowish,  fine-grained,   juicy,   pleasant,  subacid. 

:  Esopus  Spitsenhurg  (New  York). — Large,  oblong,  tapering  roundly  to 
the  eye ;  smooth,  nearly  covered  with  rich,  lively  red,  dotted  with  distinct  yel- 
lowish russet  dots ;  on  shaded  side,  yellowish  ground  with  streaks  and  broken 
stripes  of  red;  stalk  rather  long,  three-fourths  inch,  slender,  projecting  beyond 
the  base  and  inserted  in  wide  cavity ;  calyx  small  and  closed,  in  shallow  basin ; 
flesh  yellow,  rather  firm,  crisp,  juicy,  with  a  delicious  rich,  brisk  flavor.  A 
largely  grown  variety;  tree  a  good,  upright  grower  and  healthy;  fruit  keeps 
fairly. 

Hyde  King. — ^Very  large,  glistening  golden  yellow  with  blush,  very  hand- 
some.    Ripens  October  15th  in  Humboldt  county.     Approved  by  A.  F.  Etter. 

Smith's  Cider  (Pennsylvania). — Large,  roundish,  oblate  conic;  yellow, 
shaded  and  stciped  with  red,  sparsely  covered  with  gray  dots ;  stalk  slender,  in 
deep,  rather  narrow  cavity ;  calyx  closed,  in  broad,  shallow  basin ;  flesh  whitish, 
juicy,  crisp,  acid;  tree  a  strong  grower,  and  fruit  keeps  till  midwinter. 

Rome  Beauty  (Ohio). — Large,  roundish,  approaching  conic;  yellow,  shaded 
and  striped  with  bright  red,  sprinkled  with  light  dots ;  stalk  one  inch,  in  large, 
deep  cavity;  calyx  partially  closed,  in  deep,  narrow  basin;  flesh  yellowish, 
juicy,  sprightly ;  fruit  keeps  late.  Particularly  fine  in  the  mountain  valleys  of 
Southern   California. 

Missouri  Pippin  (Missouri).— Large,  roundish  oblate,  sHghtly  oblique, 
somewhat  flattened  at  the  ends;  shaded,  striped  and  splashed  with  light  and 
dark  red,  often  quite  dark  in  the  sun;  many  large  and  small  gray  dots;  stalk 
short,  small;  cavity  large,  deep;  calyx  closed  or  half  open,  basin  rather  abrupt 
deep,  slightly  corrugated  flesh  whitish,  rather  coarse,  moderately  juicy,  sub- 
acid. Quite  largely  planted,  but  losing  favor  for  lack  of  keeping  quality  in 
coast  valleys. 

^[/.Nickajack  (North  Carolina). — Large,  roundish  to  roundish  oblate,  _ slightly 
'iconic,  sometimes  oblique ;  yellowish,  freely  striped  and  splashed  with  red, 
jmany  large  dots ;  stalk  short,  in  large  cavity ;  calyx  partly  open ;  flesh  yellowish, 
fair  quality;  reported  a  shy  bearer  in  high  altitudes. 

,...  Northern  Spy  (New  York). — Large,  roundish,  oblate  conical;  pale  yellow, 
purplish  red  stripes  in  the  sun ;  stalk  three  fourths  inch,  slender,  in  wide,  deep 
cavity;  calyx  small,  closed;  flesh  white,  mild,  pleasant;  highly  esteemed  in  a 
few  localities,  but  abandoned  in  others  for  shy  bearing. 

White  Winter  Pearmain. — Large,  roundish  oblong  conic,  somewhat  oblique ; 
pale  yellow  with  slight  blush,  many  minute  brown  dots ;  stalk  short  in  deep 
cavity;  calyx  nearly  closed;  flesh  yellowish,  tender,  crisp,  juicy,  very  pleasant 
subacid,  extra  high  flavor ;  grown  everywhere,  and  fruit  keeps  late ;  tree  a 
strong  grower  and  health/. 

Lady  (French). — Small,  regularly  formed,  flat;  smooth  and  glossy,  with 
brilliant  red  cheek  contrasting  with  lemon  yellow  ground ;  flesh  white,  crisp, 
juicy  and  pleasant;   chiefly  used   for  ornamental  purposes. 


CALIFORNIA    SEEDLING    APt»LES  '28^ 

Black  Ben  Z>a2;t>.— Resembles  Ben  Davis  in  tree  and  fruit,  except  that  the 
latter  is  deeper  colored,  more  symmetrical  and  of  better  quality.  Highly  praised 
by  Mr.   Frank  Femmons,   Madera  county. 

Delicious. — Resembling  Bellflower ;  yellow,  almost  covered  with  dark  red ; 
very  mild  acid,  quality  good;  a  late  keeper.     Also  approved  by  Mr.  Femmons. 

Arkansas  Beauty  (Arkansas). — Medium  to  large,  oblong  conical,  yellow  and 
red  stripes,  fine,  juicy,  very  good,  subacid.     Approved  in  Southern  GaHfornia. 

Razvlcs  Janet  (Virginia). — Medium  to  large,  oblate  conic,  yellowish,  shaded 
with  red  and  striped  with  crimson ;  stalk  short  and  thick,  in  broad,  open  cavity ; 
calyx  partially  open,  in  shallow  basin ;  flesh  yellow,  tender,  juicy,  pleasant  vinous 
flavor;  tree  healthy  and  prolific. 

Stark. — Large,  roundish,  inclined  to  conic ;  sometimes  elongated,  sometimes 
oblique;  greenish  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  dark  red  and  sprinkled  with 
light  and  brown  dots;  stalk  short,  rather  stout;  calyx  closed;  flesh  yellowish. 

Yellozv  Newtown  Pippin. — Large,  roundish,  oblate  and  oblique,  more  or  less 
flattened  yellow  with  brownish  red  cheek;  stalk  very  short;  flesh  firm,  crisp, 
juicy,  and  with  very  rich,  high  flavor.  Generally  considered  the  best  winter 
apple  in   California. 

CRAB    APPLES. 

Hyslop. — Fruit  large,  growing  in  clusters ;  roundish  ovate ;  dark  rich  red, 
covered  with  thick  blue  bloom;  stalk  long,  slender ;  calyx  closed;  flesh  yellowish. 

Large  Red  Siberian. — Roundish  ovate  with  large  and  prominent  calyx;  pale 
red  and  yellow  skin. 

Large  Yellozv  Siberian. — Fruit  similar  in  size  to  foregoing,  roundish  oval, 
flattened  at  base  and  crown ;  light  clear  yellow,  inclining  to  amber,  with  warm 
cheek. 

Transcendant. — Medium  to  large,  roundish  oval,  flattened  at  the  ends, 
slightly  but  regularly  ribbed ;  golden  yellow,  with  rich,  crimson  cheek,  or  nearly 
covered  with  red  ;  delicate  white  bloom ;  stalk  long  and  slender,  in  open,  deep 
cavity;  calyx  closed;  flesh  creamy  yellow.  .    ^ 

Montreal  Beauty. — Large,  roundish,  oblate ;  bright  yellow,  mostly  covered 
and  shaded  with  red  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  crab  apples. 

Whitney's  Crab. — Large,  handsome,  greenish  yellow,  sjriped  with  crimson. 

CALIFORNIA    SEEDLING    APPLES 

Skinner's  Seedling  (Name  approved  by  California  State  Horticulturar  Soci- 
ety, November,  1887).  Syn.  Skinner's  Pippin,  Santa  Clara  King. — Originated 
with  Judge  H.  C.  Skinner,  of  San  Jose.  Fruit  large  to  very  large;  form  oblate, 
conic,  slightly  mixed ;  color  rich  lemon  yellow,  faintly  striped  with  bright  red ; 
flesh  yellowish  white,  very  tender,  juicy,  sprightly,  mild  subacid;  quality  best. 
Season,   September  and  October. 

Marshall's  Red  (Name  approved  by  California  State  Horticultural  Society, 
November,  1887).  Syn.  Fied  Bellflozver,  Marshall's  Seedling.— Qrighmted  with 
J.  L.  Marshall,  Brown's  Valley,  near  Napa.  Fruited  first  about  1877;  intro- 
duced by  Leonard  Coates  in  1884.  The  tree  resembles  Red  June  in  habit  of 
growth;  fruit  large,  same  shape  as  Yellow  Bellflower,  but  of  same  color  as 
Red  June ;  quality  very  good ;  flesh  firm  and  fine  grained ;  aromatic,  and  slightly 
more  acid  than  the  Yellow  Bellflower;  tree,  a  very  heavy  bearer,  and  the  fruit 
ripens  in  October  in  the  bay  region. 

Magoon. — Large,  roundish  oblong,  deep  red  shading  to  light  red  on  yellow 
ground  resembling  Esopus  Spitzenburg  in  form,  flesh  and  flavor.  Found  in 
1893  O"  pl^ce  formerly  occupied  by  S.  E.  Magoon  near  Ahwahnee.  Named 
l)y  Frank  Femmons. 

Cook's  Seedling;  syn.  Sonoma  Seedling. — Brought  to  notice  by  O.  B.  Shawj 
of  Sonoma,  as  a  seedling  raised  by  David  Cook  from  the  seed  of  the  Juneat- 
ing.      Above    medium    size,    pale    yellow    striped    with    red ;    sharp    acid    flavor. 


240  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Not  decidedly   rich,   but   flavor    full    and    acceptable.     Excellent   keeping   quali- 
ties.    Chiefly  grown  in   Sonoma  and   Napa  counties. 

Lawton. — Seedling  on  place  of  Mrs.  F,  H.  Lawton,  one-half  mile  north  of 
Sebastopol,  Sonoma  county.  More  symmetrical  than  Belmont  or  Waxen.  Very 
promising  show  variety. 

Tabular  Showing  of  Adaptations. — In  preparation  for  this  edi- 
tion the  writer  undertook  special  inquiry  to  secure  information 
from  growers  as  to  what  their  choice  would  be  if  they  were  to 
plant  apples  as  explained  in  Chapter  XVI.  The  result  is  a  large 
shrinkage  in  the  list  of  varieties  which  are  now  thought  to  be 
worth  planting  in  the  different  parts  of  the  State. 

An  attempt  is  made  to  district  the  State  for  the  apple,  and  for 
the  other  fruits  which  follow,  in  accordance  with  the  scheme  of 
climatic  divisions  described  in  Chapter  I.  This  groups  regions  of 
nearest  resemblance,  and  is  more  rational  than  any  prescription 
according  to  county  lines  can  be,  for  though  some  counties  lie 
wholly  in  one  climatic  division,  many  more  counties  extend  through 
two,  and  someeven  through  three,  such  divisions.  It  is,  therefore, 
a  more  promising  proposition  to  encourage  planters  in  any  locality 
to  study  their  climatic  adaptations,  not  with  regard  to  county  lines 
but  rather  as  related  to  the  conditions  of  elevation,  exposure  to 
ocean  influences  and  other  factors  which  characterize  natural  belts, 
or  areas,  of  similar  horticultural  fitness.  The  only  instances  in 
which  these  agencies  are  grouped  geographically,  is  in  constituting 
southern  California  a  division  by  itself.  This  is  a  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  though  in  southern  California  coast  and  interior 
differences  clearly  exist,  they  are  not  so  marked,  until  the  devel- 
opment of  the  Colorado  river  region  began,  as  they  are  in  the  upper 
portions  of  the  State,  and  there  is  consequently  less  marked  con- 
trast in  suitability  to  various  fruits.  This  concession  to  the  south 
as  sui  generis  also  escapes,  or  answers  instead  of  a  third  division 
of  coast  valleys,  for  the  older  fruit  districts  of  southern  California 
have  a  mollified  or  subdued  coast  climate,  their  region  of  strictly 
interior  valley  and  foot-hill  climate  being  restricted  by  the  fact 
that  practically  almost  all  their  cultivated  area,  until  recently,  lay 
south  and  west  of  their  high  mountains.  It  is  an  interesting  fact 
that  the  California  coast  climates  north  and  south  show  much 
greater  contrasting  conditions  than  do  the  interior  valley  regions, 
north  and  south,  and  southern  California  being  so  largely  in  the 
coast  class  could  on  this  basis  of  wide  coast  variations  claim  a 
distinctive  designation,  though  it  could  hardly  be  granted  on  the 
comparison  of  interior  valley  characters  throughout  the  State. 
Just  what  effect  the  development  of  fruit  growing  in  the  great 
interior  valley  of  southern  California,  which  is  irrigated  from  the 
Colorado  river,  will  have  upon  the  future  re-classification  of  the 
horticultural  divisions  of  the  State  can  not  now  be  determined  for 
the  planting  of  all  kinds  of  fruit  is  but  now  beginning. 


APPLES    FOR    DIFFERENT    REGIONS 


241 


Apple  varieties  approved   by  California   growers. 


VARIETIES. 


Alexander   

Arkansas   Beauty 

Arkansas    Black 

Baldwin 

Ben    Davis 

Bietigheimer 

Black    Ben   Davis 

Cook's    Seedling 

Delicious 

Early   Harvest 

Early     Strawberry 

Esopus    Spitzenburg 

Fall    Pippin 

Fameuse   

Gravenstein 

Gloria    Mundi 

Hoover 

Jonathan  

Langford         

Lawver 

Maiden's   Blush 

Marshall's    Red 

Missouri  Pippin 

Nickajack 

Northern  Spy 

Oldenburg   Duchess 

Ortley 

Rawles's    Janet 

Red    Astracan 

Red   June 

Red    Pearmain 

Rhode   Island   Greening... 

Romanite 

Rome   Beauty 

Smith's  Cider 

Skinner's  Seedling 

Stark  

Stayman   Winesap 

Swaar 

Tompkins  King 

Vandevere 

Wagener  

Wealthy    

White    Astracan 

White    Winter   Pearmain, 

Williams's  Favorite 

Winesap    , 

Winter  Banana , 

Yellow  Bellflower , 

Yellow    Newton    Pippin.,, 

Yellow    Transparent 

York    Imperial 


• 

Interior 

Mountain 

Northern 

Central 

valleys 

valleys 

Southern 

Coast 

Coast 

and 

and 

California 

region. 

region. 

foot-hills. 

* 

plateau. 

* 

** 

* 

■  * 

* 

* 

** 

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* 

*  Indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designated. 
**  Most  highly  commended. 


wi!'jiBa''rgi«"Wirm>»iw'rt'jiir'i!«wt»i>''Fi!gi! 


CO 


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Biiiiiii: 


242 


CHAPTER  XVIIl 
THE   APRICOT 

California  has  nearly  three  million  apricot  trees  which  stand 
in  the  open  air  without  protection  of  any  kind  and  bear  large, 
luscious  fruit.  That  apricot  trees  can  do  this  constitutes  one  of  the 
unique  features  of  California  fruit  growing  and  proclaims  it  differ- 
ent from  fruit  growing  in  other  States,  for,  excepting  a  few  locali- 
ties in  other  parts  of  the  Pacific  slope,  California  has  a  monopoly 
of  commercial  apricot  growing,  and  nowhere  else  in  the  world  does 
the  fruit  attain  such  commercial  importance.  Although  the  apri- 
cot has  been  grown  here  from  the  earliest  days  of  the  American 
occupation,  and  though  since  the  opening  of  the  export  trade  in 
canned  and  dried  fruits,  the  apricot  has  gained  in  popularity,  the 
planting  of  apricot  orchards  has  not  proceeded  recently  with  great 
rapidity,  although  indications  are  that  our  distant  patrons  are  only 
just  beginning  to  recognize  the  desirability  of  the  fruit,  and  their 
demands  will  make  it  well-nigh  impossible  for  us  to  extend  our 
production  beyond  profitable  limits.  The  reason  why  the  apricot 
has  not  kept  pace  with  the  advance  of  some  other  fruits  in  Cali- 
fornia is  to  be  found  in  certain  limitations  of  suitable  area  which 
will  be  mentioned  presently. 

Though  the  apricot  has  some  pests  and  diseases  to  contend 
with,  they  have  thus  far  proved  slight  evils,  and  the  tree  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  one  of  our  healthiest  and  most  vigorous, 
as  it  certainly  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  orchard  trees. 
It  is  long-lived  and  attains  great  size.  There  are  here  and 
there  groups  of  trees  nearly  half  a  century  old  which  have  a  height 
of  fifty  feet ;  the  main  trunks  life  forest  oaks,  and  the  first  branches 
or  limbs  twelve  and  fifteen  inches  through.  The  smaller  limbs  and 
foliage  are  at  least  fifty  feet  across ;  a  half  dozen  of  them  shade 
an  acre  of  ground  and  they  sometimes  yield  per  tree  a  ton  of  fruit. 
But  such  trees  do  not  meet  orchard  requirements  and  are  only 
mentioned  to  show  what  the  tree  may  do  when  it  has  its  own  way. 

The  apricot  is  a  rapid  grower  and  an  early  and  heavy  bearer  in 
California.  In  the  interior  and  in  the  southern  coast  valleys  it 
yields  a  paying  crop  during  its  third  summer  in  the  orchard,  and 
from  eight  to  fourteen  tons  to  the  acre  was  reached  for  several 
years  in  succession,  in  Judge  Blackwood's  old  orchard  of  Royal 
apricots,  in  Alameda  County.  The  trees,  even  of  some  varieties 
which  are  uncertain  bearers,  are  large  and  vigorous  growers,  and 
have  warranted  the  suggestion  that  there  is  a  use  for  the  apricot 

243 


244  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

tree  for  a  windbreak  for  the  protection  of  other  trees.  The  trees 
may  be  planted  near  together  in  strong  land  and  make  a  windbreak 
that  will  pay  its  way  without  regard  to  such  fruit  as  it  may  inci- 
dentally produce. 

Apricots  are  chiefly  marketed  as  a  dried  fruit  and  the  operation 
of  drying  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  such  pro- 
cesses. The  amount  used  in  canning  is,  in  a  year  of  full  production, 
about  one-quarter  of  that  for  drying,  while  the  weight  of  fruit  sold 
fresh  to  consumers,  near  and  far,  is  about  one-quarter  of  that  used 
by  the  canners.  The  total  product  of  apricots  in  1905  was  approx- 
imately 175,000,000  pounds,  fresh  weight. 

LOCALITIES    FOR    THE    APRICOT 

In  discussing  localities  for  the  apricot,  reference  is,  of  course, 
only  made  to  its  growth  as  a  standard  orchard  tree  without  pro- 
tection of  any  kind.  It  shows  even  in  California  that  it  does  not 
forget  the  conditions  which  destroy  its  thrift  elsewhere,  for  late 
frosts  in  our  upper  coast  counties  render  it,  as  a  rule,  unprofitable. 
Speaking  broadly,  the  quarter  of  the  State  lying  northward  of  the 
Bay  of  San  Francisco  and  westward  of  the  high  ridge  of  the  Coast 
Range  is  not  suited  for  commercial  apricot  growing,  though  here 
and  there  are  places  where  bearing  may  be  regular  and  abundant 
enough  to  make  trees  satisfactory  for  home  gardens.  The  moun- 
tain regions  everywhere  in  the  State  above  an  elevation  of  about 
1200  feet  are  also  to  be  excluded.  The  lowest  lands  of  the  great 
interior  valleys,  except  here  and  there,  where  frosts  are  prevented 
by  proximity  of  broad,  streams  or  by  favoring  air  currents,  are 
unsuited  for  apricots,  and  the  bottoms  of  small  valleys  whence  cold 
air  can  not  find  drainage  outlet,  are  also  treacherous.  It  is  evident, 
then,  that  even  in  regions  of  general  adaptation  to  the  fruit,  local 
discrimination  must  be  exercised  in  selecting  lands  for  apricots, 
and  the  occurrence  of  spring  frosts,  which  are  usually  governed 
by  topography,  must  be  guarded  against.  This  is  not  the  same 
problem,  which  arises  in  the  selection  of  land  for  citrus  fruits, 
because  apricots  are  not  open  to  injury  during  December,  January 
and  February,  and  consequently  they  may  be  successfully  grown 
in  places  where  winter  temperatures  might  injure  the  evergreen 
trees  of  the  citrus  family.  Still,  next  to  the  almond,  the  apricot 
is  most  liable  to  frost  injury  of  all  our  deciduous  tree  fruits,  and 
commercial  success  depends  largely  upon  the  selection  of  a  proper 
place  for  them.  The  occurrence  of  even  light  frosts  during  the 
blooming  and  setting,  or  soon  after,  may  strip  the  tree  of  its  bur- 
den of  fruit  without  injury  to  even  the  softest  tissues  of  twig  and 
leaf;  consequently,  regular  bearing  of  the  apricot  can  not  be 
expected  wliere  the  temperature  is  apt  to  fall  four  or  five  degrees 
below  freezing  point  during  the  months  of  March  and  April,  even 


LOCATIONS    FOR    THE    APRICOT  245 

though  the  duration  of  such  temperature  may  be  very  brief.  For 
this  reason  the  area  of  California  which  is  well  suited  to  aprjcot 
growing  is  limited  when  compared  with  the  great  area  of  the  State, 
though  when  counted  by  acres  it  is  ample  enough  to  supply  all  the 
fresh  canned  and  dried  apricots  which  the  markets  of  the  world 
can  be  expected  to  take  at  profitable  figures. 

It  is  often  claimed  that  situations  directly  subject  to  ocean 
influences  are  best  for  the  apricot.  It  is  noted  by  many  observers 
that  the  apricot  ''points  its  best  branches  to  the  ocean,  in  the  very 
teeth  of  the  constant  breeze,  and  the  landward  limbs  and  twigs 
bend  up  and  endeavor  to  reach  the  same  direction.  This  is  patent 
in  every  tree,  and  in  the  long  orchard  rows  is  very  striking."  This 
is  taken  to  signify  the  special  liking  of  the  tree  for  the  vicinity  of 
the  coast.  It  is  well  enough  to  interpret  it  that  way,  providing  one 
does  not  lose  sight  of  the  perfect  success  of  the  apricot  in  the  in- 
terior as  well.  It  is  true  that  the  fruit  near  the  coast  attains  higher 
color,  and  the  less  rapid  growth  of  the  tree  makes  it  somewhat 
easier  to  handle,  but  the  earlier  ripening  in  the  interior,  coupled 
with  freedom  from  fog  and  constant  sunshine  for  drying,  are  points 
of  the  highest  industrial  importance.  The  fact  is  that  the  apricot 
has  a  very  wide  range  in  California,  and  though  the  trees  have 
been  cut  out  at  some  points  it  has  been  chiefly  because  too  frosty 
locations  have  been  chosen  or  because  some  other  fruit  has  seemed 
to  be  locally  more  desirable,  for  one  reason  or  another. 

In  some  valleys  in  the  upper  part  of  the  State  opening  directly 
to  the  ocean,  there  is  sometimes  complaint  of  the  cracking  of  the 
fruit  on  the  sunny  side.  The  alternation  of  sunshine  and  fog 
seems  to  have  something  to  do  with  this,  for  in  favorable  years, 
when  fogs  are  few,  the  fruit  is  sound. 

Locations  for  early  ripening  of  the  apricot  are  to  be  chosen 
with  reference  to  the  influence  of  topography,  as  laid  down  in 
Chapter  I.  In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said,  in  regions  directly 
subject  to  coast  influences,  both  in  northern  and  southern  Cali- 
fornia, the  apricot  is  late.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Sacramento 
Valley,  on  slightly  elevated  places,  in  small,  hill-locked  valleys, 
the  earliest  apricots  have  been  grown  for  years.  Protected  situ- 
ations in  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  on  the  eastern  rim 
of  both  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valleys,  share  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  earliest  ripening  fruit.  There  is  probably  about  a 
month's  difference  in  the  ripening  of  the  same  variety  in  the  earliest 
interior  situations  and  in  the  coast  valleys  of  both  northern  and 
southern  California. 

In  the  interior  of  southern  California,  in  irrigated  situations,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Colorado  River  and  in  adjacent  parts  of  Ari- 
zona, apricots  rival  in  earliness  the  product  of  the  famous  valleys 
of  interior  northern  California. 


246  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

Recently  a  measure  of  success  with  the  apricot  has  been 
attained  in  irrigated  sections  of  eastern  Washington,  Idaho  and 
Utah.  If  winter  temperatures  are  low  enough  to  keep  the  tree 
dormant  and  yet  not  to  injure  fruit  buds  and  frosts  are  absent  after 
growth  begins,  success  ought  to  be  attainable. 

STOCKS   AND   SOILS   FOR   THE   APRICOT 

Because  of  the  success  with  which  the  apricot  can  be  budded 
on  various  stocks,  it  has  a  wide  range  in  adaptation  to  different 
soils.  Budded  on  the  peach  root  it  may  be  grown  successfully  on 
the  light,  warm,  well-drained  loams  in  which  the  peach  delights. 
The  peach  root  is,  in  fact,  largely  used  for  the  apricot.  It  gives 
the  tree  quick  growth  and  early  fruiting,  and  the  fact  that  the 
gopher  does  not  like  the  peach  root  is  a  consideration  with  some 
planters.  In  growing  stocks,  pits  of  a  strong-growing  yellow  peach 
are  believed  to  yield  more  uniform  and  thrifty  seedlings. 

For  deep,  rich,  well-drained,  loamy  soils,  the  apricot  on  its  own 
root  makes  a  magnificent  tree.  Apricot  roots  for  budding  are  easily 
secured.  The  pits  sprout  as  readily  as  corn.  Sometimes,  where 
cutting  and  drying  are  done  in  the  orchard,  the  ground  the  next 
spring  will  be  almost  covered  with  a  volunteer  crop  of  seedling 
apricots.  These  little  plants,  taken  up  and  set  out  in  nursery  rows 
in  March,  are  ready  for  budding  in  June  or  July.  Large  numbers 
of  trees  are  sometimes  secured  in  this  way.  In  the  upper  San 
Joaquin  Valley  there  are  situations  in  which  the  apricot  seems 
more  productive  on  its  own  roots  than  on  the  peach,  and  in  the 
moister  parts  of  the  San  Fernando  and  tributary  valleys  in  south- 
ern California  the  apricot  root  has  recently  advanced  in  popularity. 
It  is,  however,  rather  more  sensitive  to  soil-drouth  than  the  peach 
root. 

When  it  is  desired  to  grow  the  apricot  in  moister  and  heavier 
soils  than  have  been  described,  or  where  a  light  soil  is  underlaid 
by  a  heavy,  retentive  subsoil,  recourse  should  be  had  to  the  plum 
root.  Only  a  non-suckering  plum  stock  should  be  used.  For  this 
purpose  the  Myrobalan  has  been  considerably  used.  Some  growers 
complain  that  the  root  has  a  dwarfing  effect  on  the  tree,  and  object 
to  its  use.  The  manner  of  securing  Myrobalan  stocks  has  been 
described  in  the  Chapter  on  propagation. 

Apricot  on  Almond. — The  almond  should  as  a  rule  be  rejected 
as  a  stock  for  the  apricot.  Hundreds  have  tried  it,  and  found  that 
the  scion  never  made  a  good  union  with  the  wood  of  the  stock, 
but  was  knit  to  it  only  by  the  bark,  and  is,  therefore,  easily  broken 
off  by  the  wind.  It  may  grow  well  and  sometimes  gets  to  be  two 
or  three  inches  in  diameter  before  it  breaks  off,  thus  wasting  much 
time  for  the  orchardist.  Whole  orchards  worked  in  this  way  have 
been  a  loss  and  disappointment. 


PLANTING    THE    APRICOT  247 

'growers,  however,  approve  the  ahnond  and  use  it  with 
the  idea  that  it  gives  larger  fruit.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the 
Royal  apricot  will  take  well  on  the  almond  seedling  by  root  graft- 
ing, instead  of  budding,  using  the  side  graft.  Cut  off  the  top  of  the 
stock  about  four  to  six  inches  above  ground,  scrape  away  the  dirt, 
bend  the  stock,  and,  with  a  sharp,  thin  knife,  cut  into  the  root  to 
the  center,  making  the  cut  perpendicular,  so  that  the  graft  will 
be  that  w^ay  when  inserted.  The  scion  should  be  made  wedge- 
shaped.  After  insertion,  draw  the  loose  earth  around  it,  and  the 
work  is  done  until  the  graft  has  made  a  growth  of  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  inches.  This  is  given  as  a  record  of  experience,  but 
still  caution  is  urged  against  the  use  of  the  almond  as  stock  for 
the  apricot. 

The  apricot  may  also  be  made  to  hold  on  the  almond  by  double 
working,  growing  first  as  a  shoot  from  a  peach  or  plum  bud  and 
then  working  an  apricot  bud  higher  up  on  in  the  new  shoot. 

In  addition  to  the  specifications  of  certain  stocks  for  different 
soils,  it  may  be  remarked,  in  a  general  way,  that  the  apricot  seems 
to  thrive  better  on  a  tolearbly  heavy  soil,  with  enough  sand  to 
make  it  work  easily,  than  on  a  very  light  soil.  It  does  well  on  soil 
rather  too  heavy  for  the  peach.  It  also  enjoys  moisture  better 
and  gives  signs  of  distress  unless  its  roots  are  fairly  supplied  all 
during  the  season,  but  it  dislikes  standing  water  and  should  not  be 
planted  on  undrained  situations. 

PLANTING    THE    APRICOT 

The  apricot  becomes  a  large  tree  in  California,  as  has  already 
been  remarked,  and  it  should  be  given  plenty  of  room.  Twenty- 
four  feet  each  way  is  certainly  a  minimum  distance  for  so  large 
and  long-lived  a  tree,  and  some  orchards  have  been  planted  at 
thirty  feet.  If  nearer  planting  is  done  it  should  be  with  reference 
to  subsequent  removal  of  part  of  the  trees,  wdiich,  however,  is  very 
seldom  done.  Twenty  feet  apart,  with  later  removal  of  half  the 
trees  to  double  the  distance  was  proposed  by  H.  D.  Briggs,  of 
Azuza,  in  this  way : 

In  setting  out  an  orchard  it  seems  advisable  to  double  set  the  ground,  as 
an  apricot  twelve  to  fifteen  years  old  should  have  not  less  than  800  to  900 
square  feet  of  ground.  This  can  easily  be  obtained  by  setting  20x20  feet; 
then  when  nine  or  ten  years  old  remove  every  other  tree,  making  them  forty 
feet  in  the  row,  with  rows  twenty  feet  apart,  of  course,  taking  them  out  diag- 
onally. The  trees  will  very  quickly  tell  the  orchardist  when  they  are  too  thick. 
When  the  outside  rows  have  twice  the  fruit  of  those  inside,  it  is  quite  evident 
that  the  time  spent  in  pruning,  etc.,  on  half  of  the  trees  is  worse  than  wasted. 
I  have  cut  roots  40  feet  from  a  nine-year-old  tre'e. 

The  apricot  makes  such  rapid  growth  and  so  much  depends 
upon  giving  it  proper  form,  as  will  be  seen  presently,  that  one 
year's  grow^th  is  all  that  should  be  allowed  in  the  nursery.     Some 


248 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


growers  would  rather  have  a  dormant  bud  than  a  two-year-old 
tree,  and  cases  have  been  reported  from  dormant  buds  outgrowing 
yearling  trees  planted  at  the  same  time  in  the  same  orchard.  But 
in  growing  from  a  dormant  bud  in  the  orchard  care  should  be 
taken  to  develop  a  short  trunk,  with  properly-spaced  branches,  by 
pinching  the  side  shoots  near  the  ground.  Trees  started  from  dor- 
mant bud  and  allowed  to  branch  from  the  ground,  have  developed 
very  unsatisfactory  form,  and  have,  in  some  situations,  lost  their 
lower  branches  by  the  wind.  The  tree  should  have  a  low  head, 
but  a  short  trunk  seems  to  give  a  better  tree,  and  more  elasticity 
to  the  branches. 

PRUNING  THE  APRICOT 

Of  all  the  California  orchard  trees,  the  apricot  seems  most  in 
need  of  the  constant  attention  of  the  orchardist  to  give  it  proper 
shape  and  strength.  It  is  a  rampant  grower,  and  in  its  zealous 
haste  for  size  and  fruitage  it  over-reaches  itself  and  becomes  the 
prey  of  specific  gravity  and  wind  force.  Thousands  of  trees  have 
been  ruined  by  literally  breaking  to  pieces  with  the  weight  of  their 
fruit,  and  being  torn  by  winds  of  only  ordinary  velocity.  Thou- 
sands more  have  been  rescued  from  such  a  fate  by  bolting  the 
branches  to  each  other.  This  excessive  growth  and  consequent 
weakness  of  the  apricot  is  greater  in  some  parts  of  the  State  than 
in  others,  because  of  the  difference  in  degree  of  forcing  conditions, 
but  everywhere  the  apricot  needs  watchfulness  and  timely  aid  in 
building  up  its  strength.  The  general  principles  to  be  observed 
in  securing  branches  strongly  attached  to  a  short  trunk  have 
already  been  discussed  at  length  in  the  chapter  on  pruning. 

There  has  been  a  very  marked  change  during  the  last  few  years 
of  the  pruning  of  the  apricot.  Summer  pruning,  immediately  after 
the  fruit  is  picked,  has  become  mucli  more  general,  and  winter 
pruning  has  proportionally  decreased.  The  new  practice  is  cer- 
tainly more  rational  than  the  old.  Young  trees  are  w^inter  pruned 
to  promote  low  branching  and  short,  stout  limbs ;  bearing  trees 
are  summer  pruned  to  promote  fruit  bearing  and  check  wood 
growth — the  excess  of  bearing  shoots  being  removed  by  thinning 
during  the  winter. 

The  apricot  tree  bears  upon  old  spurs,  like  the  plum ;  also  upon 
the  new  wood,  like  the  peach*  This  fact  has  to  be  borne  in  mind 
when  winter  thinning  of  the  new  growth  i;>  undertaken. 

A  very  clear  record  of  procedure  is  given  by  J.  B.  Neff,  of  Ana- 
heim, Orange  County,  who  built  up  one  of  the  best  apricot  orchards 
in  the  State  as  he  describes.  This  orchard  has  been  displaced  to 
make  way  for  English  walnut  trees  which  are  more  profitable  in 
that  district,  but  that  was  no  fault  of  the  pruning : 


I 


PRUNING    THE    APRICOT  249 

Pruning  the  apricot  requires  some  skill  and  considerable  judgment,  which 
can  only  be  formed  by  experience  and  observation  of  the  habits  of  the  tree. 
Trees  of  four  to  five  feet  in  height  are  preferable  for  planting,  and  when 
planted  should  be  trimmed  to  a  single  stem  and  cut  off  at  eighteen  inches 
from  the  ground.  These  will  throw  out  shoots  vigorously  and  frequently  two 
or  three  shoots  from  one  bud.  These  shoots  should  be  thinned  out,  leaving 
not  more  than  four  or  five,  no  two  of  which  should  come  from  one  bud,  nor 
be  directly  opposite.  The  first  shoot  should  start  twelve  inches  from  the 
ground,  the  .others  in  such  a  manner  as  to  divide  the  space  and  make  the 
branches  balance,  leaving  the  top  shoot  to  form  the  central  part  of  the  tree. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  trees  several  times  the  first  year  to 
remove  shoots  that  may  start  where  not  wanted,  but  no  general  heading  back 
should  be  done,  as  it  tends  to  dwarf  the  tree;  though  if  some  of  the  limbs 
are  making  an  overgrowth  they  should  be  pinched  back  to  keep  the  head 
balanced. 

The  pruning  of  the  second  year  should  be  done  in  January,  as  the  tree 
will  not  be  dormant  until  then,  if  it  has  been  kept  in  a  thrifty  condition.  The 
first  year's  growth  should  be  cut  back  to  within  five  to  ten  inches  of  the 
body  of  the  tree,  and  all  forks  should  be  cut  out,  even  if  it  necessitates  form- 
ing a  new  head,  as  it  is  much  better  to  lose  some  growth  on  a  young  tree  than 
to  take  the  risk  of  splitting  down  when  the  tree  begins  to  bear  fruit. 

When  the  shoots  start  for  the  second  year's  growth,  take  off  all  that  come 
on  the  under  side  of  the  limbs  and  thin  to  one,  two,  or  three,  as  may  be 
needed  to  balance  the  tree,  bearing  in  mind  that  an  apricot  tree  inclines  toward 
the  coast  breezes  in  this  locality. 

The  second  year  will  require  much  more  attention  than  the  first  year,  in 
order  to  keep  off  suckers  and  all  lateral  growth  that  may  start  on  the  under 
side  of  the  new  limbs,  the  object  being  to  make  the  limbs  grow  as  nearly  upright 
as  possible.  The  remark  on  heading  back  holds  good  for  the  second  year  also. 
The  trees  will  become  dormant  earlier  the  second  year  than  they  did  the 
first,  but  should  not  be  trimmed  earlier  than  December,  and  a  month  later  is 
preferable,  as  the  ends  of  the  limbs  are  not  exposed  to  the  drying  winds 
so  long  before  the  sap  begins  to  flow  and  consequently  will  heal  over  better. 
The  second  year's  growth  should  now  be  cut  back  to  within  fifteen  to  twenty 
inches  of  the  old  wood,  except  the  central  stem,  which  may  be  left  twenty- 
four  to  thirty  inches  long,  depending  on  the  number  of  laterals  it  may  have 
thrown  out.  When  the  new  shoots  start  they  should  again  be  thinned  down 
to  two  or  three  on  each  limb,  and  all  taken  off  that  tend  to  turn  down  or 
out  at  right  angles,  but  do  not  take  off  the  fruit  spurs. 

The  trees  will  need  to  be  gone  over  about  three  times  before  July  to 
remove  suckers  and  lateral  growth  that  may  start  on  the  lower  side  of  the 
limbs,  as  the  tendency  in  the  third  year  is  to  make  an  immense  growth  of 
downward  laterals,  and  these  must  be  taken  off  so  as  to  develop  wood  that  is 
to  be  left  for  fruit.  If  the  orchard  is  on  good  land  and  has  been  properly 
irrigated  and  cultivated,  the  trees  should  now  be  large  enough  to  begin  to 
yield  fruit.  The  object  in  trimming  during  the  first  two  years  and  the  first 
half  of  the  third  year  has  been  to  grow  a  vigorous  upright  tree,  with  strong 
limbs,  capable  of  carrying  a  heavy  load  of  large  fruit,  and  to  get  the  fruit  as 
close  to  the  body  of  the  tree  as  possible. 

There  will  be  a  few  specimens  of  the  fruit  the  third  year,  and  as  soon  as 
these  are  gathered  the  trees  should  be  summer  pruned  for  the  first  time,  care 
being  taken  that  the  land  shall  have  been  allowed  to  become  moderately  dry 
so  that  the  trees  may  be  partially  dormant.  If  the  downward  growth  of  the 
laterals  has  been  kept  cut  off,  all  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  cut  off  about 
one-half  of  all  this  season's  growth  all  over  the  tree,  using  the  same  judgment 
as  before  with  reference  to  prevailing  winds  and  symmetry  of  tree.  If  this 
is  properly  done  and  water  at  once  turned  on  the  orchard,  a  new  growth 
will  be  made  and  the  fruit  buds  for  next  year  fully  developed. 

The  only  pruning  necessary  in  the  following  winter  will  be  to  take  out 
any  cross  limbs  and  sprouts  that  may  have  been  overlooked  in  the  summer. 

After  the  trees  begin  to  produce  regular  crops  they  will  not  grow  so 
vigorouslv,    and   the   numerous    prunings   of   the   first   three   years    will   not   be 


250  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM' 

necessary,  as  almost  all  can  be  done  by  summer  pruning  until  the  trees  get 
so  old  that  they  need  the  old  wood  taken  out.  This  can  be  more  readily  done 
without  damage  to  the  trees  where  from  24  to  30  limbs  are  grown,  than  in 
the  old  method  of  leaving  only  eight  or  ten  large  limbs. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  take  out  old  wood — as  the  best  fruit  grows 
on  new  wood — a  few  limbs  can  be  taken  out  each  year  until  a  full  top  of  new 
wood  is  again  made. 

Winter  Pruning. — The  evident  defect  of  many  old  apricot 
orchards  is  the  failure  of  the  low-bearing  wood  and  the  thicket  of 
brush  near  the  ends  of  long  bare  limbs.  Such  trees  need  renewal 
of  the  top  by  vigorous  winter  pruning,  which  should  preferably  be 
done  toward  the  close  of  the  dormant  season  rather  than  early  in 
the  winter  as  formerly.  Old  and  unprofitable  trees  have  been 
reclaimed  in  this  way. 

Winter  pruning  is  still  the  regular  method  in  some  parts  of 
the  State  where  the  conditions  do  not  favor  excessive  growth  of 
the  tree  and  where  summer  pruning  does  not  seem  to  be  called  for. 
The  practice  is  to  remove  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  new  growth 
and  thin  out,  by  removing  entirely  enough  new  and  old  wood  to 
prevent  the  tree  from  becoming  thick  and  brushy. 


THINNING   THE    APRICOT 

All  free-fruiting  varieties  of  the  apricot  must  be  thinned  to 
secure  size  acceptable  to  purchasers.  It  is  the  experience  of  the  old- 
est growers  that  though  thinning  is  an  expensive  operation,  it  is 
very  profitable.  When  half  the  fruit  is  taken  ofif  in  thinning,  the 
remainder  reaches  as  large  aggregate  weight  as  though  the  whole 
were  allowed  to  mature  and  the  thinned  fruit  is  worth  about  twice 
as  much  per  pound.  Even  if  less  weight  is  secured,  and  in  most 
cases  the  purpose  should  be  to  get  less  weight,  the  tree  is  spared 
the  exhaustion  of  overbearing  and  the  owner  escapes  a  year  of  little' 
or  no  fruit.  A  discussion  of  this  subject  is  given  in  a  previous 
chapter. 

Where  conditions  are  favorable,  the  tree  will  set  more  fruit  than 
it  can  bring  to  full  size,  and  for  this  reason  thinning  or  spacing  the 
fruit  on  the  twigs  by  hand-picking,  while  the  fruit  is  about  the  size 
of  a  pigeon's  egg,  is  almost  a  universal  practice  among  the  best 
commercial  growers.  This  is  necessary  to  bring  the  individual  fruits 
to  the  diameters  required  by  canners  or  overland  shippers,  and 
which  they  scale  in  price  according  to  size:  Extras,  2%.  inches; 
No.  1,  2  inches;  No.  2,  1^  inches.  Fruit  of  less  size  is  hard  of  sale 
unless  the  crop  happens  to  be  very  small.  It  has  also  been  found 
that  thinning  to  regulate  size  is  quite  as  important  when  the  fruit 
is  to  be  dried  by  the  grower  as  when  sold  as  fresh  fruit. 


DISEASES    OP    THE    APRICOT 


IRRIGATION    OF    THE    APRICOT 


251 


Whether  the  apricot  shall  be  irrigated  or  not  is  answered  in 
the  chapter  on  irrigation.  In  many  locations,  with  proper  pruning, 
thinning  and  cultivation,  perfectly  satisfactory  fruit  can  be  grown 
with  the  usual  rainfall.  In  others  a  single  winter  irrigation  will 
satisfy  all  the  needs  of  the  tree;  in  others  a  single  irrigation  just 
after  fruit  picking  and  summer  pruning  will  carry  the  tree  through. 
It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  as  the  trees  advance  in  age  some  supple- 
ment to  the  average  rainfall  is  often  desirable  and  in  dry  years  irri- 
gation is  the  saving  of  two  crops.  Some  idea  of  the  amount  of 
water  used  can  be  had  from  the  chapter  on  irrigation.  The  fol- 
lowing account  by  Mr.  Neff  applies  to  his  practice  in  Orange 
County,  which  is  an  average  situation  as  to  rainfall  and  atmospheric 
humidity,  and  is  as  good  a  general  statement  as  could  be  made : 

If  rains  are  copious,  winter  irrigation  may  be  dispensed  widi  during  the 
first  two  or  three  years  after  planting  the  orchard,  but  when  the  trees  reach 
the'  age  for  bearing  fruit  the  rain  water  should  be  supplanted  by  irrigation 
water  until  the  soil  is  thoroughly  wet  5  feet  deep,  and  in  order  to  have  this, 
at  least  20  inches  of  water,  including  rainfall,  must  be  put  on  the  land.  Three 
irrigations  should  be  given  the  trees  during  the  first  summer,  but  it  is  not 
necessary  to  wet  more  than  a  strip  5  or  6  feet  wide  along  the  tree  rows.  The 
orchard  should  have  three  irrigations  during  the  second  summer  and  a  strip 
12  feet  wide  should  be  watered,  as  the  roots  are  reaching  farther  and  the  trees 
require  a  greater  amount  of  water.  The  irrigation  for  the  first  two  years 
should  always  be  done  before  the  trees  show  any  want  of  water,  so  as  to  keep 
them  growing  vigorously. 

All  the  space  between  the  trees  should  be  watered  the  third  year  and  after- 
ward ;  but  two  irrigations  will  be  sufficient  for  the  summer.  The  best  time  for 
the  summer  irrigation  of  bearing  apricot  trees  is  when  the  fruit  is  about  half 
grown,  which  is  usually  about  the  second  or  third  week  in  May. 

If  well  watered  at  this  time  the  fruit  grows  to  its  largest,  and  has  time 
to  ripen  slowly  as  the  ground  gradually  dries,  until  it  has  all  the  sugar  which 
will  go  into  the  fruit.  An  orchard  in  full  bearing  that  has  been  well  watered 
in  the  winter  should  now  have  as  much  as  full  100  inches  of  water  for  two 
hours  on.  each  acre   (equal  to  four  acre-inches). 

The  second  irrigation  should  be  given  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  summer 
pruning  is  done,  in  order  to  start  the  trees  growing  and  develop  the  fruit  buds 
for  the  next  year.  This  will  not  require  so  much  water  as  the  irrigation  in 
May,  but  ought  to  be  as  much  as  100  inches  of  water  for  one  hour  on  each  acre. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    APRICOT 

Though  the  apricot  tree,  as  has  been  said,  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  healthiest  fruit  trees,  it  is  subject  to  some  maladies.  Trees 
perish  from  being  set  in  unsuitable  situations,  and  in  these  cases, 
if  the  evil  be  stagnant  water  in  the  soil,  or  penetration  to  alkaline 
subsoil,  the  root  shows  it.  Sometimes,  however,  a  branch  or  a 
whole  tree  withers  and  dies  without  apparent  cause  early  in  the 
summer,  and  while  the^xoot  is  still  sound.  The  disease  is  evi- 
dently acute,  but  its  cause  is  not  known,  nor  a  remedy  proposed. 
It  is  an  old  trouble  of  the  apricot,  and  not  peculiar  to  California. 

The  so-called  ''gum  disease"  sometimes  causes  injury  to  trees. 
The   best   treatment   is   to   cut   away    the    diseased    part    down    to 


252  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

healthy  wood  and  cover  the  wound  with  common  lead  and  oil 
paint,  putting  on  sparingly  so  as  not  to  flow  over  healthy  bark. 

Some  years  certain  varieties  in  particular  are  blackened  at  the 
pit  and  rendered  unsalable,  but  the  trouble  has  not  thus  far 
proved  serious  generally,  except  with  certain  varieties  which  have 
generally  gone  out  of  use  for  that  reason. 

The  worst  injury  to  tree  and  fruit  is  done  by  what  is  called 
the  ''shot-hole  fungus"  {coryncum),  from  its  perforations  of  the 
leaves  as  though  by  a  charge  from  a  shotgun.  It  makes  ugly  scars 
on  the  fruit,  which  renders  it  unsalable.  The  same  disease  also 
affects  the  leaves  of  cherries  and  plums.  Thorough  use  of  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  described  in  a  later  chapter  will  prevent  this 
trouble. 

A  disease  which  is  prevalent  in  some  districts  of  southern  Cali- 
fornia is  called  ''black  heart" ;  a  pith  disease  which  sometimes  does 
great  injury.  No  treatment  except  that  of  pruning  back  to  healthy 
wood  has  thus  far  been  proposed.  Root  knot  is  also  a  serious 
trouble  of  the  apricot  as  of  several  other  trees.  It  will  be  con- 
sidered in  the  chapter  devoted  to  diseases  of  fruit  trees. 

Until  recently  the  apricot  has  been  generally  free  from  scale 
insects,  and  it  is  not  affected  by  those  species  which  are  worst 
on  some  other  fruit  trees,  but  recently  it  has  been  seriously  infested 
in  some  places  with  black  and  brown  scales,  which  will  be  con- 
sidered in  a  later  chapter. 

The  ripe  apricot  is  sometimes  seriously  assailed  by  the  diabrotica, 
a  small  green  beetle,  with  twelve  black  spots  upon  its  wing  covers. 
Driving  the  insects  away  with  smoke  smudges  has  been  used  to 
some  extent.  Fortunately,  the  insect  only  occasionally  occurs  in 
large  numbers. 

Varieties    approved    by    California    growers. 


Central  Interior 

VARIETIES.  coast  valley  and      Southern 

valleys.  foot-hills.   California. 

Bergetti    **                    

Blenhiem **  **  ** 

Early    Golden *  ** 

Early  Moorpark ** 

Hemskirke  **  *                    

Large    Early *  ** 

Large  Early  Montgamet *  *                     

Luizet *                     

Moorpark **  *  * 

Newcastle    **                    

Oullin's  Early *  *                     

Peach  **  * 

Royal    **  **  ** 

Routier's    Peach **                     

Spark's    Mammoth * 

St.   Ambroise    , *                    

Tilton   *                     

Wlggin's  Seedling *                     


I 


POPULAR    KINDS    OF    APRICOTS 


VARIETIES    OE   THE    APRICOT 


253 


Though  nearly  all  staiulard  varieties  of  the  apricot  have  been 
introduced  and  planted  in  this  State,  comparatively  few^  are  found 
on  the  list  of  the  orchard  planters.  Many  local  seedlings  have 
been  brought  to  notice  and  propagated  to  some  extent  but  are  less 
used  now  than  twelve  years  ago,  and  the  disposition  is  to  restrict 
planting  to  a  few  old  varieties.  There  is,  however,  still  a  need  of 
new  varieties  combining  size,  quality  and  regular  bearing.  As 
with  most  other  fruits,  some  varieties  are  found  to  succeed  wher- 
ever conditions  favor  the  fruit  at  all ;  other  varieties  succeed  in 
some  regions  and  not  in  others.  Our  table  of  varieties  for  the 
different  counties  shows  this  fact,  and  an  attempt  will  be  made 
to  make  the  showing  more  explicit  by  notes  in  connection  with 
the  mention  of  each  variety. 

In  the  following  statement  the  arrangement  is  approximately 
in  the  order  of  ripening,  and  the  descriptions  are  from  Downing, 
with  additions  and  changes  to  meet  local  observation  : 

.    VARIETIES    OF    FOREIGN    ORIGIN 

Large  Early. — A  French  variety;  fruit  of  medium  size,  rather  oblong  and 
compressed ;  suture  deep,  skin  slightly  downy ;  pale  orange  in  the  shade,  fine 
bright  orange  with  a  few  ruddy  spots  in  the  sun ;  flesh  separating  readily  from 
the  stone,  orange  colored,  rich  and  juicy;  kernel  bitter.  This  variety  is  espe- 
cially popular  in  the  southern  coast  counties,  but  in  most  situations  has  proved 
an  uncertain  bearer.     Ripens  before  Royal. 

Wiggins's  Seedling. — Favored  in  Winter's  district  as  best  of  early  apricots ; 
good  size,  fine  color,  solid  red  cheek,  good  bearer ;  ten  days  earlier  than  Royal. 

Early  Golden. — Origin  unknown ;  small,  roundish  oval,  with  suture  well 
marked  and  extending  half  way  around ;  skin  smooth,  pale  orange ;  flesh 
yellow,  moderately  juicy  and  sweet,  with  very  good  flavor;  separates  from  the 
stone.  This  variety  is  reported  favorably  from  some  counties,  but  generally 
otherwise,  and  is  not  largely  grown.     Ripens  before  Royal. 

Royal. — A  French  variety,  and  at  the  present  time  the  leading  California 
apricot.  Of  large  size  (when  well  thinned  out),  free  stone,  fine  color  and 
flavor,  good  bearer,  and  fruit  ripens  evenly,  when  well  grown ;  a  favorite  with 
the  canners  and  an  excellent  variety  for  drying.  Fruit  roundish,  large,  oval, 
slightly  compressed ;  skin  dull  yellow  with  orange  cheek,  very  faintly  tinged 
with  red,  and  a  shallow  suture;  flesh  pale  orange,  firm  and  juicy,  with  a  rich 
vinous  flavor. 

There  is  a  variety  somewhat  grown  in  Sacramento  and  Solano  counties, 
sometimes  called  "White  Royal,"  which  is  not  liked  by  canners,  because  of  its 
lack  of  color  and  flavor. 

Large  Early  Montgamet. — Large,  orange  yellow,  reddish  on  sunny  side,  firm. 

Oullin's  Early. — Early  form  of  Peach  apricot,  large  size,  delicious  flavor. 
Ripens  in  Amador  county   four   weeks   earlier  than   Peach. 

Liiicet. — Large,  oval,  distinct  suture,  one  side  higher  than  the  other ;  orange 
with  crimson  cheek;  flesh  deep  yellow,  firm,  rich.  Especially  approved  in 
the  upper  San  Joaquin. 

Blenheim  or  Shipley. — This  is  a  valuable  variety  in  this  State  and  seems 
to  surpass  Downing's  description  both  in  vigor  of  tree  and  size  of  fruit.  John 
Rock  modifies  Downing's  description  to  suit  California  experience  with  this 
variety,  as  follows :    "A  very  good  variety,  above  medium,  oval ;  orange,  with 


254 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


a  deep  yellow,  juicy,  and  tolerably  rich  flesh;  vigorous  grower  and  regular, 
prolific  bearer."  This  agrees  perfectly  with  the  behavior  of  the  variety  in 
the  University  orchard  at  Berkeley,  where  it  is  the  best  of  twenty  varieties. 
It  is  not  reported  so  constant  a  bearer  in  some  other  parts  of  the  State.  Fruit 
runs  a  little  larger  than  the  Royal,  and  is  usually  better  distributed  on  the 
tree,  but  it  must  be  well  thinned.  This  variety  has  been  approved  by  canners. 
Ripens  a  little  later  than  the  Royal. 

Early  Moorpark. — Very  popular  in  southern  California,  where  its  identity 
has  been  long  in  dispute,  and  is  not  yet  fully  determined.  The  Early  Moor- 
park of  Thomas  Hogg  is  as  follows:  Roundish,  inclining  to  oval,  with  very 
deep  suture  on  one  side,  extending  from  base  to  apex.  Skin  yellow,  mottled, 
and  dotted  with  crimson  on  the  exposed  side.  Flesh  in  all  respects  resembling 
Moorpark.  Stone  oblong,  with  a  covered  channel  along  the  back,  which  is 
pervious.     Kernel  bitter.     Ripens  three  weeks  earlier  than   Moorpark. 

St.  Ambroise. — Large,  early,  compressed,  deep  yellow,  reddish  on  sunny 
side.  Juicy,  rich,  and  sugary,  with  firm  flesh  when  grown  in  the  interior ;  apt 
to  be  coarse  and  to  lack  flavor  near  the  coast.  Condemned  by  canners  for 
not  processing  well,  and  by  dryers  for  loss  of  weight  and  for  white  color 
around  the  pit.     It  has  served  well  as  a  shipping  variety. 

Bergetti. — An  undetermined  variety  introduced  by  Mr.  Bergetti  and  widely 
distributed  under  his  name  in  the   San  Joaquin. 

Hemskirke. — A  fine  English  variety  quite  widely  grown  in  California ;  ripens 
later  than  Royal,  described  by  Downing  as  follows :  "Fruit  large,  roundish, 
but  considerably  compressed  or  flattened  on  its  sides ;  skin  orange,  with  red 
cheek;  flesh  bright  orange,  tender,  rather  more  juicy  and  sprightly  than  the 
Moorpark,  with  rich,  luscious,  plum-like  flavor ;  stone  not  perforate,  rather 
small,  and  kernel  bitter."  Esteemed  in  California  because  the  tree  is  more 
hardy  and  a  more  regular  bearer  than  the  Moorpark,  and  the  fruit  ripens  evenly 
on   both   sides.     Sometimes   drops   worse   than   other  varieties. 

Peach.— ^A  variety  from  Piedmont  of  the  largest  size,  about  two  inches  in 
diameter,  roundish,  rather  flattened,  and  somewhat  compressed  on  its  sides, 
with  a  well-marked  suture ;  skin  yellow  in  the  shade,  but  deep  orange  mottled 
with  brown  on  the  sunny  side;  flesh  of  a  fine  yellow,  saffron  color,  juicy,  rich, 
and  high  flavored ;  stone  can  be  penetrated  like  Moorpark  and  has  bitter 
kernel.  This  is  a  very  successful  sort  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State  espe- 
cially, and  is  a  favorite  in  the  Sacramento  Valley.  It  ripens  just  ahead  of 
the  Moorpark. 

Moorpark. — A  standard  of  excellence  and  an  old  variety  which  originated 
in  England.  Fruit  large,  roundish,  about  two  inches  and  a  quarter  in  diameter 
each  way ;  rather  larger  on  one  side  of  the  suture  than  on  the  other ;  skin 
orange  in  the  shade,  but  deep  orange  or  brownish  red  in  the  sun,  marked 
with  numerous  dark  specks  and  dots ;  flesh  quite  firm,  bright  orange,  parting 
free  from  the  stone,  quite  juicy,  with  a  rich  and  luscious  flavor;  stone  peculiarly 
perforated  along  the  back,  where  a  pin  may  be  pushed  through  ;  kernel  bitter. 
In  California  the  Moorpark  reaches  grand  size,  but  has  the  fault  of  ripening 
unevenly  in  most  localities.  The  tree  is  tender  and  bears  irregularly,  which 
leads  to  its  rejection  by  most  planters,  though  some  growers  cling  to  it  because 
of  its  size  and  quality  and  occasional  grand  crops.  The  San  Jose  districts 
lead  in  the  production  of  this  variety,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Santa  Clara 
Valley  the  Moorpark  seems  to  ripen  uniformly.  The  same  behavior  is  reported 
from  localities  in  the  upper  San  Joaquin  Valley,  where  it  also  seems  to  be  a 
more  regular  bearer.  The  variety  is  almost  wholly  rejected  in  Southern 
California. 

VARIETIES    OF    CALIFORNIA    ORIGIN 

Nezvcastle. — Originated  with  C.  M.  Silva  &  Son,  of  Newcastle,  Placer 
county,  in  1881  ;  size  medium,  round,  with  spherical  pit ;  freestone ;  not  quite 
as  large  as  the  Royal,  nor  quite  as  rich  in  flavor,  but  more  highly  colored ; 
rather  darker  on  the  side  to  the  sun.  Early,  regular  and  good  bearer,  a  medium 
grower,   being   more   upright   than   the    Royal.      Its   time   of   ripening   has   been 


CALIFORNIA    APRICOT    VARIETIES 


255 


reported  as  seventeen  days  earlier  than  the  Early  Golden  and  twenty-five  days 
earlier  than  the  Royal. 

Routier's  Peach. — Originated  with  Hon.  Joseph  Routier,  near  Sacramento. 
Large,  yellow  in  shade ;  deep  orange,  mottled  or  splashed  with  red  in  the  sun ; 
flesh  juicy  and  rich,  high  flavor  and  a  good  market  variety.  Blooms  a  week 
later  than  peach.     Very  popular  in  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys. 

Sparks's  Mammoth. — Popular  in  Ventura  county.  Largest  size,  even  larger 
than  Moorpark,  pale  yellow,  very  tender,  juicy  and  sweet.  Quiet  widely  dis- 
tributed in  Southern  California,  but  its  bearing  habit  is  in  question. 

Tilton. — Chance  seedliaig  first  noticed  about  1885  on  place  of  J.  E.  Tilton, 
near  Hanford,  Kings  county,  and  distinguished  by  regular  bearing.  Propa- 
gated and  introduced  by  J.  W.  Bairstow  of  Hanford.  Fruit  large;  freestone; 
symmetrical,  ripening  evenly  and  one  week  to  ten  days  later  than  Royal.  Tree 
vigorous  and  prolific.     Widely  planted  recently  and  very  promising. 

Late  Englehardt. — Chance  seedling  originating  at  La  Crescenta.  Propa- 
gated and  introduced  by  W.  B.  Thornc  of  Tropico.  Large  as  Moorpark,  ripen- 
ing evenly  and  twenty-eight  days  later  than  Royal.  Claimed  by  Mr.  Thorne 
to  be  a  very  late  bloomer  and  thus  escaping  frosts  which  caught  all  other 
varieties  at  similar  elevations.     Planted  chiefly   in  Los   Angeles  county. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

THE    CHERRY 

Although  the  amount  of  cherries  grown  in  this  State  is  small 
as  compared  with  the  aggregate  weights  of  some  other  fruits,  the 
cherry,  from  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  the  size  and  quality  of 
the  product,  is  entitled  to  rank  as  one  of  the  grand  fruits  of  Cali- 
fornia. The  size  of  the  California-grown  cherry  is  a  matter  of 
pride  with  the  residents,  and  a  marvel  to  visitors.  It  is  related 
that,  many  years  ago,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Eastern 
pomologists,  who  was  taken  to  an  Alameda  County  cherry  orchard 
during  picking-time,  could  not  recognize  the  varieties,  though 
he  had  himself  propagated  and  shipped  to  California  the  very 
trees  which  were  bearing  the  fruit,  the  size  of  which  so  far  sur- 
passed all  his  mental  standards.  And  quality  is  commensurate 
with  size.  Whatever  disagreement  there  may  be  concerning  the 
flavors  of  our  other  fruits  as  compared  with  Eastern,  the  richness 
and  excellence  of  the  California  cherry  have  never  been  impeached. 
Recently  the  shipment  of  cherries  to  eastern  markets,  the  extension 
of  the  canning  interest,  and  the  uprising  of  a  demand  for  mara- 
schino-preserving have  considerably  enlarged  the  opportunity  for 
profitable  growth  of  the  fruit. 

Famous  Old  Trees. — The  longevity  and  productiveness  of  the 
cherry  tree  in  this  State  is  naturally  of  interest.  Cherries  were 
planted  in  some  of  the  earliest  settled  parts  of  the  State  are  still 
in  full  vigor.  One  of  the  famous  trees  is  a  Black  Tartarian,  which 
was  brought  from  France  by  Dr.  L.  E.  Miller,  and  planted  by 
him  in  1854,  on  land  afferwards  owned  by  Robert  Hector  in 
Placer  county,  just  below  Rattlesnake  Bar,  on  the  American 
River,  about  eight  hundred  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is  described 
as  above  seventy  feet  in  height,  the  branches  covering  a  space 
between  seventy  feet  and  seventy-five  feet  in  diameter.  The  trunk 
branches  about  six  feet  above  the  ground,  and  at  that  point  has 
a  girth  of  over  ten  feet.  A  close  record  of  its  crop,  kept  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  when  the  tree  was  over  thirty  years  of  age,  showed 
that  it  yielded  from  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half  a  year.  Such  trees 
are  too  large  to  be  profitable,  for  the  fruit  has  to  be  picked  with 
the  aid  of  extension  ladders  securely  guyed,  by  men  slung  in 
swings  from  such  ladders  or  the  forks  of  the  trees.  At  last  reports 
there  were  about  fifty  of  these  large  trees.  Other  large  trees  were 
to  be  seen  near  Woodside,  San  Mateo  County,  and  near  Oroville 
and  Chico  in  Butte  County,  some  of  which  have  borne  a  ton  of 
fruit  in  favorable  seasons. 

25(5 


SORTS    FOR    THE    CHERRY  257 

LOCALITIES    FOR  THE   CHERRY 

In  California  there  are  many  districts  in  which  the  cherry  does 
not  do  well,  and  situations  for  the  fruit  must  therefore  be 
selected  with  discrimination.  The  chief  product  is  made  in  the 
coast  valleys  adjacent  to  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  including  its 
extension  east  of  the  Coast  range,  known  as  Suisun  bay,  for  in  all 
these  regions  there  is  a  modification  of  climate  due  to  the  influ- 
ence of  ocean  temperature  and  moisture.  Away  from  these  influ- 
ences the  cherry  also  thrives  on  the  alluvial  bottoms  of  large 
rivers  and  their  tributary  creeks,  both  on  the  low  lands  of  the 
valleys  and  the  foothills,  while  on  the  broad  valley  plains  and 
foothill  slopes  it  is  not  usually  satisfactory.  In  the  mountain 
valleys  cherries  also  thrive  in  suitable  soils.  In  southern  Cali- 
fornia at  elevations  where  moisture  is  adequate  and  temperatures 
favor  suitable  winter  dormancy  of  the  trees,  good  cherries  are 
profitably  grown,  while  on  the  mesas  and  valleys  below,  where 
citrus  fruits  flourish,  the  cherry  is  an  aggravation. 

How  far  atmospheric  conditions  which  are  beyond  control 
influence  the  growth  and  fruitage  of  the  cherry,  can  not  yet  be 
fully  determined,  but  ample  trial  seems  to  demonstrate  the  unsat- 
isfactory character  of  the  tree,  manifested  in  small  fruit  and  sun- 
burned foliage,  on  the  plains  of  interior  valleys,  although  the  soil 
is  kept  moist  enough.  There  is,  however,  still  the  chance  of  secur- 
ing varieties  of  the  fruit  which  have  been  developed  under  condi- 
tions similar  to  those  prevailing  in  the  interior  of  California.  The 
Russian  cherries,  which  are  largely  grown  in  a  region  subject  to 
high  summer  heat  and  dry  air,  will  succeed  in  parts  of  California 
where  the  varieties  originating  in  west  Europe  fail.  Though  this 
was  suggested  long  ago,  the  effort  has  not  yet  been  made. 

SOILS    FOR   THE    CHERRY 

The  cherry  thrives  in  free,  deep  soil,  in  which  water  does  not 
stand  within  about  15  feet  from  the  surface.  It  delights  in  deep 
deposits  from  old  water  courses,  and  does  not  dislike  a  moderate 
amount  of  sand.  A  loam  underlaid  by  a  sandy  subsoil  is  accept- 
able, but  a  loam  underlaid  by  clay  has  shown  its  unfitness  by 
the  early  failure  of  the  trees,  while  those  on  deep  loam  near  by 
have  remained  vigorous  and  profitable.  On  the  foothills  it  thrives 
in  the  light,  mellow  soil  and  fails  in  the  tight  clay  either  in  soil 
or  subsoil,  as  it  does  in  the  adobe  of  lower  lands ;  and  yet  a  clay 
loam  of  no  great  depth  upon  a  clay  subsoil  may  grow  good  trees 
if  the  clay  be  so  disposed  that  surplus  water  from  winter  rains 
can  escape  and  water  is  at  hand  to  guard  against  summer  drouth. 
But  this  is  merely  a  suggestion  for  garden  growth  of  the  cherry. 
Commercial  orchards  should  have  a  good  depth  of  sufficiently  re- 
tentive  soil.     The   great   cherry   trees   which   we   have   mentioned. 


253  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

are  growing  right  on  the  bank  of  the  American  River,  where  the 
soil  is  a  pure,  sandy  loam,  in  some  places  over  sixty  feet  deep,  as 
proved  by  an  old  shaft  once  dug  near  the  center  of  the  orchard. 

But  though  the  cherry  dislikes  a  wet  soil,  it  is  particular  about 
its  water  supply  and  insists  upon  enough,  its  requirements  being 
greater  than  some  other  trees.  During  the  dry  years  1898  and 
1899,  trees  came  into  distress  where  they  had  never  sufifered  before, 
and  many  large,  valuable  trees  died.  The  only  new  condition 
they  encountered  was  lack  of  soil  moisture.  It  thus  appears  that 
while  the  cherry  is  undoubtedly  injured  by  excess  of  water  in  the 
soil,  it  is  still  very  exacting  in  its  requirement  of  an  adequate 
supply.  If  this  can  not  be  retained  in  the  soil  by  cultivation,  irri- 
gation must  be  resorted  to.  Thus  the  cherry  growers  in  the  famous 
Willows  district,  of  San  Jose,  usually  find  it  an  advantage  to  give 
their  trees  an  irrigation  between  the  spring  rains  and  the  ripening 
of  the  fruit,  and  another  irrigation  after  the  fruit  is  gathered. 

Irregularity  in  the  moisture  supply  also  causes  the  cherry  to 
bloom  and  fruit  unseasonably.  There  has  been  bloom  in  October 
and  ripe  fruit  in  January,  due  to  the  fact  that  trees  become  dor- 
mant in  late  summer  from  soil-drouth.  January  cherries  may  be 
evidences  of  salubrity  but  they  betoken  poor  horticulture. 

These  facts  show  that  the  cherry  must  have  enough  water  or 
it  will  not  succeed.  Sometimes  young  trees  which  have  made  a 
good  summer  growth  die  outright  on  leachy  soils  which  dry  out 
before  the  fall  rains  begin.  On  the  other  hand,  there  must  not 
be  excessive  moisture  in  the  soil  either  from  irrigation  or  by 
moisture.  Cherry  trees  in  southern  California,  planted  with  orange 
trees  and  given  similar  irrigation,  have  failed  utterly.  Planting 
on  naturally  moist  land  in  low  places  has  also  failed,  and  observed 
facts  some  time  ago  led  to  the  conclusion  that  at  the  south  the 
cherry  should  be  planted  on  well-drained  land,  which  could  be 
irrigated  (as  the  behavior  of  the  tree  indicated  its  need  of  water), 
rather  than  on  naturally  moist  land,  because  of  the  likelihood  of 
excessive  moisture  in  such  situations.  More  recent  experience  has 
declared  mellow,  well-drained  soils  of  the  higher  lands  well  adapted 
to  the  cherry,  and  on  such  soils,  when  well  cultivated,  cherries 
have  done  well  without  irrigation  at  Pasadena,  Pomona  and  else- 
where. The  commercial  cherry  product  of  southern  California 
comes,  however,  from  mountain  valleys  and  high  plateaux — the 
chief  regions  being  the  Yucaipe  Valley  above  Redlands  and  the 
Mesa  Grande  region  in  the  interior  of  San  Diego  County. 

In  California,  as  elsewhere,  the  Dukes  and  Morellos  may  suc- 
ceed where  the  Hearts  and  Bigarreaux  fail.  The  May  Duke  seems 
especially  hardy,  and  bears  well  in  Nevada,  where  other  sorts  fail 
utterly. 


SITUATIONS    FOR    THE    CHERRY 


259 


Delayed  Fruiting  of  Cherry  Trees. — Though  the  cherry  in  fav- 
orable situations  bears  early,  the  grower,  especially  on  strong,  rich 
lands,  will  often  have  many  years  of  disappointment  from  falling 
blossoms  and  fruit.  During  this  time  the  trees  will  be  making 
marvelous  wood  growth,  and  this  apparently  suppresses  the  fruit- 
ing function.  Usually  these  trees  will  ultimately  bear  when  their 
exuberant  growth  declines.  They  can  be  thrown  into  fruit  sooner 
by  allowing  the  trees  to  go  uncultivated  or  by  root  pruning, 
digging  a  trench  around  about  eight  feet  from  the  tree,  and  sever- 
ing the  roots  thus  encountered,  or  by  summer  pruning  of  twig 
ends.  Because  of  this  overgrowth,  growers  give  such  soil  to  the 
apple  or  the  pear  rather  than  the  cherry.  Sometimes  the  non- 
bearing  of  the  cherry  is  inexplicable.  Though  everything  seems 
to  be  right,  and  the  blooms  are  profuse,  the  fruit  will  not  stick. 

Unquestionably  lack  of  bearing  is  due  with  certain  cherries  to 
lack  of  association  of  different  varieties  and  cross  fertilization. 
There  is  warrant  for  the  claim  that  keeping  bees  in  the  vicinity 
of  cherry  orchards  has  increased  the  bearing.  But  varieties  must 
be  provided  which  will  act  as  cross-pollinizers.  The  Royal  Ann 
needs  this  assistance  and  will  bear  better  when  associated  with 
Black  Tartarian,  Black  Bigarreau,  Bing  and  probably  others.  In 
Oregon  the  Deacon  and  Lambert  are  said  to  be  good  pollinizers 
for  Royal  Ann. 


EXPOSURES    FOR    THE    CHERRY 

Exposures  for  the  cherry  are  chosen  both  with  reference  to 
protection  from  frost  injury  and  to  early  ripening  of  the  fruit.  The 
cherry  blooms  early;  though  hardly  as  venturesome  as  the  apricot 
and  almond.  In  protected  situations,  guarded  from  cold  north- 
erly winds,  and  open  to  sunshine  on  the  south  and  southeast,  the 
fruit  advances  to  maturity  very  rapidly.  In  Vaca  Valley  about 
a  month  of  good  weather  after  the  blossoming  will  ripen  an  early 
cherry,  and  ripe  cherries  have  been  shipped  as  early  as  march  31. 
The  pioneer  cherry  growers  of  Vaca  Valley  went  there  from  their 
old  homes  in  Napa  Valley,  because  they  could  gather  and 
market  cherries  in  their  new  locations  before  the  same  varieties 
were  ripe  in  Napa.  They  chose  places  protected  on  the  north  and 
west  by  steep  hills.  The  two  things  to  secure  are,  apparently, 
protection  from  the  sweep  of  cold  winds  and  elevation  above  the 
deposits  of  cold  air,  which  occurs  in  depressed  places. 

In  localities  where  fruit  ripens  late,  as  near  the  coast,  there  is 
no  need  to  seek  forcing  conditions,  for  the  extra  early  varieties 
should  not  be  planted  except  for  family  use.  Early  varieties  are 
comparatively  poor  in  quality,  and  will  not  sell  profitably,  as  they 


26Q  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

will  reach  the  market  alongside  of  better  later  sorts  from  earlier 
districts.  The  place  for  the  cherry  in  the  latter  districts  is  on 
the  most  proper  soil,  according  to  the  requirements  which  have 
been  laid  down,  avoiding,  however,  so  far  as  possible,  wind-swept 
spots,  and  seeking  amelioration  of  direct  ocean  influences  by  ele- 
vation or  intervention  of  hills  and  windbreaks. 


PROPAGATION  AND  PLANTING  THE  CHERRY 

In  the  chapter  on  propagation  is  given  a  successful  method  of 
growing  cherry  seedlings.  California  cherry  trees  are  almost  ex- 
clusively propagated  by  budding  on  seedlings  of  the  Black  Maz- 
zard.  The  Mahaleb  root  is  more  hardy  than  the  Mazzard  and 
is  less  subject  to  injury  by  soil  saturation  during  the  winter  sea- 
son. It  is  also  more  hardy  against  injury  by  summer  drouth  on 
shallow  soils,  which  is  one  of  the  causes  of  die-back  of  the  cherry 
tree  in  some  parts  of  the  State.  While  there  may  be  particular 
places  in  which  the  Mahaleb  is  the  better  root,  the  conclusions  of 
fifty  years'  experience  in  California  cherry  growing,  which  approve 
the  Mazzard,  are  on  the  whole  trustworthy.  The  Mazzard  is  a 
better  grower  and,  where  moisture  conditions  are  fairly  good, 
leaves  little  to  be  desired.  The  Mazzard,  however,  though  credited 
with  a  dwarfing  influence,  does  make  a  good  sized  tree  under  our 
conditions.  Recently  the  Morello  or  sour  cherry  seedling,  has 
found  favor  with  some  growers  on  the  Sacramento  River,  although 
it  is  inhospitable  to  the  buds  of  some  varieties,  like  the  Early 
Purple  Greigne  and  Royal  Ann,  and  double  working  has  to  be 
resorted  to,  which  is  expensive,  both  in  outlay  and  time.  The 
Black  Tartarian  takes  well  on  the  Morello  and  other  varieties  can 
be  budded  upon  the  Tartarian  top  growth. 

The  planting  of  the  cherry  is  covered  by  the  general  consid- 
erations already  given  for  the  planting  of  orchards.  The  distance 
which  cherries  should  be  set  apari:  is  a  disputed  point  among 
planters.  When  planted  twenty  feet  apart  the  trees  have  inter- 
laced their  branches  when  sixteen  years  old,  and  the  spaces  between 
the  rows  have  been  covered  in  like  colonnades.  In  the  Haywards 
region  the  branches  of  twelve-year-old  trees  set  twenty-eight 
feet  apart  have  nearly  reached  each  other,  though  continually  cut 
back.  Much  depends  in  the  matter  of  distance  upon  the  manner 
of  handling  the  trees.  The  trees  can  be  grown  much  nearer 
together  by  continuous  pruning  than  where  the  usual  way  of 
cutting  back  for  the  first  few  years  and  letting  the  tree  take  its 
natural  growth  after  that,  is  followed.  James  E.  Gedney,  of  Mesa 
Grande,  San  Diego  County,  practises  close  planting  and  cutting 
back  which  may  work  better  on  his  upland  than  on  deeper,  moister 
soils.    He  says : 


PRUNING    THE    CHERRY 


261 


I  plant  my  trees  twenty  feet  apart  each  way.  My  method  is  to  plan  thus 
closely  and  then  keep  my  trees  low,  by  cutting  back  every  year ;  this  facilitates 
gathering  the  fruit  very  much.  I  prefer  this  way  to  setting  the  trees  farther 
apart  and  allowing  them  to  attain  too  great  a  height.  By  the  former  method 
I  secure  fully  as  good,  if  not  better,  results  per  acre,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
difference  in  gathering  the  fruit.  Another  advantage  in  keeping  the  trees 
headed  low  is  that  the  wind  does  not  affect  them  nearly  as  much  as  it  does 
tall   trees. 

The  best  distances  are  24  or  28  feet  on  such  deep  soils  as  have 
been  described  as  best  befitting  the  tree  and  though  one  may 
fix  his  distance  in  planting  according  to  the  method  of  pruning 
he  proposes  to  follow,  he  should  remember  that  the  cherry  is 
naturally  a  large  tree,  and  most  old  orchards  are  now  overcrowded. 

As  with  other  trees,  orchard  planters  prefer  trees  with  one 
year's  growth  on  the  bud  in  the  nursery,  because  they  usually 
get,  then,  a  straight  switch  with  well-developed  buds  all  the  way 
down,  and  the  head  can  be  formed  as  desired.  For  garden  plant- 
ing, older  trees,  properly  pruned  in  the  nursery,  can  be  used  to 
advantage, 

PRUNING   THE   CHERRY 

All  our  best  growers  agree  in  the  advantage  of  a  low  head 
for  the  cherry,  and  all  aim  to  have  the  trunks  of  young  trees  from 
the  ground  up  to  the  limbs  literally  covered  all  around  with 
leaves,  which  completely  shelter  the  bark  from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
In  planting,  therefore,  the  side  buds  are  carefully  preserved — not 
to  be  grown  into  branches,  but  to  be  cut  or  pinched  back  when 
they  have  come  out  a  few  inches,  leaving  just  growth  enough  to 
clothe  the  tree  with  a  covering  of  its  own  foliage.  These  spurs 
not  only  furnish  leaves  to  shade  the  trunk,  but  soon  become  fruit 
spurs  and  bear  well. 

Low  Heading  with  a  Central  Stem. — Some  of  the  trees  in  the 
older  orchards  have  been  shaped  by  carrying  up  a  leader  with  a 
regular  system  of  side  branches.  Head  back  at  planting  to  two 
feet,  pinching  ofif  the  shoots  below  the  head  as  stated,  and  allow- 
ing the  shoots  which  form  the  head  to  grow  larger,  but  they  too 
are  all  to  be  pinched  except  the  leader,  which  is  allowed  to  grow 
as  long  as  it  pleases  during  the  summer.  During  fall  or  winter 
pruning  cut  back  the  leader  to  about  twelve  or  sixteen  inches 
from  its  starting  point  and  cut  back  the  side  branches  to  about 
six  or  eight  inches.  This  is  done  year  after  year,  cutting  back 
and  thinning  out  the  side  shoots,  pinching  the  laterals,  and  allow- 
ing the  leader  to  grow,  never  interfering  with  it  until  the  winter 
pruning,  and  always  letting  it  predominate  over  the  side  shoots. 
By  cutting  short,  wood  is  increased,  but  at  the  end  of  six  years  the 
tree  goes  into  fruit  very  rapidly.  As  the  tree  increases  in  fruit  it 
decreases  in  wood,  and  by  the  time  it  is  ten  or  twelve  years  old 


202  CALIFOENIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

there  will  be  but  little  cutting  to  do,  except  to  shorten  in  and  thin 
out,  and  this  requires  some  judgment  and  experience,  to  know 
where  to  cut,  how  to  cut,  and  when  to  cut.  To  shorten  in,  never 
cut  down  to  an  old  fruit  spur.  It  is  very  difficult  to  get  healthy 
wood  out  of  such;  but  whenever  you  can  find  last  year's  wood, 
there  you  can  cut  with  safety  anything  that  is  less  than  one  inch 
in  diameter. 

This  system  of  pruning  must  be  accompanied  by  constant 
pinching  during  the  summer-time.  It  should  commence  when 
the  lower  shoots  are  about  six  inches  long,  and  be  followed  up 
closely  all  through  the  growing  season.  Those  on  the  trunk 
should  never  get  longer  than  eight  or  ten  inches,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. After  these  are  pinched,  let  the  trees  rest  ten  or 
fifteen  days,  or  until  the  branches  in  the  top  get  a  good  start. 
Then  pinch  everything  clean  but  the  leader,  in  every  main  branch 
in  the  tree.  The  leader  takes  its  own  way  all  through  the  growing 
season,  to  prevent  the  effects  of  over-pinching  or  checking  growth. 
If  only  the  side  shoots  are  kept  back,  the  leader  or  head  of  the 
branches  receives  the  current  or  flow  of  sap  and  maintains  and 
carries  on  life  and  vitality  in  the  tree.  One  object  in  pinching  or 
spur  pruning  is  to  keep  back  surplus  wood  and  create  fruit  spurs, 
throwing  all  the  little  twigs  and  branches  into  fruit,  thereby  utiliz- 
ing all  the  wood  the  tree  can  produce,  not  allowing  it  to  grow  at 
the  tree's  expense,  and  then  have  to  cut  it  off.  And  another  object 
in  side-shoot  pruning  is  to  make  the  tree  produce  fine  large  cher- 
ries, all  closely  nestling  around  the  big  wood,  and  no  long,  slim 
branches  hanging  down  like  weeping  willow.  All  such  branches 
are  always  more  or  less  sunburnt  on  the  top  and  full  of  worms, 
one  of  the  evils  tending  to  the  destruction  of  the  tree. 

This  method  is  commended  to  those  who  like  a  tree  with  a 
central  leader,  and  are  willing  to  give  their  orchards  such  constant 
attention.  Unless  pinching  and  consequent  multiplication  of  shoots 
and  foliage  is  faithfully  followed  such  a  tree  is  apt  to  become  tall 
and  rangy  and  to  expose  its  bark  all  the  way  up  to  sunburn  and 
borers. 


THE    USUAL    METHOD    OF    PRUNING    THE    CHERRY 

As  we  have  said,  all  cherry  growers  agree  on  low  heading  and 
on  the  advantage  of  pinching  the  lowest  shoots  as  soon  as  they 
make  a  bunch  of  leaves.  In  forming  the  head,  and  in  after  treat- 
ment, the  usual  method  is  quite  different  from  that  we  have 
described.  It  follows  the  vase  or  goblet  form,  which'  has  been 
discussed  at  length  in  the  chapter  on  pruning.  Of  the  application 
of  this  method  to  the  cherry,  W.  W.  Smith,  in  an  address  before 
the  State  Horticultural  Society,  said : 


GRAFTING    THE    CHERRY 


263 


The  cherry  may  be  pruned  the  same  as  any  other  deciduous  fruit  tree  until 
it  is  about  five  years  old;  after  that  the  less  pruning  the  better,  except  when 
necessary  to  cut  out  a  dead  or  crossing  branch.  Pruning  the  cherry  is  more 
or  less  likely  to  produce  gum  (and  this,  decay),  and  should  be  avoided  as  much 
as  possible.  Cherry  trees,  however,  should  be  trained  with  low  heads  not  to 
exceed  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground  to  the  first  branches ;  fifteen  inches 
is  better.  From  three  to  five  branches  are  enougK  to  form  the  head  of  the 
tree;  all  others  should  be  removed  early.  Three  are  better  than  five;  two 
make  a  forked  tree,  which  is  likely  to  split  down  in  after  years. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  season  we  have  a  neat  little  tree  with  three  to 
five  branches.  During  the  following  winter  these  branches  should  be  cut  back 
to  six  to  eight  inches.  The  next  season  these  should  be  allowed  to  produce 
two  branches  each  (no  more)  ;  then,  at  the  end  of  the  second  season  from 
planting  out,  we  have  a  tree  with  from  six  to  ten  branches.  The  following 
winter  the  new  growth  should  be  cut  back  again  to  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches — according  to  the  amount  of  growth  the  tree  makes — the  less  the  growth 
the  more  you  cut.  The  same  process  should  be  repeated  the  following  winter, 
treating  each  branch  as  an  individual  tree,  until  the  tree  is  about  five  years 
old ;  it  takes  at  least  five  years  to  get  the  head  of  a  cherry  well  established. 
After  this,  as  some  varieties  will  persist  in  throwing  out  branches  near  the 
ground,  they  should  be  removed  during  the  summer.  At  this  age  the  tree, 
if  well  grown,  will  have  top  enough  to  shade  its  body  from  the  sun,  and 
there  is  no  further  need  of  branches  on  the  main  trunk. 

It  necessary  to  remove  large  branches  it  should  then  be  done  in  midsummer, 
as  that  is  the  only  season  when  the  gum  is  not  more  or  less  exuded.  We  make 
it  a  rule  to  go  over  and  dress  up  and  prune  our  cherry  orchard  immediately 
after  the  crop  is  gathered — which  in  our  part  of  the  State  is  the  last  of  May. 
All  wounds  made  then  by  the  removal  of  branches  or  otherwise  will  heal 
over  the  same  season.  All  large  wounds  made  at  any  time,  however,  should 
be  coated  over  with  paint. 

The  method  thus  described  by  Mr.  Smith  is  that  by  which 
probably  nine-tenths  of  the  cherry  trees  of  this  State  are  shaped. 

In  the  cherry  there  should  be  the  same  observation  as  to  cutting 
inside  and  outside  buds  as  with  other  trees;  in  fact,  the  outside 
bud  is  the  rule,  because  so  many  varieties  make  a  directly  upward 
growth.  In  removing  limbs,  cutting  to  the  collar  or  swelling  at 
the  base  of  the  limb  is  especially  important,  also  the  covering  of 
the  wound  to  prevent  checking  of  the  wood. 

GRAFTING  OVER  THE  CHERRY 

Since  canning  of  cherries  began  on  a  large  scale,  there  has 
been  a  vastly  increased  demand  for  white  cherries.  The  Royal 
Ann  (  a  local  name  for  Napoleon  Bigarreau)  has  been  the  favorite. 
Other  white  sorts  are  also  used  for  canning.  This  rise  in  favor 
of  the  white  cherries  has  vastly  increased  their  proportionate  pro- 
duction as  compared  with  the  choice  black  and  red  varieties,  which 
are  still  popular  as  table  fruit. 

It  is  the  experience  of  growers  that  the  cherry  is  grafted  over 
as  easily  as  the  pear  or  apple,  if  the  tree  is  healthy.  In  large 
trees  as  many  as  fifty  or  one  hundred  grafts  may  be  set,  choosing 
the  smaller  limbs,  even  if  you  have  to  go  pretty  high  in  the  tree. 
J.  W.  Cassidy,  of  Petaluma,  used  to  advise  grafting  before  the  sap 
begins  to  flow  in  the  winter,  or  if  not  done  then,  wait  until  the 


2g4  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

buds  are  well  advanced  or  the  tree  in  bloom.  He  has  trees  which 
were  over  thirty  years  old  before  they  were  re-headed,  and  they 
made  fine  tops  of  new  and  healthy  wood,  and  produ(5ed  abundantly. 
The  cherry  is  in  fact  a  very  easy  tree  to  graft  by  the  usual  top- 
grafting  methods. 

PESTS   AND   DISEASES   OF  THE   CHERRY 

The  disease  of  the  cherry  which  is  most  heard  of  is  the  "gum," 
or  overflow  and  condensation  of  sap,  which,  if  left  to  itself,  often 
induces  decay  of  adjacent  bark  and  wood.  Without  attempting 
to  explain  the  cause  or  causes  of  the  unhealthy  exudation,  it  may 
be  said  that  prompt  treatment  of  certain  manifestations  is  desir- 
able, and  in  others  the  tree  should  be  cleansed  from  the  flow. 
Where  the  gum  exudes  on  the  side  of  trunk  or  limb,  the  thin 
outer  bark  should  be  pared  away  with  a  sharp  knife,  the  accumu- 
lation of  gum  and  sap  removed,  and  the  wound  painted  with  lead 
and  oil  paint,  or  covered  with  grafting  wax. 

Gum  in  the  crotch  should  be  cleanly  brushed  out  when  soft- 
ened by  the  winter  rains.  If  allowed  to  remain,  it  becomes  sour  and 
offensive  and  may  injure  the  tree.  In  places  where  two  or  three 
limbs  come  out  close  together  a  kind  of  cup  is  formed,  which  will 
hold  the  gum  from  one  year's  end  to  another,  and  in  its  soft  state, 
leaves,  sticks,  cherry  pits,  dust,  and  dirt  will  stick  and  hang  and 
sometimes  the  mass  becomes  very  foul.  By  this  collection  also, 
a  nest  is  made  for  all  manner  of  insects,  bugs  and  worms.  Another 
evil  is  letting  the  gum  stay  on  is,  if  rain  does  not  wash  it  off  clean, 
it  runs  down  the  trunk  of  the  tree  and  makes  the  bark  look  bad, 
and  if  it  is  very  thick  on  the  bark  when  it  dries,  it  will  contract 
and  crack  the  bark  crosswise,  and  is  very  injurious  to  the  tree. 

Gumming  in  the  crotch  can  be  largely  avoided  by  starting 
the  young  cherry  as  advocated  in  the  chapter  on  pruning. 
Branches  which  emerge  from  the  trunk  at  separate  points  and  at 
wide  angles  seldom  gum ;  those  which  are  crowded  together  or 
emerge  at  acute  angles  gum  badly.  In  shaping  young  trees  a 
gumming  joint  sometimes  may  be  clearly  cut  out  and  those 
branches  selected  to  remain  which  start  out  at  a  wider  angle ;  in 
older  trees  there  is  nothing  to  do  but  keep  the  fork  clean,  as  already 
described. 

There  are  cases  reported  in  which  gumming  of  old  trees  has 
been  stopped  by  allowing  the  ground  to  lie  uncultivated,  weeds 
being  cut  down  with  the  hoe.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  cherry  thrives 
with  good  cultivation. 

Die-back  of  the  Cherry. — The  dying  back  of  cherry  branches  is 
more  or  less  common  in  all  regions,  and  the  immediate  cause  thereof 
is  not  known.  It  is  apparently  sometimes  a  root  trouble,  as  is  the 
dying  back  of  other  fruit  trees.     This   might  have   resulted   from 


POPULAR    CHERRIES 


265 


standing  water  in  the  winter  in  the  soil,  although  the  same  condition 
may  result  from  lack  of  sufficient  moisture.  Anything  which  causes 
destruction  of  the  root  hairs  is  apt  to  cause  die-back  and  other 
forms  of  unthrift  in  the  top.  Early  vegetative  activity  in  the 
branch,  followed  by  frost,  seems  also  to  occasion  die-back  in  some 
cases.  Fortunately,  this  can  occur  without  injury  to  the  rest  of 
the  tree,  though  it  is  sometimes  and  in  some  places  destructive  to 
the  tree  in  the  end.  The  only  treatment  is  removal  of  the  aflfected 
wood,  and  if  this  can  be  done  during  the  growing  season,  as  soon 
as  signs  of  injury  appear,  it  is  all  the  better. 

The  Gopher. — One  of  the  most  dangerous  foes  of  the  cherry 
is  the  gopher,  for  he  seldom  takes  less  than  the  whole  tree,  young 
or  old.  Traces  of  his  presence  should  be  constantly  watched  for, 
and  killing  methods  described  in  a  later  chapter  adopted.  If  a 
tree  is  seen  to  wilt  suddenly,  the  probability  is  that  a  gopher  has 
girdled  it.  Covering  the  wound  sometimes  saves  the  tree,  but  not 
usually. 

Insects  injuring  the  cherry  will  be  mentioned  in  a  subsequent 
chapter. 

VARIETIES    OF    THE    CHERRY 

Many  varieties  of  the  cherry  have  been  tested  in  this  State,  and 
many  have  been  abandoned  from  one  cause  or  another.  Those 
most  frequently  starred  in  our  table  are  the  survivors  in  public 
esteem.  As  our  reports  have  come  from  those  who  grow  for 
market,  possibly  some  sorts  are  too  tender  for  shipment,  but  excel- 
lent for  family  use,  are  omitted,  but  will  be  included  in  the  descrip- 
tions which  follow  the  table.  The  claims  to  value  upon  which  a 
variety  is  judged  are  several:  Extra  earliness,  an  important  con- 
sideration in  early  districts  for  shipment,  and  elsewhere  for  local 
sale  or  family  use;  firmness  to  withstand  mechanical  injury  by 
jarring  in  transit  and  durability  to  escape  decay  during  the  long 
journey  to  distant  markets;  firmness  and  fixed  color  to  stand  pro- 
cessing in  the  cannery,  and  to  prevent  coloring  the  juice;  lateness 
to  extend  the  cherry  season. 

In  classification  of  cherries  it  was  originally  considered 
that  there  were  four  classes  of  cherries.  The  Hearts  were  the 
tender  and  half-tender  sweet  cherries,  while  the  Bigarreaux  Avere 
the  firm-fleshed  ones;  but  these  have  been  so  intermingled  and 
blended  together  by  hybridization  that  no  distinct  line  can  now 
be  drawn  separating  them.  There  is  really  but  one  class  of  these, 
whose  main  characteristic  is  the  large,  vigorous  growth  of  the 
tree.  The  Duke  and  Morello  cherries,  also  wanting  a  natural  divis- 
ion, really  constitute  but  one  class. 


2gg  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

In  addition  to  the  old  standard  varieties,  a  number  of  Pacific 
Coast  seedlings  have  become  popular,  and  others  are  very  promis- 
ing. Special  description  of  these  seedlings  will  follow  the  standard 
sorts. 


Cherry  varieties  approved  by  California  growers. 


VARIETY. 

Upper 
Coast 
region. 

* 
* 

* 

• 

* 

** 
** 

* 

* 

** 
* 
• 

Central 
Coast 
region. 

** 

** 

** 
•• 

•* 

•* 

Interior 

valley 

and 

foot-hills. 

* 
** 

* 

* 

* 

•* 

* 

* 
** 

* 

** 
** 

* 

* 

** 
• 

Mountain 
valleys     Southern 
and       California, 
plateaux. 

* 

Bing 

Bl'k  Heart  (B.  Bigarreau) 

Burr's  Seedling 

Centennial 

Chapman      

• 

• 

9                                      • 

Cleveland  

Early  Purple  Guigne 

Elton 

•  •                                     • 

• 

Knight    (Early) 

* 

Lewelling  ('B,  Republican) 
Mezel       

♦ 

Napoleon  (Royal  Ann) 

Nonpariel 

•  *                                  •• 

Rockport 

Schmidt 

Spanish    (Yellow) 

Tartarian    (Black) 

Paul 

**                                  •« 

Wood  (Governor) 

•                                     • 

Buttner's    Yellow. 

Eugenie 

May  Duke 

Morello 

Olivet 

Richmond 


*  Indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designat(id. 
**  Most  highly  commended. 


BIGARREAU    AND    HEARTS 

Early    Lamaurie. — Fruit    large,    dark    purple;    flesh    rich,  juicy,    excellent. 

Downing   says    a    week   earlier    than    Early    Purple    Guigne.  Has    proved    the 

earliest  cherry  in  the  University  collection  at  Berkeley,  and  in  Vacaville   dis- 
trict.    Not  fully  tested  as  to  regular  bearing. 

Guigne  Marbree. — "Fruit  medium  large,  round,  skin  dark  red ;  flesh  purplish 
red,  tender,  juicy,  delicate  flavor." — Gillet.  "A  better  bearer  than  Early  Purple 
Guigne."—^.  W.  Smith. 

Baumann's  May  (Early  Black  Guigne). — Rather  small,  deep  rich  red, 
becoming  rather  dark  when  fully  ripe;  tender,  juicy,  tolerably  sweet  and  good. 

Early  Purple  Guigne. — Small  to  medium  size;  purple;  tender,  juicy,  and 
sweet.  This  variety  is  considered  the  earliest  good  cherry.  It  is  reported  a 
shy  bearer  in  some  localities. 


CHERRIES    GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA  267 

Belle  d' Orleans. — Above  medium  size,  roundish,  heart-shaped;  whitish  yel- 
low, half  covered  with  pale  red,  very  juicy,  sweet  and  excellent. 

Early  White  Heart. — Below  medium  size,  rather  heart-shaped,  skin  dull 
whitish  yellow,  tinged  and  speckled  with  pale  red  in  the  sun;  flesh  melting, 
sweet,   and  pleasant   when   fully   ripe. 

White  Tartarian. — Fruit  of  medium  size,  obtuse  heart-shaped;  skin  pale 
yellow;  stalk  slender;  flesh  whitish  yellow;  half  tender  and  very  sweet. 

American  Heart. — Fruit  pretty  large,  heart-shaped,  often  nearly  four-sided 
and  irregular  in  outline  borne  in  clusters;  flesh  half  tender;  skin  strong  and 
adhering  to  flesh. 

Werder's  Early  Black. — An  early  variety,  moderately  productive ;  tree 
vigorous,  spreading;   fruit  large,  black,  tender,   sweet  and  excellent. 

Knight's  Early  Black. — "Large,  black,  tender,  juicy,  rich,  and  excellent;  high 
flavor ;  a  shy  bearer  until  the  trees  attain  age." 

Rockport  Biggareau. — Large;  pale  amber  in  the  shade,  light  red  in  the  sun; 
half  tender,  sweet  and  good ;  a  very  excellent  and  handsome  cherry ;  good 
bearer ;  highly  esteemed  for  canning  and  shipping. 

Coe's  Transparent. — Medium  size  pale  amber,  red  and  mottled  next  the 
sun;  tender,  sweet  and  fine. 

Cleveland  Bigarreau. — A  thrifty,  strong,  spreading  grower,  and  productive ; 
large ;  clear  red  and  yellow ;  juicy,  sweet,  and  rich. 

Black  Tartarian. — Fruit  of  the  largest  size,  bright  purplish  black.  Flesh 
purplish,  thick,  juicy,  very  rich  and  delicious.  Tree  a  remarkably  vigorous, 
erect,  and  beautiful  grower,  and  an  immense  bearer ;  the  best  of  the  black 
cherries. 

Governor  Wood. — Large ;  light  yellow  shaded  with  bright  red ;  flesh  nearly 
tender,  juicy,  sweet,  rich  and  delicious ;  a  vigorous  grower  and  very  productive. 

Elton. — Large,  pointed;  pale  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  light  red;  juicy, 
with  a  rich  and  luscious  flavor;  one  of  the  best. 

Black  Eagle. — A  very  excellent  English  variety,  ripening  in  June;  large 
size,  deep  purple,  or  nearly  black;  flesh  deep  purple,  tender,  with  a  rich,  high- 
flavored   juice. 

American  Amber. — Fruit  medium  sized,  roundish,  heart-shaped;  skin  thin, 
smooth,  light  amber;  delicately  mottled  and  overspread  with  bright  red;  flesh 
tender  and  juicy,  but  not  high  flavored. 

Yellow  Spanish  (Bigarreau  Grafiion). — Large;  pale  yellow,  with  red  cheek 
in  the  sun;  flesh  firm,  juicy,  and  delicious;  one  of  the  best,  most  beautiful, 
and  popular  of  all  light-colored  cherries. 

Mezel,  Monstreuese  de  (Great  Bigarreau). — A  foreign  variety  of  the  largest 
size;  dark  red  or  quite  black;  firm  and  juicy;  late. 

Pontiac. — Large ;  dark  purplish  red ;   half  tender,  juicy,  and  agreeable. 

Burr's  Seedling. — Large;  yellow,  shaded  with  red;  sweet  and  rich  vigorous 
and  great  bearer  apparently  does  better  near  the  coast  than  in  the  interior. 

Oxheart. — Fruit  large,  obtuse,  heart-shaped ;  skin  dark  red ;  flesh  red,  half 
tender,  with  a  pleasant  juice  of  second  quality. 

Napoleon  Bigarreau  (Royal  Ann). — A  magnificent  cherry  of  the  largest 
size;  pale  yellow,  becoming  amber  in  shade,  richly  dotted  and  spotted  with 
deep  red,  and  with  a  bright  red  cheek;  flesh  very  firm,  juicy  and  sweet.  Tree 
a  free  grower  and  an  enormous  bearer. 

Tradescant's  Blackheart  (Elkhorn,  Black  Bigarreau). — Large,  heart-shaped; 
deep,  glossy  black;  very  solid  and  firm;  dark  purple,  moderately  juicy. 

Schmidt's  Bigarreau. — "A  new  German  variety  lately  introduced.  The 
largest  of  all  the  Black  Bigarreau  cherries.  Skin  of  a  deep  black  color;  flesh 
dark  and  very  juicy,  with  a  fine  flavor." — John  Bidwell. 


2gg  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

DUKES    AND    MORELLOS 

Early  Richmond  (Kentish). — An  early,  red,  acid  cherry;  valuable  for  cook- 
ing early  in  the  season. 

Eugenie. — Medium  large ;  heart-shaped  ;  amber  red  ;  good  quality ;  early. 

May  Duke. — An  old,  well-known,  excellent  variety;  large,  dark  red,  juicy, 
subacid,  rich. 

Arch  Duke. — Fruit  large,  obtuse,  heart-shaped;  bright  red  becoming  dark; 
flesh  light  red,  melting,  juicy,  rich,  sub-acid  flavor,  very  good;  tree  more 
upright  and  vigorous  than  May  Duke. 

Late  Duke. — Fruit  large,  flattened  or  obtuse,  heart-shaped ;  white,  mottled 
with  red,  becoming  rich  dark  red  when  ripe;  flesh  yellowish,  tender,  juicy; 
hangs  long  on  the  tree. 

Reine  Hortense. — "It  is  one  of  the  very  largest  of  cherries ;  a  beautiful, 
glossy  red,  or  deep  pink,  when  fully  ripe;  heart-shaped;  a  universal  bearer, 
and  when  hanging  on  the  tree  no  fruit  is  more  beautiful;  excellent  for  canning, 
but  too  soft  and  juicy  for  shipment." — W.   W.  Smith. 

English  Morello. — Large,  dark  red,  nearly  black;  tender,  juicy,  rich,  acid, 
productive  and  late. 

Guigne  Noir  Luisante  (Black  Spanish). — Fruit  medium  size,  round,  heart- 
shaped,  glossy,  blackish  red;  flesh  reddish  purple,  tender,  juicy,  rich  acid. 

Belle  Magnifique.— Fruit  large,  roundish,  inclined  to  heart-shape;  skin  a  fine 
bright  red;  flesh  juicy,  tender,  with  sprightly  sub-acid  flavor;  one  of  the  best 
of  its  class ;  a  fine  table  fruit  when  fully  ripe. 

Buttner's    Yellow. — Medium,    roundish;    clear   yellow;   firm;   late. 

PACIFIC    COAST    SEEDLINGS 

Lewelling — Black  Republican  (Black  Oregon). — "Seedling  by  Seth  Lcwell- 
ing,  Milwaukee,  Oregon,  from  seed  planted  in  i860;  first  fruited  in  orchard  in 
1864.  Widely  distributed  in  California.  Large,  black,  sweet,  with  purple  ilesh  ; 
ripens  ten  days  after  Black  Tartarian." — James  Shinn.  "Large,  late  black 
cherry,  good  flavor,  long  keeper;  dries  and  ships  well.  Seems  to  succeed 
better  on  footrhills  than  in  the  valley." — Robert  Williamson.  "Supposed  to 
be  a  cross  between  Napoleon  Bigarreau  and  Black  Tartarian,  having  the  solid 
flesh  of  the  former  and  the  color  of  the  latter ;  very  late." — John  Rock.  'I  am 
of  the  opinion  that  the  Black  Republican  and  Lincoln  came  from  the  seed  of 
the  Black  Eagle,  but  I  have  little  idea  of  what  variety  they  were  crossed  with." 
— Seth  Lewelling. 

Bing. — Originated  by  Seth  Lewelling,  from  seed  of  Black  Republican.  "Fruit 
large,  dark  brown  or  black,  very  fine;  late;  a  good  shipping  variety." — Seth 
Lewelling.  Tree  vigorous,  and  foliage  heavy.  Fruit  ripens  so  that  trees  can 
be  cleaned  at  one  picking. 

Centennial. — A  seedHng  of  Napoleon  Bigarreau,  raised  by  Mr.  Henry  Chap- 
man, in  Napa  Valley,  and  fruited  by  him  for  the  first  time  in  1876.  Propa- 
gated and  introduced  by  Leonard  Coates,  then  of  Napa,  in  1885.  It  is  larger 
than  its  parent,  more  oblate  in  form,  and  beautifully  marbled  and  splashed 
with  crimson  on  a  pale  yellow  ground;  exceptionally  sweet  and  of  remarkable 
keeping  quality.  Described  by  Committee  of  American  Pomological  Society 
(1885)  as  follows:  "Size  large,  slightly  oblate;  amber,  with  dark  crimson 
marbling;  flesh  firm,  sweet,  and  rich;  quality  best;  condition  excellent  (after 
crossing  continent  by  mail),  showing  its  good  shipping  quahties."  The  Cen- 
tennial has  been  little  planted  recently,  because  of  superiority  of  Royal  Ann. 

California  Advance. — Originated  by  W.  H.  Chapman,  of  Napa,  propagated 
by  Leonard  Coates,  then  of  Napa.  Seedling  of  Early  Purple  Guigne,  ripens 
one  week  earlier  than  its  parent  is  larger  and  more  obtuse,  rounded  form,  and 
said  to  be  a  heavier  bearer ;  dark  purple  turning  black ;  rich  and  sweet,  aiid 
of  good  degree  of  firmness. 


PACIFIC    COAST    CHERRIES  269 

The  Oregon. — Seedling  of  Napoleon  Bigarreau,  by  H.  W.  Prettyman,  of 
East  Portland,  and  named  by  Oregon  State  Horticultural  Society  in  1888; 
described  as  larger  than  Napoleon ;  firm ;  dark  red ;  "fit  to  eat  earlier  than 
Napoleon,  but  coming  to  full  maturity  somewhat  later."  Introduced  in  1888 
by  W.  S.  Failing,  Portland. 

Lambert. — Seedling  of  J.  H.  Lambert,  Milwaukee,  Oregon,  1887;  presented 
to  Oregon  State  Horticultural  Society ;  right  to  propagate  sold  to  Oregon 
Nursery  Co.,  1896,  and  introduced  by  this  company;  very  large,  roundish, 
heart-shaped ;  stem  long,  slender,  suture  medium  depth,  acid ;  smooth,  glossy, 
dark  purplish ;  red  flesh  dark  purplish  red,  firm  flavor  rich,  quality  good.  Ripens 
ten  days  to  two  weeks  after  Black  Tartarian. 

Atidreivs. — Fruited  French  seedling  about  1896  by  C.  N.  Andrews,  Red- 
lands.  Grown  in  mountain  valley  near  Redlands.  Apparently  a  fine  shipping 
variety  locally  named  after  the  grower. 

Paul. — Found  by  E.  V.  D.  Paul  of  Ukiah  on  place  purchased  by  him  and 
previous  owner  could  not  account  for  its  presence.  Very  large,  black,  mottled 
with  dark  red;  late;  remarkable  shipping  endurance  demonstrated;  diploma 
at  Oregon  Cherry  Fair,  1907.  Propagated  and  introduced  by  Leonard  Coates 
Co.,  Morgan  Hill,   California,   1908. 

Nonpareil. — Originated  at  Vaca  Orchard ;  a  fine,  black,  shipping  cherry, 
owned  by  Earl   Fruit  Company  of  Vacavilk   and  not  distributed. 

Oregon  has  been  prolific  in  originating  new  varieties  of  the 
cherry  which  are  locally  popular,  but  only  a  few  have  established 
themselves  in  California. 


CHAPTER   XX 
THE  PEACH 

Until  the  great  prune  planting  passion  of  the  decade  ago  the 
peach  was  the  greatest  deciduous  fruit  of  California  judged  by  the 
total  number  of  trees  in  service.  When  the  boom  impression 
went  forth  that  cured  prunes  could  be  put  up  in  sacks  more  cheaply 
than  wheat,  people  took  to  planting  prune  orchards  by  the  sec- 
tion all  through  the  wheat  districts  of  the  great  valley,  and  boom 
planters  even  carried  the  trees  where  no  one  would  think  of  plant- 
ing wheat — cutting  up  shallow-clay  upland  sheep  pastures  and 
even  yucca  sand  wastes  into  prune-growing  colonies.  Under  such 
planting  propositions  it  is  little  wonder  our  nurseries  sold  prune 
trees  for  twice  the  normal  prices  and  still  could  not  fill  the  demand. 
Figures  of  prune  trees  in  orchards  rushed  far  beyond  the  peach 
figures.  This  overplanting  of  prunes  naturally  brought  loss  and 
disappointment,  and  interest  turned  again  to  peach  planting,  so 
that  now  the  peach  has  secured  notable  advance  beyond  the  prune, 
as  shown  by  statistics  in  Chapter  VI.  During  the  last  three  years 
the  peach  has  had  the  call,  the  nurseries  have  had  difficulty  in 
keeping  up  with  the  planting  demand  for  certain  varieties,  which 
will  be  discussed  later,  and  the  peach  has  demonstrated  its  right 
to  attain  again  its  old  position  by  possession  of  a  greater  acreage 
than  is  given  to  any  other  deciduous  fruit. 

The  peach  was  the  first  fruit  to  ripen  on  the  improved  trees 
brought  here  by  the  early  American  settlers,  and  the  magnificence 
of  the  peach  was  consequently  the  key-note  of  the  refrain  which 
greeted  the  ears  of  the  world  in  which  the  California  gold  cry  was 
ringing  early  in  the  fifties.  In  fact,  the  gold  from  the  mine  and  the 
gold  from  the  tree  were  very  nearly  related.  In  old  Colma,  where 
gold  was  discovered,  there  was  a  peach  tree  which  bore  four  hundred 
and  fifty  peaches  in  1854,  which  sold  foiv$3j00  each,  or  $1,350  for  the 
crop  of  the  one  tree,  and  in  1855,  six  trees  bore  one  thousand  one 
hundred  peaches,  which  sold  for  $1.00  each.  Some  of  these  pioneer 
trees  are  said  to  be  still  living  and  bearing  fruit. 

LONGEVITY   OF  THE   PEACH   IN   CALIFORNIA 

There  are  many  other  facts  to  establish  the  claim  that  the 
peach  tree,  if  planted  in  a  suitable  soil  and  situation  and  cared  for 
with  any  devotion  and  skill,  is  not  a  short-lived  tree  in  California. 
California  is  too  young  to  mark  the  limits  of  its  duration,  but  there 

270 


I 


LONGEVITY    OF    THE    PEACH  271 

are  instances  in  the  earliest-settled  places  in  the  State,  where  peach 
trees  above  fifty  years  old  are  still  vigorous  and  productive.  Some 
trees  have,  in  fact,  gone  along  in  thrift  until  they  have  a  bark  below 
which  looks  like  that  of  a  forest  tree,  and  a  framework  of  main 
branches  sound  and  stalwart  throughout  because  they  have  never 
been  allowed  to  sunburn  until  protected  by  their  own  roughness, 
and  have  never  been  pruned  with  an  axe,  and  never  lost  a  limb 
nor  had  a  wound  into  which  decay  could  penetrate  and  descend  to 
the  root.  When  the  peach  has  a  fair  chance  in  its  aerial  parts  and 
is  in  a  soil  which  favors  health  of  the  roots,  it  shows  itself  to  be 
very  long  lived  in  California.  Where  trees  break  to  pieces 
and  show  decay  wounds,  they  are  in  bad  places  and  have  suffered 
through  natural  stress  or  have  been  weakened  by  cultural  errors. 

In  favorable  soils  the  peach  is  stronger  and  longer  lived  in 
the  root  than  in  the  top,  and  sometimes  triumphs  over  neglect  by 
discarding  its  old,  wind-broken,  sun-burned  and  bark-bound 
branches,  and  forms  a  new  head  of  its  own.  Such  renewal  is  some- 
times very  rapid.  In  the  interior  valley  new  shoots  on  a  cut-back 
Muir  tree  have  grown  twelve  feet  in  one  season,  with  a  thickness 
of  one  and  one-half  inches  at  the  base.  Such  shoots  will  bear  the 
following  summer.  It  is  through  this  disposition  to  renewal  of 
good  wood  that  the  intelligent  system  of  pruning  which  is  now 
prevalent,  ministers  to  the  longevity  as  well  as  the  profitability  of 
the  tree,  aiding  it  to  constantly  renew  its  youth  by  restraining  its 
exuberance,  and  at  the  same  time  furnishing  it  sound  new  wood 
on  which  to  grow  its  fruits  and  foliage.  But  while  these  are  facts, 
there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  point  at  which  an  old 
tree  becomes  less  valuable  than  a  young  one.  Along  the  Sacra- 
mento River  some  count  about  a  dozen  good  crops  as  the  limit,  and 
thus  replace  the  trees  when  about  fifteen  years  of  age.  This  is  a 
point  which  may  vary  greatly,  according  to  local  conditions. 

Early  Productiveness. — Quite  as  important  as  the  longevity  of 
the  peach  tree  are  the  facts  of  its  rapid  growth  and  early  produc- 
tiveness. It  is  the  first  of  our  fruit  trees  to  attain  size  and  yield 
a  profitable  crop.  In  localities  best  suited  to  its  growth  it  will 
mature  some  fruit  the  second  summer  in  the  orchard  if  the  small 
shoots  are  not  pruned  away  from  the  main  branches,  and  during 
the  third  summer  averages  of  forty  to  fifty  pounds  per  tree  have 
been  secured  from  considerable  acreages.  These  facts  are  stated 
to  show  what  the  peach  of  good  variety  may  do  in  a  good  situation 
and  soil  and  with  the  best  of  care.  Of  course  they  are  not  to  be 
taken  as  average  results,  although  greater  than  those  given  are 
sometimes  attained.  For  example,  on  the  rich,  alluvial  land  near 
Visalia,  an  Admiral  Dewey  yearling  tree  planted  in  March,  1904, 
had  in  October,  1905,  attained  these  dimensions:  near  the  ground 
the  trunk  was  eleven  and  three-quarter  inches   in  circumference, 


272 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


branching  two  feet  from  the  ground  it  had  four  main  branches, 
each  seven  inches  in  circumference;  height  of  tree,  twelve  feet; 
spread  of  branches,  ten  feet.  It  grew  near  a  crack  in  a  cement 
ditch  and  so  had  all  the  moisture  it  could  use,  and  being  in  a  free, 
open  soil  was  not  impaired  by  standing  water. 

As  for  possible  productiveness  of  the  peach,  one  Susquehanna 
tree  in  Kern  county  yielded  twenty-seven  forty-five  pound  picking- 
boxes — twelve  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  in  one  crop — about  four 
times  as  much  as  good  trees  may  average. 


LOCALITIES   FOR  THE   PEACH 

The  peach  has  a  wide  range  in  California,  and  finds  many  dis- 
tricts suited  to  it  in  the  several  ways  in  which  the  trade  delights 
in  it.  As  compared  with  the  apricot,  the  peach  thrives  in  the 
sheltered  valleys  of  the  district  north  of  the  bay  and  west  of  the 
Coast  range,  in  which  the  apricot  is  of  little  commercial  moment; 
it  yields  those  peerlessly  beautiful  "mountain  peaches"  from  one 
to  two  thousand  feet  higher  in  the  vSierra  foot-hills  than  the  apri- 
cot can  be  trusted;  it  goes  everywhere  in  the  lower  foot-hills  and 
over  the  great  valleys  that  the  apricot  will  go,  and  beyond  it  also, 
because  it  is  less  restless  in  the  spring  and  escapes  some  frosts 
which  injure  apricots.  Counted  from  trees  in  orchard  the  peach 
is  about  three  times  as  great  as  the  apricot. 

Nearly  every  county  in  California  reports  the  possession  of 
peach  trees.  Above  an  elevation  of  four  thousand  feet  on  the  sides 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  they  may  be  subject  to  winter  killing,  and 
lower  still  careful  choice  of  situation  has  to  be  made  to  avoid 
frosts  at  blooming-time — the  peach  in  such  places  being  subjected 
to  some  dangers  which  beset  it  in  the  eastern  States.  Below 
these  points,  however,  lies  the  great  fruit  belt  of  the  foot-hills  of 
the  Sierra,  where  the  peach  is  the  chief  fruit  grown  and  its  excel- 
lence is  proverbial.  Size,  beauty,  richness,  delicacy  of  flavor  and 
firmness,  which  endures  carriage  to  the  most  distant  markets,  are 
all  characteristics  of  the  foot-hill  peaches  of  California. 

In  the  great  interior  valleys  of  the  State  wherever  proper  con- 
dition of  soil  and  water  supply  can  be  found,  the  peach  also  thrives, 
the  tree  making  a  wonderfully  quick  and  large  growth,  and  the 
fruit  a^ttaining  great  size.  The  San  Joaquin  Valley  is  the  greatest 
peach  district  in  the  State. 

In  the  small  valleys  on  the  west  of  the  great  valley  and  on  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range,  there  are  also  extensive  areas 
suited  to  the  peach,  and  sheltered  places  on  the  eastern  and  western 
edges  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  have  produced  the  earliest  fruit 
for  a  long  series  of  years.    Recently  the  contest  for  the  earliest  fruit 


SITUATIONS    FOR    THE    PEACH  273 

of  these  districts,  with  the  foot-hill  district  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Sacramento  Valley  and  special  locations  in  the  upper  San  Joaquin 
Valley,  has  been  quite  close. 

In  the  coast  valleys,  opening  upon  San  Francisco  Bay  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  the  peach  is  also  a  leading  fruit.  Its  success  is  great- 
est, however,  where  good  shelter  is  had  from  direct  coast  influences. 
Even  where  open  to  these  influences,  good  peaches  can  be  grown 
by  choosing  the  smaller  range  of  varieties,  which  do  well  by  pro- 
tecting the  trees  from  harsh  winds,  and  by  seeking  elevation  above 
depressed  valleys,  whose  frosts  are  frequent.  The  occurrence  of 
curl-leaf  is  a  factor  of  much  importance,  which  will  be  considered 
presently.  In  the  coast  counties  north  of  the  Russian  River  Valley 
the  danger  to  the  peach  from  unfavorable  atmospheric  conditions 
increases  as  one  goes  northward,  and  situations  must  be  chosen 
with  greater  care.  And  yet  by  such  exercise  of  care,  peaches  for 
home  use  and  local  markets  can  be  successfully  grown. 

South  of  San  Francisco  Bay  the  coast  influences  soften  as  you 
proceed  southward,  and  the  peach  draws  nearer  to  the  ocean, 
choosing,  however,  elevations,  and  avoiding  broad,  wind-swept 
areas  and  narrow  defiles  where  drafts  and  fogs  are  frequent.  At 
considerable  elevations,  as  on  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains,  some 
varieties  of  peaches  are  notably  excellent.  The  general  rule  holds 
with  the  peach,  as  with  other  fruits,  that  coast  influences  retard 
ripening  and  the  season  of  the  fruit  is  late. 

In  some  valleys  and  at  elevations  in  southern  California  the 
peach  is  largely  grown  and  high  excellence  attained  while  on  the 
mesas  and  plains  there  is  often  too  high  a  temperature  which  starts 
growth  out  of  season  and  follows  with  dormancy  and  die-back 
when  the  tree  .ought  to  be  most  active.  It  has  recently  been  demon- 
strated that  varieties  like  Luken's  Honey,  descended  from  the 
Peen-to  or  flat  peach  of  China,  resist  such  irregularities  better  than 
the  common  sorts  which  are  largely  of  Persian  origin. 

SOILS  AND  EXPOSURES  FOR  THE  PEACH 

Though  the  suitability  of  soils  for  the  peach  can  be  somewhat 
extended  by  the  choice  of  stock  for  budding  upon,  as  will  be  con- 
sidered presently,  its  range  of  soils  is  narrower  than  that  of  the 
apricot.  The  best  peach  soils  are  light,  deep,  sandy  loams,  rather 
dry  than  moist,  but  under  all  circumstances  well  drained.  It  will 
thrive  on  land  with  a  considerable  mixture  of  coarse  sand  or  gravel, 
providing  it  contains  also  needed  elements  of  fertility ;  for  the  rapid 
growth  and  heavy  fruitage  of  the  "peach  requires  abundant  nutri- 
tion. Though  it  accepts  coarse  materials  both  iji  soil  and  subsoil, 
it  relishes  fine  sediment  and  perhaps  finds  no  more  congenial  loca- 
tion than  in  the  deep,  sandy  loam,  or  sedimentary  deposit  border- 


274 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


ing  the  creek  beds  of  our  warm  valleys,  and  will  send  its  roots 
deep  to  secure  long  life  and  abundant  fruitage.  Such  soils,  whether 
along  existing  streams  or  deposited  by  prehistoric  water  courses, 
which  have  left  their  mark  by  the  elevated  ridges  of  rich  sediment 
above  the  prevailing  valley  soils,  are  warm,  deep,  and  thoroughly 
drained,  and  delight  the  peach.  Peaches  are  grown  very  success- 
fully on  what  is  called  hard-pan  in  some  parts  of  Fresno  County, 
providing  the  hard-pan  is  blasted  as  described  in  Chapter  XL  In 
these  situations  the  hard-pan  is  near  the  surface  and  has  a  deep, 
free  soil  below  it  into  which  the  roots  can  extend. 

At  elevations  on  the  hillsides  there  are  free  loams  which  result 
from  decomposition  of  the  underlying  rocks,  and  on  them  the  peach 
thrives,  both  where  the  soils  themselves  are  deep  and  where  the 
underlying  rock  is  loose  and  open,  permeable  by  roots  and  afiford- 
ing  escape  for  water.  Success  has  been  reported  even  when  holes 
are  partly  excavated  in  these  rotten  rocks,  as  in  the  soft  sand  rock 
on  the  hills  east  of  Vaca  Valley,  or  in  the  broken  chalk  rock  in 
what  is  called  Blackburn  Gulch,  near  Santa  Cruz.  The  superior 
warmth  of  such  soils  is  supposed  to  minister  to  earlier  ripening 
of  the  fruit,  though  the  escape  from  cold  air  by  elevation  is  no  doubt 
a  greater  factor  to  the  end. 

The  influence  of  comparatively  slight  difference  in  elevation  is 
very  marked.  E.  R.  Thurber,  of  Pleasant  Valley,  Solano  County,* 
had  for  many  years  a  plat  of  peach  trees  on  a  natural  terrace  about 
seventy-five  feet  higher  than  the  general  level  of  his  orchard.  On 
the  terrace  peaches  ripen  and  are  disposed  of  before  the  same 
varieties  ripen  in  the  orchard  below. 

As  in  the  valley  a  short  distance  to  water  is  to  be  avoided,  so 
on  the  hills  too  great  percolation  from  higher  levels  is  undesirable. 
Of  course  natural  defects  of  this  kind  can  be  corrected  by  ade- 
quate under-drainage. 

Still,  though  such  be  the  general  soil  conditions  best  suited  to 
the  peach,  the  tree  can  be  well  grown  for  home  use  or  local  markets 
on  somewhat  heavier  soil,  providing  there  is  good  drainage,  but 
drainage  must  be  insisted  upon,  for  thousands  of  trees  have  per- 
ished because  planted  in  retentive  soils  without  drainage.  Alkaline 
soils  which  are  usually  rather  heavy  should,  however,  be  avoided, 
as  the  peach,  when  grown  on  its  own  roots,  seems  to  be  of  all 
fruits  most  sensitive  to  alkali. 

As  to  exposures  for  the  peach  the  same  rules  hold  as  for  other 
fruits  which  are  liable  to  injury  when  in  bloom  or  young  foliage. 
Thus  low  places  where  cold  air  settles  should  be  avoided,  also  low 
gulches  through  which  cold  drafts  prevail.  In  frosty  situations  an 
incline  away  from  the  morning  sun  will  often  allow  the  trees  to 
escape  serious  injury. 


GROWING    PEACH    TREES 


PROPAGATION   AND    PLANTING 


275 


The  chapter  on  propagation  gives  the  general  method  of  grow- 
ing and  budding  peach  seedlings.  In  selecting  pits,  preference  is 
usually  given  to  those  from  strong-growing,  yellow  peaches,  at 
least  for  working  on  the  same  colored  fruit,  while  others  use  pits 
of  the  Morris  White,  others  the  Strawberry,  and  others  still  will 
use  only  pits  frorrt  vigorous  seedling  trees.  In  this  State  the 
peach  is  usually  so  healthy  and  vigorous,  and  the  "yellows  '  not 
known,  and  less  care  may  be  needed  in  selecting  pits;  still,  there 
is  certainly  nothing  lost  by  making  every  effort  for  a  good  stock. 

The  hard-shell  sweet  almond  has  long  been  used  as  a  stock 
for  the  peach.  It  is  held  that  it  gives  a  hardier,  stronger  root,  in 
dry  soils  especially. 

When  it  is  desired  to  grow  the  peach  on  moister  soil  than  suits 
its  own  roots,  the  St.  Julian  plum  may  be  used.  The  Myrobalan 
has  been  used  to  some  extent,  but  experience  generally  does  not 
favor  any  plum  stock  for  the  peach  and  our  largest  propagators 
have  abandoned  its  use. 

The  so-called  ''peach-almond"  has  often  been  urged  as  a  stock 
for  the  peach  but  has  been  little  used,  probably  because  the  straight 
peach  and  straight  almond  are  so  satisfactory  and  available.  It 
is  a  fruit  having  the  pit  of  a  peach  but  the  pericarp  of  an  almond, 
that  is  tough  and  tasteless  and  disposed  to  split  like  an  almond 
hull.  Early  in  the  fifties  a  chance  hybrid  of  this  sort  appeared  in 
the  nursery  of  W.  B.  West,  of  Stockton,  and  its  pits  were  used  for 
nursery  seedlings  which,  when  budded  to  the  peach,  produced  good 
trees.  Trees  bearing  the  peach-almond  are  found  here  and  there 
over  the  State.  Mr.  Burbank  has  produced  a  hybrid  of  the  Wager 
peach  and  the  Languedoc  almond. 

Distance  in  Orchard. — Distance  observed  in  planting  peach 
orchards  differs  greatly,  according  to  the  views  of  different  growers. 
Regarding  the  peach  as  a  catch  crop  to  plant  between  apricot, 
pear,  cherry,  walnut,  fig  or  other  slower-growing,  larger  trees,  the 
trees  may  be  set  comparatively  close;  that  is,  with  the  latter  trees 
at  thirty  to  forty  feet,  and  alternate  rows  of  peach  planted  quin- 
cunx, and  to  be  removed  at  the  end  of  ten  to  fifteen  years.  If  the 
peach  is  to  have  the  ground  to  itself,  some  planters  plant  at 
eighteen  feet  in  equilateral  triangles,  or  twenty,  to  twenty-four 
feet  on  the  squares,  the  present  tendency  with  the  peach,  as  with 
other  trees,  being  to  give  more  room  than  was  the  custom  a  few 
years  ago. 

Age  of  Trees. — In  planting  peach  orchards  yearling  trees  are 
generally  used,  although  far  more  are  planted  in  dormant  bud 
than  of  any  other  kind  of  fruit  trees.  The  reason  for  this  is  easily 
found  in  the  disposition  of  the  peach  to  make  a  tree  the  first  3^ear 


27g  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

from  the  bud.  It  sp-rings  almost  at  once  into  a  full  outfit  of  lat- 
erals. Some  growers  employ  this  disposition  to  form  a  head  the 
first  year  in  the  nursery.  When  the  bud  has  grown  out  eighteen 
inches,  pinch  it  off  at  the  top  and  force  out  laterals,  which  make 
long  growth  the  same  season.  When  planted  but  in  orchard  the 
following  winter,  cut  back  to  ten  or  twelve  inches.  In  this  any 
one  can  get  a  yearling  with  the  equivalent  of  a  two-year-old  head 
on  it.  The  common  practice  is,  however,  to*let  the  growth  from 
the  bud  proceed  as  it  chooses,  and  when  the  yearling  is  set  in 
orchard,  cut  back  to  a  single  bud  the  laterals  which  are  desired 
to  form  the  head  and  removing  others.  If  there  is  a  dormant  bud 
on  the  stem  where  a  branch  is  desired  and  it  is  obstinate  in  not 
starting,  a  cross-cut  through  the  baik  just  above  it  may  concen- 
trate pressure  and  force  it  out.  The  development  of  form  from  a 
yearling  branched  in  the  nursery  is  illustrated  in  chapter  on  prun- 
ing. 

Recently  preference  has  arisen  for  smaller  trees  for  transplant- 
ing and,  especially  in  the  foot-hills,  June  buds,  described  in  the 
chapter  on  propagation,  are  largely  employed. 

Planting  Dormant  Buds.— The  chapter  on  planting  describes 
the  planting  of  yearling  trees.  The  lifting  of  dormant  buds  from 
the  home  nursery  and  planting  in  orchard  is  described  by  P.  W. 
Butler,  of  Placer  County,  as  follows : 

Have  the  ground  prepared  and  stakes  placed  in  position  in  the  orchard  in 
early  February,  if  possible,  and  begin  the  planting  at  once,  while  the  trees  are 
in  dormant  bud.  Take  no  more  trees  from  the  nursery  than  can  be  planted 
in  half  a  day.  Plow  a  furrow  on  each  side  of  the  row,  six  inches  from  the 
trees,  turning  the  soil  from  them,  then  two  men  with  heavy  spades  or  shovels, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  tree,  can  readily  take  it  up  without  breaking  many 
of  the  roots ;  and  what  are  so  broken  should  be  smoothly  trimmed  with  a 
sharp  knife.  Place  the  trees  in  a  tub  of  water,  near  where  they  are  to  be 
planted,  and  take  from  it  only  a  few  at  a  time.  Put  them  in  a  basket  or 
box  and  cover  with  wet  sack,  that  they  may  be  kept  moist  until  placed  in  the 
ground. 

On  planting,  place  the  bud  one  inch  below  the  level  of  the  ground,  but 
do  not  cover  it  until  after  it  has  grown  to  the  height  of  a  few  inches.  The 
stock  should  be  cut  off  at  the  bud  with  a  thin,  sharp  knife  (and  not  with 
shears,  as  is  often  done,  as  the  latter  method  will  sometimes  split  the  tree), 
when  it  will  take  in  moisture  and  not  heal  readily. 

Some  growers  do  not  cut  back  the  young  seedling  tree  until 
growth  has  started  out  well  on  the  dormant  bud. 

Rather  more  care  is  needed  in  handling  dormant  buds  both  in 
planting  and  in  their  young  life  in  the  orchard.  Lookout  must 
be  kept  for  suckers  and  against  injury  in  cultivation.  Success  with 
dormant  buds  is  notable.  In  good  hands  they  commonly  out- 
grow yearlings  planted  at  the  same  time,  and  the  percentage  of 
loss  from  failure  of  the  bud  to  start  is  very  small.  Of  course 
every  bud  should  be  examined  before  planting,  to  see  that  it  has 
a  healthy  color. 


SHAPING    THE    PEACH    TREE 


277 


In  the  selection  of  peach  trees  for  planting,  a  clean,  healthy 
root  only  should  be  taken.  During  recent  years  there  have  been 
a  good  many  young  roots  afifected  with  knots  or  swellings  from 
some  obscure  cause.  Such  trees  should  be  burned.  If  planted, 
the  knot  sometimes  grows  to  an  enormous  size  and  little  or  no  top 
growth  is  made. 


PRUNING  THE    PEACH 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  peach  will  carry  a  top  of  great 
fruiting  longevity  if  the  grower  will  do  justice  to  the  tree  by  reg- 
ular shortening  of  the  growth  and  forcing  out  new  wood,  upon 
which  alone  fruit  is  found.  Not  only  does  regular  pruning  do  this, 
but  it  promotes  longevity  and  vigor  in  the  framework  of  the  tree 
upon  which  these  bearing  shoots  come.  Left  unpruned,  the  peach 
soon  becomes  bark-bound,  and  the  bark  itself  becomes  hardened 
and  brittle.  Lower  shoots  are  apt  to  give  out,  and  the  tree  becomes 
an  umbrella  of  foliage  and  fruit  held  aloft  by  bare  branches  bark- 
burned  by  the  sun,  invaded  by  borers,  exuding  gum,  covered  with 
moss  and  lichens — a  picture  of  distress  and  unprofitability  because 
its  owner  does  not  give  the  tree  a  chance  to  re-invigorate  itself 
with  large  fresh  leaves  from  the  new  wood  which  alone  can  carry 
them. 

As  has  been  advised  for  other  trees,  the  peach  should  be  given 
a  low  head,  developed  as  described  in  the  chapter  on  pruning.  In 
its  after-treatment,  it  has  been  the  universal  experience  that  con- 
stant ''heading'  in"  is  essential  to  the  strength  and  health  of  the 
tree.  This  also  has  been  considered  in  an  earlier  chapter.  Illus- 
trations of  the  pertinence  of  these  remarks  are  found  in  the  practice 
of  the  most  successful  peach  growers  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  A 
few  instances  will  be  given : 

'The  peach,  fruiting  only  on  wood  of  the  previous  year's  growth,  bears 
fruit  farther  away  from  the  body  of  the  tree  each  year,  and  the  small  shoots 
of  from  one-eighth  to  three-sixteenths  in  diameter  begin  to  decline  when 
the  fruit  is  removed.  To  have  healthy  growth,  all  of  these  small  branches 
must  be  removed  the  first  winter  following  their  fruiting,  when  there  is 
a  greater  tendency  to  form  small  new  growths,  which  may  fruit  the  following 
season.  In  the  peach,  it  will  seldom  be  found  necessary  to  remove  any 
interior  branches,  except  suckers,  until  they  have  produced  a  crop,  when 
they  will  begin  to  decline  and  should  be   removed. 

"I  would  certainly  not  cut  peach  trees  back  less  ^  than  one-half  of  the  new 
growth  in  the  winter  pruning,  and  our  trees  are  getting  too  large  for  their 
age  even  with  that  amount  of  pruning.  This  has  suggested,  in  other  localities, 
summer  pruning  or  shortening  in,  with  success  in  some  places.  So  far  my 
own  experience  is  favorable.  It  will  be  noticed  on  trees  kept  growing  rap- 
idly that  the  fruit  buds  are  near  the  ends  of  the  shoots,  and  it  seems  to  take 
away  too  many  of  these  buds  to  cut  back  one-half  in  the  winter  pruning, 
but  by  cutting  back  about  one-half  the  new  growth  in  August,  fruit  buds 
are  developed  lower  down,  and  where  they  would  not  be  developed  without 
tlie  summer  pruning." — H.  Culbertson,  El  Cajon    San  Diego  County. 


.,   > 

'  .2 

i     G 


THINNING    PEACHES  279 

"Prune  the  peach  every  year,  cutting  back  and  thinning  out  the  center, 
using  great  care  not  to  cut  out  too  many  of  the  Httle  fruit  shoots  of  new- 
wood  growing  on  the  main  branches,  but  removing  the  slender  branches  of 
the  old  wood,  leaving  as  many  branches  of  the  new  growth  as  the  tree  will 
support.  In  this  case  judgment  must  be  used  as  to  what  the  tree  will 
support.  The  soil  may  be  w^et  or  dry,  rich  or  poor,  the  grower  must  be  the 
judge.  To  grow  small  fruit,  prune  lightly;  to  grow  large  fruit,  prune  with 
care  and  judgment.  To  get  this  judgment  you  must  have  some  practical 
experience.  I  prefer  doing  the  work  when  the  sap  begins  moving  in  the 
spring  of  the  year.  All  cuts  heal  over  better  then  and  the  pruner  can  see 
how  the  buds  are  setting  and  use  his  own  judgment  as  to  how  much  wood 
he  wants  to  cut  out." — R.  C.  Kells,  Yuba  City,  Sutter  County. 

"Cutting  back  the  peach  must  be  more  severe,  as  the  growth  of  the  new 
wood  diminishes.  Not  more  than  five  or  six  fruit  buds  should  be  left  on 
a  shoot,  and  if  the  fruit  all  sets,  it  must  be  also  thinned.  The  trees  should 
be  trained  low  and  their  vigor  encouraged  by  permitting  a  reasonable  amount 
of  young  shoots  to  grow  around  the  lower  part  of  the  main  limbs.  When 
this  method  is  continued  systematically  every  season,  the  trees  will  bear 
large  crops  of  fruit,  of  good  quality,  for  many  years.  When  they  are  allowed 
to  overbear  for  one  or  two  seasons,  the  fruit  will  decrease  in  size,  and  soon 
become  almost  worthless ;  the  trees  will  be  enfeebled,  and  in  consequence 
very  liable  to  be  attacked  by  disease.  The  only  thing  to  be  done  in  this  case 
is  to  cut  off  the  whole  top  of  the  tree,  allowing  it  to  form  a  new  head.  I  have 
seen  old  peach  orchards  thus  renovated,  and  the  results  are  often  very  flat- 
tering, but  it  is  far  better  not  to  allow  them  to  get  into  a  condition  where  this 
desperate  remedy  is  necessary." — Leonard  Coates,  Morgan  Hill. 

Cutting  Back  the  Peach  Is  not  Shearing. — Some  undertake  the 
annual  pruning  of  the  peach  by  a  shearing  process,  treating  a  fruit 
tree  as  one  would  a  hedge — cutting  everything  to  a  line.  There 
has  been  a  good  deal  of  this  done  in  California,  but  it  is  wrong 
nevertheless.  Shortening  in  the  new  growth  of  the  peach  each 
year  is  proper  practice.  It  is  the  first  step  toward  preventing  over- 
bearing of  small,  unmarketable  fruit  and  saving  the  tree  from 
profitless  and  injurious  effort.  Thinning  the  shoots  by  removing 
all  but  one  when  two  or  three  start  from  the  same  point  is  also 
working  toward  large  fruit  and  regular  bearing  in  the  tree.  This 
shortening  and  thinning  of  the  new  wood  must  also  be  followed 
by  thinning  of  the  young  fruit  just  after  the  natural  drop  and  it  is 
seen  that  the  tree  carries  too  many.  Proper  pruning  can  not  be 
done  by  shearing  because  it  is  apt  to  shorten  the  strong  shoots 
too  much  and  the  weak  shoots  too  little.  Each  shoot  must  be 
cut  by  itself  according  to  its  growth  and  its  ability  to  carry  more 
or  less  fruit.  Shearing,  too,  does  not  thin  out  the  shoots  but  con- 
tinually multiplies  them  until  the  tree  is  full  of  brush  as  a  hedge. 


THINNING   PEACHES     • 

Thinning  out  fruit  on  the  peach  tree  is  not  only  the  secret  of 
obtaining  good,  marketable  fruit,  but  joins  hands  with  pruning  in 
preserving  the  health  and  future  production  of  the  tree.  The 
importance  of  thinning  has  been  urged  in  a  previous  chapter,  but 
the  following  is  a  very  strong  statement,  by  Mr.  Culberston : 


280 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


In  my  own  experience  there  is  no  single  operation  in  connection  with 
fruit  growing  of  more  importance  than  thinning.  The  past  season,  in  order 
to  test  the  difference  in  expense  of  preparing  large  and  small  peaches  for 
drying,  I  timed  the  cutting,  and  found  it  took  double  the  time;  hence,  double 
the  expense,  which  meant  a  difference  of  about  $15  per  ton  of  dried  fruit. 
Add  to  this  a  difference  of  two  cents  per  pound  in  price  makes  $55  per 
ton.  Suppose  an  orchard  under  good  treatment  produces  a  ton  of  peaches 
to  the  acre,  then  $55  would  represent  the  difference  in  profits.  Unthinned  or 
small  fruit  is  certainly  undesirable. 

As  to  how  much  thinning  should  be  done  there  are  diverse  opinions. 
Some  take  off  one-half,  others  three-fourths.  Some  growers  thin  to  meet 
a  certain  ideal,  but  find  it  difficult  to  explain  in  words.  The  common  rule 
if  leaving  a  specimen  of  fruit  every  four  or  six  inches  is  a  safe  rule ;  that 
means  many  must  come  off.  Different  conditions  of  soils,  climates  and  irri- 
gation vary  the  amount  to  thin  out  more  or  less.  More  may  be  left  where 
the  tree  is  on  land  giving  a  strong,  vigorous  growth. 

In  thinning  peaches  I  have  been  practicing  a  method  that,  gives  good 
results  and  is  easily  learned.  The  peach  bears  on  three  sizes  of  branches, 
that  are  one-eighth,  three-sixteenths,  and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  first  has  two  peaches,  the  second  three,  and  the  third  four ;  this,  of 
course,  after  there  has  been  a  judicious  course  of  pruning  and  the  trees 
under  irrigation ;  trees  on  dry  land  should  have  only  one-half  as  many  left. 
To  reach  this  result  often  a  dozen  may  have  to  come  off,  allowing  only  two 
to  remain.    The  more  there  are  the  greater  necessity  for  thinning. 

The  time  for  thinning  peaches  is  as  soon  as  one  can  be  sure  which  are 
likely  to  remain  on  the  tree  and  which  will  drop  of  their  own  accord. 

IRRIGATION    OF    THE    PEACH 

As  the  peach  is  the  greatest  deciduous  fruit  of  the  interior  val- 
leys and  foot-hills,  it  is  also  the  deciduous  fruit  which  is  chiefly 
grown  with  irrigation.  Most  of  the  specific  conclusions  set  forth 
in  Chapter  XV.  are  based  upon  experience  with  the  peach  and  the 
reader  is  advised  to  consider  them  from  that  point  of  view.  One 
of  the  most  important  points  of  success  in  irrigating  the  peach  is 
to  use  enough  water  earlier  in  its  growth  so  that  application  need 
not  be  made  within  about  three  weeks  of  ripening.  Enough  water 
before  that  will  usually  insure  size  on  properly  thinned  trees  and 
the  withholding  of  water  near  ripening  will  secure  good  quality. 
After  the  crop  is  gathered,  irrigation  can  be  resumed  to  continue 
the  late  summer  growth  for  next  year's  fruit  buds  and  to  save  the 
tree  from  injury  during  the  long  autumn  drouth. 

WORKING    OVER    PEACH    TREES 

The  fashion  in  peaches  changes  from  time  to  time  according 
to  the  demands  of  the  canners  of  the  market  for  dried  fruit.  The 
grower  often  finds  varieties  which  he  first  selected,  less  healthy, 
less  productive,  or,  for  other  reason,  less  desirable  than  others. 
There  is,  therefore,  often  occasion  for  working  over  trees.  Bud- 
ding is  often  resorted  to,  buds  being  successfully  set  in  quite  old 
wood,  providing  buds  from  well-matured  wood  are  taken.  Wood 
buds  from  young  trees  unaccompanied  by  fruit  are  best,  but 
because  of  greater  certainty  of  securing  the  variety  desired,  it  is 
common  to  take  wood  and  fruit  buds  together  from  bearing  trees. 


I 


GRAFTING    THE    PEACH 


281 


A  larger  cut  of  bud  and  adjacent  bark  is  taken  when  working  in 
old  bark  than  for  use  on  seedlings.  When  a  branch  is  budded,  it 
is  sometimes  broken  at  a  distance  beyond  the  bud  and  allowed  to 
hang,  the  idea  being  to  furnish  the  bud  some  but  not  too  much  sap. 
Some  growers  thus  bud  and  break  part  of  the  branches,  allow- 
ing others  to  remain  unworked,  to  maintain  the  growing  processes 
of  the  tree.  These  branches  and  those  in  which  buds  have  not 
taken,  are  cut  off  and  grafted  the  following  spring.  The  almond 
is  successfully  grafted  over  with  the  peach,  and  this  course  has  been 
followed  with  thousands  of  unproductive  almonds. 

Grafting  the  Peach. — Grafting  the  peach  by  the  ordinary  top- 
grafting  with  a  cleft  graft  seldom  succeeds.  A  side  graft  with 
saw  and  knife  is  better.  It  is  described  by  J.  W.  Mills,  formerly  of 
the  University  Branch  Experiment  Stations,  in  southern  California, 
as  follows : 

Saw  grafting  is  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  cleft  grafting,  for  it  does  away 
with  all  difficulties  arising  from  splitting  and  there  is  no  cavity  left  in  the 
heart  of  the  limb  or  tree.  The  process  is  to  saw  off  the  limb  at  the  desired 
place  as  in  cleft  grafting,  then  saw  across  the  corner  and  down  the  side  at 
an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  and  trim  out  with  a  sharp  knife.  Place  the 
knife  blade  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  saw  cut,  a  little  farther  from  the  edge 
at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and  by  pressing  on  the  knife  the  whole  sides 
of  the  crevice  will  be  trimmed  smoothly  at  one  stroke ;  this  operation  repeated 
on  the  other  side  of  the  saw  cut  will  make  a  neat  notch  in  the  end  of  a 
solid  limb.  By  cutting  a  little  deeper  from  the  saw  cut  at  the  top  than  at 
the  bottom,  and  if  the  amateur  does  not  trim  his  scion  at  the  right  angle,  he 
can  insert  it  gently  in  the  crevice  or  notch  and  see  just  where  to  trim.  If  he 
is  so  slow  that  the  fresh  cut  shows  signs  of  discoloration,  he  can  make  a 
fresh  surface  by  placing  his  knife  parallel  to  the  edges  and  shaving  off  a  thin 
slice.  He  still  retains  the  same  angle,  but  the  scion  will  set  a  little  deeper, 
which  is  no  objection.  By  cutting  a  thin  layer  off  the  top  of  the  stump 
next  to  the  notch  will  show  exactly  where  the  inside  layer  of  bark  is.  The 
inside  of  the  scion  must  be  even  with  the  inside  layer  of  the  bark  of  the 
stump  or  limb  that  is  being  grafted.  If  the  scion  is  inclined  slightly  out  or 
in  at  the  top,  it  will  make  a  correct  union  at  some  point  and  be  sure  to 
grow.  If  the  inclination  is  very  slight  the  union  will  extend  over  con- 
siderable length  and  will  make  a  much  better  start  than  if  the  union  is  at 
only  one  point,  owing  to  the  enlarged  surface  through  which  the  sap  is 
transmitted.  One  of  the  most  important  points  in  grafting  is  to  have  good 
wax  and  go  over  the  grafts  a  few  days  after  they  are  put  in  and  rewax  them. 

DISEASES    OF   THE    PEACH 

Curl-Leaf. — The  most  prevalent  trouble  with  the  peach  tree  in 
California  is  the  curl-leaf.  It  was  noticed  from  the  first  planting 
of  peach  trees  by  Americans,  nearly  sixty  years  ago,  and  free  con- 
jecture as  to  its  cause  was  indulged  in  until  it  was  shown  to  be 
a  specific  fungus,  and  its  prevention  by  washes  of  fungicidal 
character  demonstrated.  The  treatment  will  be  described  in  the 
chapter  on  tree  diseases.  The  facts  of  its  occurrence  may  be  stated 
as  follows : 

Curl-leaf  is  much  more  prevalent  in  some  sections  than  others, 
and  in  one  place  than  another  in  the  same  section,  and  some  sec- 


232  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

tions  are  practically  free  from.it.  Some  varieties  are  much  more 
subject  to  curl-leaf  than  others;  generally  speaking,  some  curl 
nearly  everywhere,  others  curl  in  one  place  and  not  in  another, 
others  are  practically  free  from  curl  in  all  situations. 

Curl-leaf  occurs  in  various  degrees.  Mild  cases  do  not  seem 
to  injure  either  tree  or  fruit;  severe  cases  destroy  the  fruit  and 
sometimes  the  tree  itself.  The  disease  is  almost  always  at  its 
height  when  the  young  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  small  peas.  If  the 
curl  is  ''bad,"  the  fruit  will  fall  to  the  ground,  there  not  being 
healthy  leaves  enough  to  afford  the  required  support.  If,  however, 
the  curl  is  moderate  and  partial,  only  a  part  and  sometimes  none 
of  the  fruit  will  be  lost.  The  disease,  as  is  well  known,  is  of  brief 
duration,  say  twelve  to  twenty  days^  after  which  the  trees  resume 
a  healthy  appearance  in  every  respect,  and  if  the  fruit  has  been 
able  to  survive  the  ordeal,  it  also  appears  to  grow  and  become  as 
perfect  as  if  no  check  had  been  given  to  its  growth.  But  it  is 
better  to  save  the  tree  the  burden  of  a  new  foliage  growth. 

Mildew. — This  disease,  which  occurs  in  the  form  of  whitish 
felted  patches  on  leaf  and  twig  early  in  the  spring,  and  finally 
affects  the  fruit,  has  long  been  troublesome  in  this  State,  and 
occurs  on  certain  susceptible  varieties  in  many  localities  from  the 
coast  to  the  Sierra  foot-hills.  Observation  in  this  State  has  fully 
affirmed  the  statement  of  Downing,  that  the  serrate,  glandless- 
leaved  varieties  are  liable,  and  those  with  good  glands  on  the  leaf 
stems  are  free. 

The  conclusion  would  be  that  where  mildew  prevails,  varieties 
with  serrate,  glandless  leaves  should  be  avoided.  But  it  has  been 
found  that  some  glandless-leaved  varieties,  although  subject  to 
mildew,  resist  curl-leaf.  Therefore  it  may  be  worth  while  to  com- 
bat the  mildew.  This  has  been  done  effectually  by  treatment  which 
will  be  described  in  a  later  chapter. 

As  with  curl-leaf,  mildew  is  prevalent  some  years  and  slight  in 
others. 

The  most  serious  disease  which  has  thus  far  stricken  the  peach 
in  California  is  locally  known  as  the  ''peach  blight,"  the  work  of 
a  shot-hole  fungus  {coryneum).  This  also  has  been  satisfactorily 
checked  by  spraying  as  will  be  described  in  the  Chapter  on  Dis- 
eases of  Trees  and  Vines. 

A  common  trouble  of  the  peach  known  as  "split-pit,"  has 
recently  been  studied  by  the  California  Experiment  Station  and 
the  tentative  conclusion  has  been  reached  that  split-pits  are  physio- 
logical phenomena  and  not  caused  by  disease  germ.  Whether  this 
abnormal  growth  is  due  to  weakness  of  variety  or  to  cultural  con- 
ditions is  not  determined.  It  is  true  that  varieties  differ  in  amount 
of  splitting,  and  selection  is  being  made  to  some  extent  on  that 
basis. 


LEADING    CALIFORNIA    PEACHES  OR^ 

Peach  varieties  approved  by  California  growers. 


VARIETIES. 


Alexander 

Amsden 

Albright 

Bergen 

Bilyeu 

Briggs's    May 

California  Cling 

Decker 

Early  Charlotte 

<  Early  Crawford 

Early    York 

Elberta  

Foster 

George  Fourth 

George's  Late  Cling 

Gen.     Bidwell 

Globe  

Golden  Cling  (Sellers).. 

Hale's  Early 

Heath    Cling.. 

Henrietta  (Levy's) 

Honest  Abe 

Honey    (Lukens') 

Imperial 

Indian  Blood 

Jones's  Large  Early 

LaGrange  

Late  Crawford 

Lemon  Cling 

*.  Lovell 

McDevitt   Cling 

McClish    Cling 

McKevitt   Cling 

Mary's    Choice 

Morris's  "White 

Muir 

Newhall 

Nicholl's  Cling 

Oldmixon    Free 

Orange    Cling 

Peento  

Persian  Cling 

*^Phillips's    Cling 

Piquet's  Late 

Runyon's  Orange  Cling. 

Salway    

Smock 

Snow    

St.  John 

Strawberry 

Stump    

Susquehanna  

Triumph 

Tuskena   (Tuscan) 

Wheatland 

Wylie    Cling 

Yellow  Tuscany 


Upper 

Central 

Interior 

Mountai 

n 

coast 

coast 

valley  and 

valley 

Southern 

valleys. 

valleys. 

foot-hill. 

region. 

California. 

* 

* 

** 
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* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

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** 

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* 

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** 

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;;;;;; 

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* 

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** 

*  Indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designated. 
**  Most  highly  commended. 


284 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


VARIETIES   OF  THE   PEACH 

Nearly  all  varieties  of  the  peach  have  been  tried  in  California, 
and,  as  with  other  fruits,  it  has  been  found  that  varieties  must 
be  chosen  with  reference  to  their  success  in  special  locations. 
Choice  has  also  to  be  made  according  to  the  purpose  of  the  grower, 
whether  for  early  marketing,  for  sale  to  canners,  for  drying,  or 
distant  shipment  or  for  late  marketing.  As  with  apples,  there  is 
little  use  of  planting  early  varieties  (unless  it  be  for  home  or  local 
use)  except  in  very  early  regions.  An  early  peach  from  a  late 
region  is  killed  by  competition  with  better  middle  season  sorts 
from  the  earlier  regions. 

Dates  of  Ripening  of  Leading  Varieties. — The  relative  ripening 
of  a  large  number  of  peach  varieties,  as  noted  at  the  University 
Experiment  Station,  at  Pomona,  will  be  useful  to  planters  in  determ- 
ining proper  succession  of  varieties,  although  of  course  the  exact 
dates  will  not  widely  apply. 

VARIETY.                                                  First  flower.  Full  flower.  Ripe. 

Briggs's  Red  May March  4  March  24  June  16 

Amsden's  June  March  8  March  25  June  17 

Alexander   . March  17  March  31  June  17 

Large  Early  York March  4  March  18  July    15 

Yellow  St.  John March  4  March  12  July    17 

Crawford's  Early March  2  March  15  July    21 

Foster March  4  March  15  July    21 

Oldmixon  Free March  7  March  IS  July    25 

Morris  White March  4  March  15  Aug.     3 

Muir March  8  March  23  Aug.     5 

Susquehanna  March  4  March  14  Aug.     5 

Crawford's   Late    March  2  March  14  Aug.     8 

Newhall    March  4  March  14  Aug.     8 

Runyon's   Orange   Cling March  2  March  14  Aug.     8 

California  Cling March  2  March  16  Aug.  12 

Stump  the  World March  2  March  16  Aug.  12 

Lovell Feb.  28  March     9  Aug.   13 

Nichols's  Orange  Cling March  4  March  14  Aug.  14 

Seller's  Cling  March  2  March  14  Aug.  14 

MoDevitt's  Cling March  2  March  18  Aug.   16 

McKevitt's  Cling   March  2  March  19  Aug.   19 

Wilkins's  Cling March  3  March  14  Aug.  20 

Indian  Blood   March  5  March  25  Aug.  20 

Yellow  Tuscany  Cling March  5  March  19  Aug.  21 

Lemon  Cling March  14  April        1  Aug.  21 

Smock's  Late  Free March  4  March  18  Aug.  28 

Picquet's  Late March  5  March  18  Sept.     1 

Staley's  California March  2  March  15  Sept.     6 

Henrietta  (Levy's)   March  6  March  15  Sept.  15 

Heath's  Cling March  7  March  14  Sept.  15 

Salway  March  7  March     9  Sept.  18 


In  an  early  region  one  can  plant  early,  middle,  and  late  varieties 
to  advantage,  and  thus  secure  a  very  long-fruiting  season.  The 
peach  season  in  interior  districts  begins  at  the  first  of  June  with 
the  Alexander,  and  continues  to  the  end  of  November  with  local 


DESCRIPTIONS    OF    PEACHES  285 

seedlings — giving  six  months  of  peaches.  Of  course  the  very  early 
and  very  late  sorts  are  only  of  use  for  marketing  as  table  fruit. 
The  most  important  series  is  a  fine  succession  of  mid -season 
peaches  suitable  either  for  canning,  drying,  or  distant  shipment. 
Such  a  selection  can  be  made  from  the  tables  and  descriptions 
which  w^ill  be  given  later. 

Color  is  a  most  important  item  in  the  peach.  While  canners 
and  Eastern  shippers  use  the  beautiful  v^hite  peaches  to  advantage, 
the  fashion  for  canning  and  drying  is  nov^  strong  in  support  of 
the  yellow-fleshed  clingstone  varieties.  The  yellow  freestone 
peaches  are  also  in  greatest  demand.  The  color  about  the  pit  is 
also  an  important  point.  Canners  demand  a  peachj  whether  white 
or  yellow,  which  is  almost  free  from  color  at  the  pit,  because  the 
extraction  of  the  red  color  dyes  the  juice;  in  drying,  the  demand 
just  now  is  for  a  yellow  peach  with  a  red  center,  because  the  colors 
give  the  dried  fruit  a  more  attractive  appearance.  Of  course  there 
is  a  market  for.  dried  white  peaches  but  the  preference  is  for  the 
yellow. 

A  succession  of  yellow  freestones  very  popular  in  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  is  the  following:  Foster,  Wheatland,  Elberta, 
Muir,  Lovell,  Late  Crawford,  Salway.  A  succession  of  yellow 
clingstones  is  this:  Tuskena,  Seller's  Runyon's,  McDevitt's,  Hen- 
rietta, Phillips.  The  two  most  popular  white  clings  in  the  same 
region  are  McKevitt's  and  Heath. 

In  the  enumeration  following  the  table  only  those  seedlings 
which  are  now  commercially  propagated  are  included.  Many 
which  were  prominent  ten  years  ago  have  been  dropped  by  this 
test.  The  writer  has  record  of  many  others  some  of  them  likely 
to  rise  to  important  place,  which  are  reserved  until  after  further 
trial. 

The  following  are  the  peaches  chiefly  grown  in  California, 
arranged  approximately  in  the  order  of  ripening: 

Brigg's  Red  May  (California). — Originated  as  a  chance  seedling  in  nursery 
row,  on  the  farm  of  John  G.  Briggs,  on  the  Feather  River,  about  one  mile  from 
Yuba  City,  about  1870.  It  was  found  to  be  about  ten  days  earlier  than  the 
Early  Tillotson,  which  was  then  the  stand-by  for  an  early  peach.  Fruit  medium 
to  large,  round;  white  skin  with  rich,  red  cheek;  partially  free,  a  standard 
early  variety;  subject  to  mildew. 

Jones'  Large  Early  (New  York). — Large,  roundish,  flattened,  white  with 
deep  crimson. 

Alexander  (Illionis). — Most  widely  grown  as  best  early  variety.  Fruit 
medium  to  large;  greenish  white,  nearly  covered  with  deep  red;  flesh  firm, 
juicy,  and  sweet;  bears  transportation  well;  pit  is  partly  free. 

Triumph  (Georgia). — Medium  sized,  early,  yellow,  partial  cling,  very  good. 

Anisden  (Missouri). — Resembles  preceding,  but  averages  smaller;  claimed  by 
some  to  be  slightly  earlier ;  rather  less  liable  to  curl-leaf. 

Honey  (Lukens). — Medium,  oblong  pointed,  white  mottled  carmine;  very 
sweet,  related  to  Peen-to. 


286 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Peen-to. — Flat  peach  or  saucer  peach  of  China;  good  in  Southern  California. 

Early  Imperial  (California). — Originated  by  W.  W.  Smith,  Vacaville,  and 
planted  to  secure  a  yellow  freestone  earlier  or  larger  than  St.  John.  Most 
growers  find  it  no  improvement  on  St.  John. 

Yellow  St.  John  (New  Orleans). — Earliest  yellow  peach;  averages  smaller 
than  Yellow  Crawford,  but  classed  as  large ;  roundish,  orange  yellow  with  deep 
red  cheek;  juicy,  sweet  and  high  flavored;  freestone. 

Hale's  Early  (Ohio). — Medium  to  large,  nearly  round;  skin  greenish,  mostly 
covered  and  mottled  with  red  when  ripe;  flesh  white,  melting,  juicy,  rich  and 
sweet ;  fair  for  local  market  and  shipping ;  widely  grown ;  freestone. 

Strawberry  (New  Jersey). — Medium  size,  oval;  stem  cavity  deeply  sunk; 
suture  extending  half  way  round ;  skin  almost  wholly  marbled  with  deep  red ; 
flesh  whitish,  juicy,  rich  and  delicate ;  tree  healthy. 

Bergen's  Yellow  (New  York). — Large,  roundish;  suture  deep;  orange  yellow, 
red  cheek;  approved  in  Southern  California. 

Foster  (Massachusetts). — Uniformly  large,  slightly  flattened;  slight  suture; 
stem  moderately  depressed;  flesh  yellow,  very  rich  and  juicy;  color  deep  orange, 
dark  red  in  the  sun;  freestone;  tree  hardy  and  productive;  very  widely  grown 
in  California  and  popular.  Ripens  before  Early  Crawford,  which  it  sometimes 
resembles,  but  is  of  better  quality. 

^Crawford's  Early  (New  Jersey). — Very  large,  oblong,  swollen,  point  at  the 
top  prominent,  suture  shallow  skin  yellow,  with  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  rich, 
and  excellent ;  freestone ;  tree  very  healthy  and  productive ;  probably  the  most 
largely  planted  variety  in  California. 

George  the.  Fourth  (New  York). — Large,  round,  deeply  divided  by  broad 
suture  sides  unequal ;  skin  pale  yellowish  white,  dotted  with  red  and  red  cheek ; 
flesh  pale,  red  at  pit,  from  which  it  parts  freely;  quality  good.  Somewhat 
troubled  with  curl-leaf. 

Snow  (American). — Large,  globular;  skin  clear,  beautiful,  almost  wholly 
white;  flesh  white  to  the  free  stone,  juicy,  rich  and  sprightly. 

Mary's  Choice  (New  Jersey). — Large,  yellow,  resembling  Early  Crawford, 
but  ripening  later. 

Red  Cheek  Melocoton  (American). — Large,  roundish  oval,  swollen  point  at 
top;  yellow,  with  deep  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  red  at  stone,  which  is  free,  juicy, 
good  flavor.    Approved  in  Humboldt  and  San  Benito  Counties. 

^Tuskena  (Alabama  or  Mississippi). — Wrongly  called  "Tuscan"  and  "Tustin" 
Cling  in  this  State ;  largely  planted  in  interior  valleys  and  foot-hills ;  very  large 
yellow  cling;  the  earliest  fine  cling  variety;  very  valuable  for  early  shipping. 
Ripens  with  Crawfords  Early. 

Oldmixon  Free  (American). — Large,  roundish  or  slightly  oval  greenish  or 
yellowish  white,  marbled  with  red ;  flesh  white,  tender,  and  excellent,  juicy 
and  rich ;  high  flavor. 

Honest  Abe  (California). — "Originated  at  Healdsburg,  Sonoma  County. 
Large,  yellow,  with  red  cheek;  best  quality;  ripens  between  Crawford's  Early 
and  Late.     Does  not  curl." — James  Shinn. 

Morris  White. — Large,  oval ;  skin  white  with  creamy  tint  when  fully  ripe ; 
flesh  white  to  the  stone,  which  is  free;  melting,  juicy,  sweet,  and  rich;  especially 
good  for  home  use  and  canning;  somewhat  subject  to  curl-leaf. 

Wager  (New  York). — Lemon  yellow  tinged  with  red;  flesh  yellow,  rich, 
juicy,  sweet,  excellent,  having  much  the  appearance  and  flavor  of  apricots;  stone 
small  and  free  from  the  flesh ;  quality  best. 

(^ Muir  (California). — Originated  as  chance  seedling  on  the  place  of  John  Muir, 
near  Silveyville,  named  and  first  propagated  by  G.  W.  Thissell,  of  Winters. 
Fruit  large  to  very  large ;  perfect  freestone ;  flesh  clear  yellow,  very  dense,  rich 
and  sweet;   pit  small;   tree  a  good  bearer  r.nd   strong  grower,   if  on   rich   soil. 


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233  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

to  which  it  is  best  adapted  free  from  curl  in  Vacaville  district;  fruit  a  good 
shipper  and  canner  and  pecuHarly  adapted  to  drying  because  of  exceptional 
sweetness  and  density  of  flesh ;  yield,  one  pound  dry  from  less  than  five  pounds 
fresh.  One  of  the  best  CaHfornia  seedlings.  Claimed  by  some  to  be  identical 
with  Wager. 

Muir  variations  with  large  flowers,  with  fruit  like  Muir  but  not  splitting  at 
pit,  reported  by  W.  A.  Rosander,  Kingsburg,  A.  S.  Coon,  Fresno,  and  H.  R. 
Shaw,  Selma. 

Muir  Cling  by  W.  R.  Fletcher,  Green  Valley,  Sonoma  County.  Commended 
by  Green  Valley  Cannery ;  propagated  by  A.  F.  Scheidecker,  Santa  Rosa,   T907. 

Wheatland  (New  York). — Large,  roundish;  skm  golden  yellow,  shaded  with 
crimson.;  flesh  yellow,  rather  firm,  juicy,  sweet,  and  of  fine  quality. 

^Elberta  (Georgia). — Very  large;  round-oval  with  deep  suture;  golden-yellow, 
faint  red  stripes;  flesh  yellow,  fine,  juicy,  rich  and  sweet;  tree  prolific;  perfect 
freestone. 

Newhall  (California). — "Originated  with  Sylvester  Newhall,  of  San  Jose. 
Very  large;  skin  yellow,  with  a  dark  red  cheek;  flesh  deep  yellow,  juicy,  and 
a  rich,  vinous  flavor ;  ripens  about  one  week  before  Crawford's  Late ;  tree 
very  hardy,  healthy,  vigorous,  and  not  affected  by  curl ;  freestone." — John  Rock. 

Stump  the  World  (New  Jersey). — Large,  strong;  skin  creamy  white,  with 
bright  red  cheek;  flesh  white,  juicy  and  high  flavored.  Commended  for  family 
use  by  the  Southern  California  Nurserymen's  Association.  Curls  somewhat  in 
some  localities ;  freestone. 

Crazvford's  Late  (New  Jersey). — Very  large,  roundish,  yellow  with  dark  red 
cheek;  flesh  deep  yellow,  juicy,  and  melting;  flavor  rich  and  excellent;  a  pop- 
ular and  widely-grown  variety,  but  very  subject  to  curl-leaf  in  some  localities; 
freestone. 

Lemon  Clingstone  (South  Carolina). — Large,  lemon-shaped  or  oblong,  having 
large,  projecting,  swollen  point  like  a  lemon ;  skin  fine  yellow ;  flesh  firm,  yellow 
with  sprightly  vinous  subacid;  slightly  red  at  the  pit,  which  adheres  firmly. 

Orange  Clingstone. — Large,  round;  suture  distinctly  marked  and  extending 
nearly  around  the  fruit ;  no  swelling  at  apex,  like  Lemon  Clingstone ;  deep  orange 
color,  with  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  firm,  juicy,  with  rich  flavor;  somewhat  sub- 
ject to  mildew.  Though  largely  grown,  this  variety  has  been  largely  supplanted 
by  the  following  sub-varieties,  which  are  seedlings  from  it. 

Sellers'  Golden  Cling  (California). — Originated  on  the  farm  of  S.  A.  Sellers, 
Contra  Costa  County,  and  introduced  by  James  Shinn.  Very  large,  rich  golden 
color ;  tree  healthy ;  one  of  the  very  best  of  clings ;  ripens  with  Late  Crawford. 

Runyon's  Orange  Cling  (California). — "Originated  with  Mr.  Sol  Runyon, 
on  the  Sacramento  River.  Superior  to  the  common  Orange  Cling.  Runyon's 
Orange  Cling  has  globose  glands,  and  is  not  subject  to  mildew  like  the  common 
sort.  Fruit  very  large,  yellow,  with  a  dark  crimson  cheek ;  rich,  sugary,  and 
vinous  flavor.  Highly  esteemed  and  extensively  planted  in  the  Sacramento 
region  and  elsewhere." — John  Rock. 

Nichols  Orange  Cling  (California). — Originated  by  Joseph  Nichols,  of  Niles, 
introduced  by  James  Shinn.  Large,  yellow,  with  purple  cheek ;  flesh  yellow  and 
good.     Tree  healthy  and  a  heavy  bearer. 

Peck's  Orange  Cling  (California). ^"Originated  at  Healdsburg,  Sonoma 
County.  Improved  seedling  of  Orange  Cling,  of  Downing.  Large,  handsome, 
yellow-fleshed,  free  from  curl,  hardy,  vigorous,  productive,  superior  for  market 
or  drying ;  planted  ir.ore  extensively  in  Santa  Rosa  Valley  than  in  any  other." — 
Luther  Burbank. 

Stilson  (California).— "Originated  at  Marysville  (?).  Perfect  shape;  v^ry 
large ;  red  cheek  with  crimson  stripes ;  yellow-fleshed,  more  highly  colored  than 
Susquehanna ;  table  and  market  quality  excellent ;  ripens  after  Crawford's  Late ; 
freestone."— F.  W.  Butler. 

Susquehanna  (Pennsylvania). — Large,  nearly  globular  suture  half  round;  skin 
rich  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  red;  flesh  yellow,  sweet,  juicy,  with  rich,  vinous 
flavor ;  freestone ;  tree  healthy.     Very  widely  distributed  and  popular. 


POPULAR    CALIFORNIA    PEACHES 


289 


McCowan's  Cling  (California). — Originated  with  Dr.  McCowan,  of  Ukiah, 
Yellow  cling ;  round,  smooth  outline ;  no  suture ;  no  red  at  pit,  which  is  small ; 
flesh  firm,  fine-grained,  and  sweet;  not  much  subject  to  curl;  fruit  apt  to  run 
small  unless  carefully  thinned;  reported  an  irregular  bearer  in  Alameda  County; 
liked  by  canners ;  approved  by  Placer  County. 

d^Lovell  (California). — Originated  as  chance  seedling  with  G.  W.  Thissell,  and 
named  by  him  in  1882 ;  propagated  by  Leonard  Coates,  of  Napa.  Yellow  free- 
stone ;  size  uniformly  large,  almost  perfectly  round ;  flesh  fine,  texture  firm,  solid, 
clear  yellow  to  the  pit;  tree  a  good  grower  and  bearer;  superior  for  canning 
and  shipping,  and  dries  well.  Said  to  curl  in  some  places.  "The  richest  peach 
I  ever  saw  on  a  tray." — E.  A.  Bonine,  Los  Angeles  County.  The  most  popular 
yellow  freestone  for  canning  and  drying.  Sometimes  reported  as  drying 
"heavier"  than  the  Muir. 

McKevitt's  Cling  (California). — Originated  as  chance  seedling  in  apricot 
orchard  planted  by  M.  R.  Miller,  on  place  owned  later  by  A.  McKevitt,  Vaca 
Valley;  named  in  1882  by  nurserymen  who  propagated  it.  A  white  clingstone; 
flesh  very  firm,  fine-grained,  sugary,  and  rich,  high  flavor,  white  to  the  pit;  skin 
strong  and  friut  excellent  for  shipping  or  canning;  tree  remarkably  strong  in 
growth  and  free  from  disease.     Widely  distributed. 


» 


The  Lovell,  a  California  seedling. 


290 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Phillips's  Cling:   a  California  seedling. 


McClish  Cling. — Yellow  cling,  grown  in  Sonoma  County. 

Wylie  Cling. — An  old  seedling  by  John  Wylie,  Green  Valley,  Sonoma  County, 
increasing  in  popularity  in  northern  Sonoma  County  as  superior  to  Orange 
Cling  in  not  splitting  at  the  pit,  and  not  dropping  from  the  tree.  A  fine  peach 
for  canning  and  drying. 

General  Bidwell  (California). — Originated  from  a  shoot  from  a  peach  root 
upon  which  an  apricot  had  grown  and  died,  on  Rancho  Chico.  Named  by  State 
Horticultural  Society,  September  4,  1886,  and  commended  for  cultivation.  Ripens 
one  week  later  than  Late  Crawford  and  ahead  of  Salway  and  Picquet's  Late. 
About  the  shape  of  the  Orange  Cling,  but  larger ;  very  yellow  with  reddish 
cheek;  flesh  very  solid,  juicy,  and  rich;  freestone  and  a  small  pit. 

California;  syn.  Edward's  Cling  (California). — "Originated  in  Sacramento. 
Very  large,  round,  regular ;  orange,  nearly  covered  with  dark,  rich  red ;  flesh 
deep  yellow ;  flavor  delicate,  rich  vinous." — C.  W.  Reed. 

Picquet's  Late  (Georgia). — Large  to  very  large;  round,  sometimes  a  little 
flattened,  yellow,  with  red  cheek ;  flesh  yellow,  melting,  sweet,  rich  and  fragrant  > 
freestone;  not  subject  to  curl-leaf. 

Smock  Freestone  (New  Jersey). — "Large  yellow,  mottled  with  red;  mod- 
erately rich  and  juicy.     A  better  drying  peach  than  Salway." — E.  A.  Bonine. 

La  Grange  (New  Jersey). — Large,  oblong;  greenish  white,  some  red  on 
sunny  side ;  not  desirable  in  coast  regions ;  freestone. 


POPULAR  CALIFORNIA  PEACHES 


291 


Salway  (English). — Large,  roundish  oblate;  suture  broad,  deep,  extending 
beyond  the  apex ;  skin  downy,  creamy  yellow,  rich,  clear,  crimson  cheek ;  flesh 
deep  yellow,  red  at  the  pit;  juicy,  rich,  sweet,  vinous;  freestone;  a  standard 
late  peach  in  California ;  tree  very  healthy. 

^Phillips'  Cling  (California). — Originated  with  Joseph  PhiUips,  of  Sutter 
County;  propagated  by  J.  T.  Bogue,  of  Marysville.  Fine  large  yellow  cling, 
no  color  at  pit,  which  is  very  small ;  exceedmgly  rich  and  high  colored ; 
described  by  Mr.  Skinner,  superintendent  Marysville  Cannery,  as  the  best 
peach  he  ever  used.  The  most  popular  yellow  clingstone.  Ripens  progressively 
so  that  picking  can  cover  two  weeks  without  falling  from  tree.  Requires  good 
land  and  ample  moisture. 

Persian's  Cling  (California). — "Originated  in  Visalia,  probably  from  seed  of 
Heath  Cling,  and  a  few  days  earHer  than  its  parent.  Large;  clear  white  skin 
and  flesh,  the  latter  very  sweet;  commended  for  canning." — /.  H.  Thomas, 
Tulare  County. 

Heath  (Maryland). — Described  by  Downing  as  the  most  delicious  of  all 
clingstones.  Very  large ;  skin  downy,  creamy  white,  with  faint  blush  of  red; 
flesh  greenish  white,  very  tender  and  juicy,  with  most  luscious  flavor;  best 
adapted  to  interior  regions,  or  places  free  from  curl. 

^_  ^"f^ad/j;  (Missouri). — "Large  to  very  large;  white  skin;  flesh  white  at  the 
pit,  firm,  rich,  and  good  flavor ;  freestone.  Produces  very  heavy  yield  of  dried 
fruit." — /.  H.  Thomas,  Tulare  County. 

George's  Late  Cling  (California). — "Originated  in  Sacramento.  Large; 
white  flesh,  colored  around  the  pit ;  beautiful  yellow  color,  striped  and  splashed 
with  bright  red ;  a  very  heavy  and  uniform  bearer ;  a  good  shipper  and  at  its 
season  of  ripening  there  is  no  peach  grown  in  Placer  County^  that  yields  the 
grower  so  much  profit." — P.  W.  Butler.    Subject  to  mildew  in  some  localities. 

Yellow  Tuscany  {Dura  cini,  Tuscany). — A  very  large  yellow  cling;  propa- 
gated by  G.  Tosetti,  formerly  of  San  Leandro;  tree  a  strong  grower  and  free 
from  curl-leaf,  very  productive.  On  the  basis  of  its  behavior  at  the  University 
Experiment  Station  at  Pomona,  this  variety  has  recently  been  largely  planted 
in  Southern  California.  It  is  counted  the  best  yellow  cling  for  canning  in  that 
section.     Ripens  with  Lemon  Cling. 

Albright's  Cling  (California). — "Originated  with  Mr.  Albright,  near  Placer- 
ville.  Very  large;  yellow,  with  bright  cheek;  rarely  equaled  in  quality  and 
flavor.  Described  as  larger,  more  highly  colored,  of  better  flavor,  better  shape, 
and  the  tree  a  more  prolific  bearer  than  the  Orange  Cling." — P.  W.  Butler. 
Endures  long  shipment  even  after  being  well  colored. 

McDevitt  Cling. — "Originated  with  Neal  McDevitt,  of  Placer  County.  Uni- 
formly large,  rich,  golden  yellow,  becoming  red  when  ripe ;  flesh  very  firm 
and  solid,  superior  in  flavor;  excellent  shipper;  tree  good  and  regular  bearer. 

Staley  (California). — Very  large;  eleven  and  one-half  inches  in  circum- 
ference; somewhat  elongated  and  flattened  laterally;  rich,  creamy  white  with 
very  faint  touches  of  light  red;  suture  shallow,  but  almost  continuous  around 
the  peach ;  stone  small  and  perfectly  free,  cavity  considerable  longer  than  stone ; 
flesh  white  to  the  pit,  very  juicy,  fine,  tender;  flavor  delicious.  Originated  as 
sucker  from  peach  root  from  which  prune  had  been  broken  off  in  Selma,  Fresno 
County.  Ripens  twenty  days  after  Salway  or  four  weeks  after  Susquehanna. 
A  high-class  white  freestone.    Introduced  by  F.  M.  Nevins,  Selma. 

Levy's  Late;  syn.  Henrietta  (District  of  Columbia). — Above  average  size, 
yellow  flesh,  red  cheek;  late;  clingstone.     Very  popular  in  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

Bilyeu's  Late  October. — "Large  greenish  white  with  red  cheek;  flesh  whitish, 
freestone ;  tree  a  rapid  grower  and  attains  great  size ;  prolific  bearer ;  fruit 
ships  well,  and  where  it  will  mature  no  peach  can  take  its  place  does  particu- 
larly well  in  the  foot-hills." — P.  W.  Butler. 

Decker  (California). — Grown  for  eastern  shipment,  in  Vaca  Valley,  and  in 
Sutter  and  Butte  Counties. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  NECTARINE 

The  nectarine  reaches  perfection  under  California  conditions, 
as  does  its  close  relative,  the  peach.  The  fruit  is,  in  fact,  as  Dcwn- 
ing  says,  only  a  variety  of  the  peach  with  a  smooth  skin;  only  a 
distinct,  accidental  variety  of  the  peach ;  and  this  is  rendered  quite 
certain,  since  there  are  several  well-knov/n  examples  on  record  of 
both  peaches  and  nectarines  having  been  produced  on  the  same 
branch.  Nectarine  pits  usually  produce  nectarines  again,  but  they 
occasionally  produce  peaches.  Peach  seeds  occasionally  produce 
nectarines;  the  Boston  variety  originated  from  a  peach  stone.* 
All  these  facts  which  are  recorded  of  relation  between  the  peach 
and  nectarine  have  been  verified  by  California  observation. 

The  practice  of  growing  nectarines  is  also  exactly  like  that 
employed  with  the  peach.  It  is  propagated  and  pruned  in  the 
same  ways,  except  that,  as  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Culbertson,  the 
nectarine  has -more  of  a  tendency  to  form  short  interior  growths, 
and  fruit  buds  are  formed  on  the  larger  new  growths,  thus  enabl- 
ing the  pruner  to  cut  them  back  more  closely,  and  yet  have  an 
abundance  of  fruits  buds  remain.  The  peach  and  nectarines  are 
the  same  in  natural  adaptations  and  requirements,  and  in  diseases, 
so  that  what  has  been  given  concerning  the  growth  of  the  peach 
in  this  State  has  an  apt  application  in  the  case  of  the  nectarine. 

The  success  of  the  nectarine  worked  on  almond  stock,  as  has 
been  demonstrated  by  the  experience  of  many,  has  led  to  the  graft- 
ing over  a  good  many  unprofitable  almond  trees  to  nectarine, 
though  this  has  not  been  done  to  the  extent  to  which  the  French 
prune  and  some  other  plums  have  been  worked  on  old  almond 
stocks. 

Comparative  Production  of  Nectarine  and  Peach. — It  may  be 

wondered,  considering  the  similarity  of  the  peach  and  the  necta- 
rine, why  the  former  comes  so  near  being  our  leading  deciduous 
fruit  and  the  latter  is  the  least  grown,  but  one,  of  all  the  temperate 
zone  fruits,  only  the  lowly  quince  being  less  in  importance.  The 
explanation  is  that  the  fruit  buyer,  both  in  California  and  at  the 
East,  prefers  the  peach,  whether  it  be  fresh,  or  canned,  or  dried, 
and  some  of  those  who  have  tried  even  a  few  acres  of  nectarines 
have  found  many  occasions  to  wish  the  ground  had  been  given 
to  peaches.     How  much  of  this  preference  is  due  to  lack  of  knowl- 

■     *  "Downing's   Fruit  and   Fruit   Trees,"   p.    565. 

292 


NECTARINE    VARIETIES  293 

edge  of  the   nectarine,  and   how   much  to  its   somewhat  different 
flavor,  it  would  be  difficult  to  actually  determine. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  the  nectarine  is  now  advancing  in  popu- 
lar favor.  This  has  been  prophesied  for  some  years  and  seems 
now  being  slowly  realized  because  of  the  wonderful  excellence  of 
the  nectarine  as  grown  in  our  interior  valleys,  and  the  passing 
beauty  of  the  amber  translucency  of  the  dried  nectarine,  both 
when  sun-dried  and  when  produced  by  machine  evaporators.  The 
excellence  of  the  canned  nectarine,  has  also  figured  in  the  antici- 
pation. It  is,  however,  questionable  how  far  this  anticipation 
has  been  realized,  for  it  is  estimated  that  the  amount  of  dried  nec- 
tarines is  less  than  two  per  cent  and  of  canned  nectarines  less  than 
one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  the  respective  forms  of  peaches.  Nor 
does  the  demand  call  for  change  in  this  proportion,  for  there  is  a 
slight  advantage  in  the  market  value  of  the  peach  even  in  its  great 
preponderance  of  supply.  Still,  the  price  for  dried  nectarines  has 
been  better  of  late,  but  whether  this  is  due  to  better  appreciation 
or  reduced  production,  is  a  question.  It  is  true  that  during  the 
last  decade  many  nectarines  have  been  rooted  out  to  be  replaced 
by  peach  trees,  or  have  been  grafted  over  into  peaches.  There 
are,  however,  some  growers  who  are  confident  that  the  nectarine 
will  in  the  future  rank  much  higher  in  the  California  fruit  product. 
It  would  please  growers  and  fruit  driers  and  canners  to  popularize 
the  nectarine,  for  its  smooth  skin  makes  it  as  easy  to  handle  a?  an 
apricot,  and  the  beauty  of  the  product,  which  certainly  exceeds  that 
of  the  peach,  and  is  rather  more  easily  attained,  is  very  gratifying 
to  the  producer. 

VARIETIES    OF   THE    NECTARINE 

Varieties  of  the  nectarine,  as  of  the  peach,  show  different  local 
adaptations,  and  are  valued  by  growers  accordingly.  The  varieties 
grown,  are,  however,  comparatively  few.  The  following  have  been 
found  most  satisfactory  in  California ;  the  descriptions  are  somewhat 
condensed  from  Downing's  treatise,  modified  to  suit  local  growth, 
arid  arranged  approximately  in  the  order  of  the  ripening  of  the 
varieties : 

Advance. — Large,  round,  green,  marked  with  red  and  brown;  flesh  greenish 
white;  rich  and  well  flavored.     The  earliest  to  ripen. 

Lord  Napier  (English). — Large,  pale  cream  color  with  dark  red  cheek; 
flesh  white,  melting,  tender  and  juicy,  separating  freely  from  stone;  leaf  glands 
reniform  and  flowers  large.  Especially  commended  as  a  heavy  and  regular 
bearer ;    pronounced   best   in    flavor    at    Pomona    Experiment    Station. 

Doivnton  (English). — Leaves  with  reniform  glands;  flowers  small;  fruit 
large,  roundish  oval ;  skin  pale  green,  with  deep  violet  red  cheek ;  flesh  pale 
green,  slightly  red  at  the  stone,  which  is  free,  melting  rich,  and  very  good. 

Early  Newington  (English). — Leaves  serrated  without  glands,  flowers  large; 
fruit    large,    roundish    ovate,    a    little    enlarged    on    one    side,    and    terminating 


294  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

with  an  acute,  swollen  point;  skin  pale  green,  but  nearly  covered  with  bright 
red  and  coated  with  thin  bloom;  flesh  greenish  white,  but  deep  red  at  stone, 
which  adheres  closely,  juicy,  sugary,  rich,  and  excellent. 

Hardwicke  (English). — ^Leaves  with  globose  glands;  fruit  very  large,  round- 
ish, inclining  to  oval ;  skin  pale  green,  with  deep  violet  red  cheek ;  flesh  pale 
green,  slightly  marked  with  red  at  the  stone,  melting,  rich,  and  high-flavored ; 
freestone.  This  variety  is  a  favorite  in  southern  California ;  described  by  the 
Southern  California  Nurserymen's  Association  as  being  the  only  satisfactory 
bearer. 

Boston. — Raised  from  a  peach  stone  by  T.  Lewis,  of  Boston ;  tree  hardy 
and  productive ;  leaves  with  globose  glands ;  flowers  small ;  fruit  large  and 
handsome,  roundish  oval,  bright  yellow,  with  deep  red  cheek ;  flesh  yellow  to 
the  stone  (which  is  small  and  pointed),  sweet,  though  not  rich,  with  pleasant 
and  peculiar  flavor ;   freestone ;   a  general   favorite  in   California. 

New  White;  syn.  Large  White. — Leaves  with  reniform  glands;  flowers 
large ;  fruit  rather  large,  nearly  round ;  skin  white  with  occasionally  slight  tinge 
of  red;  flesh  white,  tender,  very  juicy,  with  rich,  vinous  flavor;  stone  small  and 
free  commanded  wherever  nectarines  are  grown  in  California,  and  more  freely 
planted  than  all  other  nectarines  combined. 

Stamvick. — Originated  in  England  from  seed  brought  from  Syria.  Large, 
roundish  oval,  slightly  heart-shaped  at  base ;  skin  pale,  greenish  white,  shaded 
into  deep,  rich  violet  in  the  sun;  flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,  rich,  sugary,  and 
delicious. 

Humboldt. — Very  large,  bright  orange  yellow  vigorously  marked  with  crim- 
son, flesh  orange,  tender;  juicy,  and  high  flavored.  Described  as  one  of  the 
best  of  the  newer  varieties.     Ripens  late. 

As  the  future  for  the  nectarine  seems  to  rest  upon  drying  and 
canning  of  the  fruit,  the  light-skinned,  white  or  yellow-fleshed 
varieties  without  color  at  the  stone,  are  most  desirable.  For  dry- 
ing there  has  been  thus  far  a  .decided  preference  for  freestone  vari- 
eties, though  possibly  the  present  popularity  of  cling  peaches  for 
drying  may  extend  to  the  clingstone  nectarines.  Much  color, 
however,  either  in  skin  or  flesh,  will  prevent  the  production  of 
the  beautiful  translucent,  amber  hue  of  the  dried  nectarine,  which 
is  attractive  to  consumers.  Color  in  the  flesh  is,  of  course,  unde- 
sirable in  canning,  because  of  the  discoloration  of  the  syrup.  These 
facts  have  had  much  to  do  in  fixing  the  popularity  of  the  varieties 
named  in  the  foregoing  list. 

At  present  the  largest  orchards  of  nectarines  are  in  the  interior 
valley  locations,  which  are  also  fine  peach  counties  and  are  per- 
fectly adapted  both  to  the  growing  of  the  fruit  and  to  the  open- 
air,  sun-drying  of  it. 


CHAPTER   XXII 
THE   PEAR 

The  oldest  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  California  are  pear  trees, 
as  has  already  been  stated  in  the  account  of  fruits  at  the  old  mis- 
sions, and  some  of  the  trees  are  still  bearing,  though  it  is  a  century 
and  a  third  since  their  planting.  Trees  planted  by  pioneers  in  the 
old  mining  districts  have  actually  assumed  semblance  to  adjacent 
oaks.  Notable  instances  are  found  in  the  Stillwater  district  of 
Shasta  County  and  elsewhere.  Near  San  Jose  there  is  a  tree  over 
half  a  century  old,  with  a  trunk  seven  and  a  half  feet  around  and 
yielding  annually  about  fifteen  hundred  pounds  of  fruit,  some  of 
which  was  exhibited  at  the  Columbian  Exposition. 

The  pear  withstands  neglect  and  thrives  in  soils  and  situations 
which  other  fruit  trees  would  rebel  against.  It  defies  drouth  and 
excessive  moisture,  and  patiently  proceeds  with  its  fruitage  even 
when  the  soil  is  trampled  almost  to  rocky  hardness  by  cattle,  carry- 
ing its  fruit  and  foliage  aloft  above  their  reach.  And  yet  the  pear 
repays  care  and  good  treatment,  and  receives  them  from  California 
growers,  for  the  pear  has  been  one  of  our  most  profitable  fruits. 
It  is  in  demand  for  canning,  for  drying,  and  for  distant  shipment, 
and  its  long  season  and  the  slow  ripening  after  picking  allow  delib- 
eration in  marketing,  and  admit  of  enjoying  low  rates  for  shipment 
by  slow  trains.  One  of  the  most  striking  demonstrations  of  the 
commercial  suitability  of  the  California  pear  is  found  in  successful 
marketing  in  London.  Solomons,  who  is  called  ''London's  great- 
est fruiter,"  said  in  1903  that  California  Bartletts  from  Block  of 
Santa  Clara  are  the  ''best  in  the  world."  Even  after  crossing  the 
continent  they  seemed  to  endure  shipment  across  the  Atlantic  better 
than  eastern  pears. 

The  pear  has  not  the  beauty  of  the  peach,  nor  is  its  handling 
characterized  by  so  much  dash  and  spirit,  but  the  production  of 
favorite  market  varieties  at  a  time  when  the  market  welcomes 
them,  is  about  as  well  repaid  as  any  effort  of  the  California  fruit 
grower.  Some  idea  of  the  yield  of  thrifty  trees  in  large  numbers 
can  be  had  from  the  report  of  100  acres  of  Bartletts  on  the  Cone 
ranch  near  Red  Bluff,  which  in  1904  yielded  900  tons  of  fruit 
'which  sold  at  $30  per  ton — a  gross  yield  of  $27,000  of  which  not 
more  than  $7,000  were  required  to  pay  for  the  year's  care  and 
harvesting,  a  net  yield  of  $200  per  acre.  There  are  much  higher 
figures,  of  course,  as  the  product  of  eight  acres  near  Yuba  City 
which  yielded  eighty  tons  in  1905,  sold  at  $50  per  ton  or  a  gross 

295 


296  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

return  of  $500  per  acre;  and  95  tons  in  1906  at  $36  per  ton  or  $427 
per  acre.  There  are  higher  returns  than  this,  and,  unfortunately, 
many  that  are  much  lower. 

The  most  obvious  marks  of  the  California  pear  are  size  and 
beauty.  The  most  conspicuous  example  is  the  Bartlett,  which  is 
the  pear  of  California,  judged  by  its  popularity,  fresh,  canned  and 
dried.  When  well  grown,  its  size  is  grand,  and  its  delicate  color, 
aroma,  and  richness  unsurpassed.  What  extreme  in  point  of  size 
has  been  reached  is  not  known  to  the  writer,  but  he  saw  at  the 
San  Jose  Horticultural  Fair,  of  1886,  thirteen  Bartlett  pears  grown 
by  A.  Block,  of  Santa  Clara,  which  weighed  fourteen  pounds,  the 
heaviest  of  the  group  weighing  twenty-two  and  one-half  ounces. 
Other  pears  have  made  standard  sizes  in  California  far  in  advance 
of  their  records  elsewhere.  There  was  in  1870  a  Pound  pear  sent 
from  Sacramento  to  the  late  Marshall  P.  Wilder,  president  of  the 
American   Pomological   Society,  which  weighed  four,  pounds   nine 

..QUlic^es^  and  was  reported  by  Colonel  Wilder  to  be  larger  than  any- 
thing previously  reported  in  pear  annals.*  But  California  has 
recently  done  even  better  for  a  pear  from  near  Marysville  in  1904 
is  reported  as  nine  inches  high,  sixteen  inches  around  the  base  and 
five  pounds  in  weight.     Notes  kept  by  the  writer  include  five  Vicar 

~of  Winkfields  weighing  four  pounds  eight  ounces ;  nine  Easter 
Beurre  weighing  twenty-four  and  one-half  pounds,  the  heaviest 
single  specimen  weighing  two  and  three-fourths  pounds ;  thirty- 
five  Beurre  Clairgeau  'weighing  thirty-seven  pounds,  the  heaviest 
one,  nineteen  ounces ;  Seckel  pears,  nine  and  three-fourths  inches 
in  circumference — Downing's  figures  make  the  Seckel  five  and 
seven-eighths  inches  around. 

LOCALITIES   FOR  THE  PEAR 

The  pear  has  a  wider  range  than  the  apple  in  local  adaptations. 
It  does  as  well  as  the  apple  in  the  coast  regions,  if  suitable  vari- 
eties are  grown;  it  thrives  far  better  than  the  apple  in  the  interior 
valleys  :  it  rivals  the  apple  in  the  ascent  of  the  slope  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  and  gains  from  the  altitude,  color  and  late  keeping,  as 
does  the  apple.  By  rejecting  a  few  naturally  tender  varieties,  or 
by  proper  protection  against  the  scab  fungus  (fusicladiuni  dendriti- 
cum),  in  regions  where  its  attacks  are  severe,  one  can  grow  pears 
almost  everywhere  in  California — providing  pear  blight  can  be  held 
in  check,  as  will  be  discussed  later. 

The  choice  of  location  is  governed  more  by  commercial  consid- 
erations than  by  natural  phenomena.  The  same  facts  which  make 
the  Bartlett  the  favorite  variety  with  planters,  also  should  regulate 

*  "Tilton's  Journal  of  Horticulture,  March,  1871,  p.  87.  An  engraving  of  this 
fruit,  natural  size,  was  given  in  Pacific  Rural  Press,  November  8,   1873." 


WHY    THE    BARTLETT    RULES  297 

the  choice  of  locality  for  growing  it.  These  facts  were  expressed  by 
the  late  C.  W.  Reed,  of  Sacramento,  who  was  in  his  time  one  of 
the  leading  pear  growers  and  shippers  of  the  State,  as  follows : 

In  the  r>acramento  Valley  proper  there  is  but  one  variety  of  pear  that  will 
justify  extensive  cultivation,  viz.,  the  Bartlett.  While  nearly  all  varieties  may 
be  grown  successfully,  and  many  varieties  may  be  desirable  for  home  pur- 
poses, yet  for  profitable  orchards  we  have  to  confine  ourselves  to  this  one 
variety,  except  in  high  altitudes,  or  localities  where  the  fruit  only  matures 
very  late.  The  reason  for  this  will  be  better  understood  by  the  inexperienced 
if  explained.  The  Bartlett  pear  having  qualities  that  make  it  a  universal 
favorite  for  shipping,  canning,  and  for  domestic  market,  no  other  variety  is 
wanted  while  it  is  obtainable.  With  the  difference  in  the  time  of  its  ripening 
in  different  localities  that  are  adjacent,  our  markets  are  supplied  with  this 
variety  about  four  months  each  season,  viz.,  July,  August,  September  and  Octo- 
ber. While  this  pear  is  in  the  markets,  any  other  variety  to  compete  with  it 
must  sell  at  very  low  prices.  It  is  not  only  the  great  demand  the  Bartlett  pear 
has  over  the  other  varieties  in  the  markets,  but  as  a  healthy  grower  and  regular 
bearer  it  has  no  equal.  [This  was  written  before  the  introduction  of  the  pear 
blight.]  In  higher  altitudes,  where  pears  will  keep  till  the  Bartlett  has  dis- 
appeared, other  varieties  may  be  quite  profitable,  although  they  can  never  be 
grown  to  any  similar  extent. 

Of  course  experienced  pear  growers,  whose  taste  would  soon 
cloy  with  a  continuous  diet  of  Bartletts,  and  who  know  fully  the 
superior  quality  of  other  varieties  which  ripen  soon  after  it,  would 
dispute  the  position  taken  by  Mr.  Reed,  but  for  present  California 
taste  and  trade  he  is  undoubtedly  correct.  As  the  canners  and  ship- 
pers and  local  consumers  all  call  for  Bartletts,  and  as  they  usually 
sell  at  the  East  for  nearly  twice  the  price  of  other  varieties,  the  choice 
of  location  to  secure  a  Bartlett,  either  very  early  or  very  late,  is 
the  part  of  wisdom,  for  either  end  of  the  season  usually  yields 
better  prices  than  the  middle.  Some  growers  are  even  opening 
the  Bartlett  season  by  growing  Clapp's  Favorite,  which  sells  well 
because  it  is  taken  for  a  Bartlett,  and  closing  the  season  with  the 
Winter  Bartlett,  a  local  variety  recently  introduced.  The  earliest 
Bartletts  come  from  the  interior  valley  sometimes  as  early  as  the 
last  week  in  June ;  the  next,  from  the  valleys  adjacent  to  the  bay 
of  San  Francisco;  the  next,  from  the  higher  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada;  and  the  last,  so  far  as  present  experience  goes,  although 
some  coast  and  mountain  situations  are  quite  late,  reach  the  mar- 
ket from  the  Vacaville  district.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  this 
district,  which  has  long  been  famous  for  marketing  the  first  early 
fruits,  should  also  market  very  late  ones.  It  is  true,  however,  that 
early  fruits  hasten  to  maturity  and  late  fruits  are  retarded.  Late 
fruits  push  along  until  about  midsummer,  then  stop  growing  for 
a  month  or  two  during  the  hottest  weather,  and  afterwards  pro- 
ceed on  their  course  and  finish  up  well.  W.  W.  Smith,  of  Vaca 
Valley,  has  picked  Bartletts  as  late  as  November  19,  but  that  is 
unusually  late.  In  years  with  heavy  late  spring  rains  the  Bartlett 
ripens  earlier  in  the  Vaca  Valley  than  in  ordinary  seasons,  and 
when  the  fruit  sells  well  in  the  East,  the   Bartletts  are  gathered 


298  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW     THEM 

green  and  shipped  all  through  the  season,  as  their  first  growth 
usually  makes  them  large  enough  for  this  purpose. 

Though  the  Bartlett  is  in  wide  favor,  as  stated,  there  is  some 
progress  being  made  in  introducing  other  varieties,  as  will  be 
stated  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the  adaptations  of  vari- 
eties. This  substitution  of  other  sorts  is  in  part  because  the  merit 
of  others  is  being  recognized,  and  in  part  because  in  some  regions 
some  of  them  are  healthier  and  more  trustworthy  bearers  than  the 
Bartlett. 

There  is  produced  in  some  situations  a  ''second  crop"  of  Bart- 
letts  and  of  other  varieties  which  is  of  account  when  pears  are 
scarce  and  is  sometimes  dried  with  profit.  For  such  fruit  the 
bloom  appears  upon  the  tips  of  the  shoots  of  the  current  season's 
growth.  The  fruit  is  sometimes  coreless  and  has  led  to  claims 
of  ''seedless  pears."  Bartlett  pears  have  actually  been  picked  in 
the  foot-hills  above  Peatz  in  Butte  County  on  February  25,  1905, 
and  described  as  "fine,  delicious  and  ripe."  This  fact  must  be 
regarded  as  a  token  of  local  climatic  salubrity  and  not  of  economic 
or  pomological  account. 

SOILS   FOR  THE   PEAR 

The  pear,  if  it  is  not  allowed  to  dry  out  entirely,  will  generally 
do  well  on  shallow  soil  and  over  a  tight,  clay  hard-pan,  where 
most  other  fruits  would  be  unsatisfactory  or  fail  utterly.  The 
trees  will  thrive  in  clay  loams,  and  even  in  adobe,  if  properly  cul- 
tivated. In  laying  out  fruit  farms,  which  often  include  a  variety 
of  soils,  even  in  comparatively '  small  area,  the  pears  and  plums 
(if  on  the  right  stock,  as  will  be  seen)  should  beset  in  the  lower, 
moister,  stiffer  soil,  and  other  fruits  on  the  lighter,  warmer,  and 
better-drained  portions.  The  pear,  however,  enjoys  the  better  sit- 
uation, though  it  will  thrive  on  the  poorer.  The  tree  seems  to 
attain  its  greater  growth  and  heaviest  bearing  on  the  alluvial  soils 
of  the  valleys  and  near  the  banks  of  rivers  and  streams.  All  pears 
will  be  later  in  maturing  and  have  better  keeping  qualities  if  grown 
on  a  clay  subsoil.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  pear  will  flourish 
whether  the  water  is  near  or  far  from  the  surface.  On  wet  land 
the  apple  is  apt  to  die  in  a  few  years,  or  become  worthless.  On 
dry  land  the  apple  lives  longer,  but  the  fruit  is  small  and  tasteless. 
But  the  pear  tree  may  bear  good  fruit,  under  the  same  conditions. 

It  has  been  learned  by  experience  that  the  pear  will  flourish 
on  soil  somewhat  alkaline.  At  the  University  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Tulare,  this  subject  has  been  demonstrated  in 
detail.  It  is  shown  that  though  the  pear  endures  a  certain  amount 
of  alkali  its  limit  of  endurance  may  be  often  exceeded  and  there 
is  little  warrant  to  select  alkali  soil  for  pears,  unless  it  be  to  fill 
a  space  that  would  otherwise  be  vacant  in  the  orchard.     If  it  is 


PEAR    PROPAGATION  299 

not  too  alkaline  the  pears  will  thrive.     If  gypsum  be  used  in  plant- 
ing, somewhat  stronger  alkali  will  be  endured  than  otherwise. 


PROPAGATION  AND   PLANTING 

The  use  of  dwarfing  stock  for  the  pear  has  been  nearly  aban- 
doned in  this  State,  though  in  early  years  the  quince  was  largely 
used.  The  most  prominent  orchard  on  quince  stock  is  that  of  A. 
Block,  of  Santa  Clara,  where  may  be  seen  dwarf  trees  originally 
planted  eight  feet  apart  in  squares,  but  now  wider  spaced  by 
removing  part  of  the  trees ;  the  remainder  doing  exceedingly  well 
under  liberal  manuring  and  irrigation.  It  is  quite  possible  that, 
at  least  for  gardens,  there  may  be  in  the  future  more  use  made  of 
dwarf  trees,  but  for  commercial  orchards  there  appears  no  need 
of  dwarfing.  The  common  conclusion  is  that  it  is  better  to  have 
fewer  trees  and  larger  ones,  but  since  the  pear  blight  became  an 
issue  in  this  State  the  Angiers  quince  has  been  advocated  as  a 
means  of  maintaining  a  sound  root  and  keeping  the  warfare  above 
ground. 

The  following  varieties  are  commended  for  cultivation  on  quince 
stock  as  dwarfs,  experience  proving  them  vigorous  growers  and 
abundant  bearers  in  suitable  localities :  Bartlett,  Beurre  Hardy, 
Doyenne  du  Comice,  Duchess  d'Angouleme,  Glout  Morceau, 
Pound,  Beurre  Diel,  White  Doyenne,  Easter  Beurre,  Winter  Nelis, 
P.  Barry,  Winter  Bartlett. 

But  the  pear  is  usually  grown  in  California  on  its  own  roots; 
that  is  upon  imported  French  pear  seedlings.  It  comes  into  bear- 
ing early  enough,  and  is  a  long-lived  tree  unless  badly  attacked 
by  blight.  Trees  are  grown  by  either  budding  or  grafting,  as 
described  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject.  Only  good  seedling 
roots  should  be  used,  and  not  suckers  from  old  trees.  The  Japan- 
ese stock,  so  called,  being  seedlings  of  the  Sand  pear,  of  Asia, 
has  been  used  to  some  extent,  but  no  definite  results  reported. 
Propagation  upon  rooted  cuttings  of  the  Le  Conte,  which  has 
a  measurable  resistance  to  the  pear  blight,  has  been  advised  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  less  susceptible  roots.  Mr.  M.  B.  Waite, 
orchard  pathologist  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, has  in  progress  a  test  of  many  cross-bred  seedlings  in  the  hope 
of  reaching  a  hardier  seedling  stock  for  pears  than  is  now  known. 
He  also  proposes  top  grafting  the  Bartlett  upon  Winter  Nelis, 
Seckel,  Angouleme,  Lawson  and  other  partially  immune  varieties  to 
increase  the  chances  of  securing  a  somewhat  resistant  tree-body  and 
sound  roots.  Fortunately  the  pear  is  readily  grafted-over  by  the 
common  methods. 

Distance  in  Planting. — If  the  pears  are  to  have  the  whole 
ground,  it  is  usual  to  plant  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  apart 


300 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


on  the  square.  As  the  tree  is  slower  to  attain  size  and  full  bear- 
ing than  the  stone  fruits,  and  as  it  is  a  long-lived  tree,  the  pears 
are  sometimes  set  twenty-four  feet  with  plums  in  quincunx. 
Peaches  and  apricots  are  also  set  between  pears  sometimes,  when 
the  soil  chosen  for  pears  suits  them  also. 

PRUNING 

Usually  the  pear  is  grown  in  the  vase  form,  as  described  in 
the  general  chapter  on  pruning.  With  regular,  upright  growers, 
heading  low  and  cutting  to  outside  buds  results  in  a  handsome, 
gently-spreading  top,  and  effectually  curbs  the  disposition  which 
some  varieties,  notably  the  Bartlett,  have  to  run  straight  up  with 
main  branches  crowded  together. 

As  with  other  fruit  trees,  the  pear  must  be  studied  and  pruning 
must  be  done  with  an  understanding  of  the  habit  of  the  variety 
under  treatment.  Irregular  and  wayward  growers,  which,  in 
windy  places,  also  have  their  rambling  disposition  promoted  by 
prevailing  winds,  often  give  the  grower  much  perplexity.  The 
general  rules  of  cutting  to  an  outside  bud  to  spread  the  tree,  to 
an  inside  bud  to  raise  and  concentrate  it,  and  to  an  outside  bud 
one  pear  and  an  inside  bud  the  next,  if  a  limb  is  desired  to  con- 
tinue in  a  certain  course,  are  all  helpful  to  the  pruner.  But  with 
some  pears,  of  which  the  Winter  Nelis  is  a  conspicuous  example, 
it  is  exceedingly  hard  to  shape  the  tree  by  these  general  rules, 
and  some  growers  abandon  all  rules,  merely  shortening  in  where 
too  great  extension  is  seen,  or  to  facilitate  cultivation,  and  trust 
to  shaping  the  tree  when  it  shall  have  finished  its  rampant  grow- 
ing period.  It  will  be  interesting  to  cite  a  few  methods  of  Cali- 
fornia pear  growers : 

"The  Winter  Nelis  pear  is  an  uncouth  grower.  Let  the  trees  alone  until 
they  have  borne  a  good,  heavy  crop,  and  the  hmbs  come  down  and  spread 
out  nicely ;  this  will  occur  in  five  or  six  years  after  setting.  This  will  give 
you  an  idea  what  you  want  to  do  with  the  balance  of  the  top  that  is  not  borne 
down  with  the  fruit.  My  plan  is  to  cut  straggling  branches,  thin  out  so  that 
the  branches  will  not  wind  around  each  other,  but  don't  cut  the  top,  for  you 
will  find  that  the  more  you  cut  the  more  wood  you  get,  and  after  the  tree 
comes  into  full  bearing  is  plenty  of  time  to  head  back." — A.  Cadwell,  Petaluma. 

"Our  orchard  is  not  in  a  very  windy  place,  but  still  it  is  windy  enough  to 
throw  our  Nelis  trees  out  of  form.  To  get  any  regularity  of  shape,  we  cut 
off  every  year  all  the  shoots  growing  low  down  on  the  leeward  side,  shortening 
in  what  are  left  as  occasion  may  require,  to  an  inside  bud.  On  the  windward 
side  we  rarely  cut  any  branch  out,  but  shorten  in  a  little  to  an  outside  bud, 
frequently  being  obliged  to  cut  back  a  strong  shoot  to  a  lateral  which  is  grow- 
ing outward." — Leonard  Coates,  Napa. 

"It  is  hard  to  get  a  misshapen  Winter  Nelis  tree  into  shape.  Let  the  grower 
take  his  shears  and  go  around  the  tree  and  examine  the  difficulty  until  he  is 
conversant  with  it,  and  then  commence  to  prune,  not  too  heavily,  though.  Cut 
the  Hmbs  that  lean  too  far  leewards  back  a  little  with  an  inside  bud,  and 
train  all  future  limbs  toward  the  weather  side  of  the  tree;     cut  the  limbs  this 


PRUNING    THE    PEAR 


301 


year  so  that  the  coming  buds  will  form  limbs  growing  in  the  direction  of  the 
weather  side  of  the  tree.  But  use  moderation  and  take  your  time  for  it,  and 
don't  cut  too  many  big  limbs  off  three-year-old  trees — none,  in  fact,  if  it  can 
be  helped.  In  bringing  limbs  to  proper  place,  I  have  found  a  piece  of  corn- 
stalk the  required  length  for  the  intended  place,  inserted  endwise  between  the 
limb  and  the  body  of  the  tree  to  be  spread,  to  be  a  very  good  brace,  easily 
made,  and  not  likely  to  injure  the  tree." — T.  E.   Ozven,  Santa  Cruz. 

These  methods  will  suggest  others  by  which  one  can  bring 
the  most  irregular  grower  into  shape.  If  the  tree  is  cut  at  plant- 
ing so  as  to  form  the  head  low,  it  may  be  safely  left  until  bearing 
age  for  shaping.  The  tree  naturally  makes  a  viny  growth  of 
young  wood,  and  the  object  of  leaving  it  alone  is  that  one  limb 
holds  the  others  more  upright  until  the  main  limbs  become  large, 
or  stiff  enough  to  keep  the  shape ;  so  they  may  be  left,  after  being 
thinned  out  to  form  three  to  five  limbs,  as  judgment  may  direct. 
Some  trees  will  be  best  with  three  or  four,  others  five. 

The  experience  of  pear  pruning  just  cited  has  been  secured  in 
regions  more  or  less  subject  to  coast  influences.  In  the  hot  interior 
valleys,  with  the  pear  as  with  the  apple,  care  must  be  taken  to 
prune  so  as  not  to  open  the  tree  too  much  to  the  sun,  but  to  shorten 
in  and  thin  out  only  so  far  as  is  consistent  with  maintaining  a  good 
covering  of  foliage. 

The  pruning  of  bearing  pear  trees  is  much  like  that  of  the 
apple,  to  be  determined  largely  by  the  habit  of  the  tree,  and  to 
secure  a  fair  amount  of  fruit  on  branches  with  strength  and  stiff- 
ness enough  to  sustain  it. 

Summer  pruning  will  promote  fruiting  either  in  a  young  or  an 
old  tree  and  some  practice  it  to  secure  early  bearing  of  young  trees, 
but  the  common  practice  is  winter  pruning  to  secure  strong  wood 
and  prevent  overbearing. 

THINNING  PEARS 

It  is  quite  important  to  attend  to  thinning  the  fruit  on  over- 
loaded trees.  Even  the  popular  Bartlett  will  often  give  fruit  too 
small  for  profitable  sale  unless  thinned.  With  pears,  as  other 
fruits,  thinning  should  not  be  done  until  it  is  seen  that  the  fruit 
is  well  set.  Dropping  off  from  natural  causes  sometimes  thins  the 
crop  quite  enough. 

IRRIGATION   OF  THE   PEAR 

In  some  situations  the  pear  needs  irrigation,  though  it  will 
endure  drouth  which  would  destroy  most  other  fruit  trees.  There 
is  no  profit  in  small,  tough  fruit.  As  stated  in  the  chapter  on 
irrigation  the  wood  growth  and  fruit  show  whether  proper  moisture 
needs  are  met  or  not.  Early  pears  are  advanced  in  development 
by  irrigation  in  some  parts  of  the  State,  and  this  is  an  important 
factor  in  their  value. 


302 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


BLIGHT    OF    THE    PEAR 


Although  California  pear  growers  who  came  to  the  State  en- 
dowed with  eastern  experience  have  always  apprehended  the  intro- 
duction of  the  true  pear  blight  and  shivered  every  time  they  saw 
die-back  or  blackening  on  a  pear  branch,  the  probability  is  that 
all  early  reports  of  its  entrance  were  misapprehensions  until  the 
real  scourge  appeared  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  about  a  decade 
ago.  The  rapidity  with  which  trees  began  to  be  destroyed  at  that 
time  manifested  its  habit  in  this  State  and  warrants  the  conclu- 
sion that  earlier  troubles  of  the  tree  probably  arose  from  other 
causes.  In  1904,  after  having  nearly  wiped  out  bearing  trees  in 
the  southern  counties  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  the  disease  began 
to  devastate  the  orchards  along  the  Sacramento  River  through 
the  vast  area  of  rich  valley  land  which  it  traverses  and  on  which 
is  situated  our  most  extensive  pear  acreage.  In  1905  resolute 
warfare  was  made  upon  the  blight,  with  a  large  appropriation  of 
State  funds,  by  the  plant  disease  experts  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  of  the  California  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  with  the  assistance  of  the  local  horticultural 
authorities.  It  was  probably  the  greatest  campaign  ever  made 
against  a  single  tree  disease  although  some  insect  warfares  have 
been  greater.  The  outlines  of  the  plans  followed  and  the  results 
attained  are  to  be  found  in  the  publications  of  the  institutions 
engaged.* 

In  a  later  chapter  on  Diseases  of  Trees  and  Vines,  an  outline 
of  procedure  against  pear  blight  will  be  given.  It  is  apprehended 
that  neither  paying  crops  nor  living  trees  can  be  counted  upon  in 
the  future  unless  the  disease  is  successfully  kept  under  control 
by  successful  fighting  or  by  recourse  to  some  form  of  natural 
immunity  which  can  be  discovered  or  developed  by  plant  breeding. 
It  is  probable  that  pears  can  not  be  grown  in  the  future  as  cheaply 
and  profitably  as  in  the  past  and  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
bravery  or  daring  in  pear  investments  at  the  present  time.  It 
is  encouraging,  however,  to  note  that  in  California  the  disease 
shows  signs  of  relaxing  the'  virulence  which  characterized  its  first 
attacks  and  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  here  as  elsewhere  it 
may  be  possible  to  have  the  blight  and  pears  also.  The  reader 
must  keep  himself  continually  informed  of  the  various  phases  of 
the  problem  as  they  will  arise,  by  careful  study  of  our  excellent 
California  horticultural  journals  and  of  later  publications  from  the 
official  sources  which  have  been  indicated. 


*  Reports  of  the  California  Commissioners  of  Horticulture,  1901  to  1906,  includ- 
ing Reports  on  California  Fruit  Growers'  Conventions  for  1905-6-7,  J.  W.  Jeffrey, 
Commissioner,  Sacramento.  Report  of  Plant  Pathologist,  University  Experiment 
Station,   Berkeley,   1906  and  1908. 


THE    PEAR    BLIGHT  3Q3 

The  very  exuberance  of  the  pear  in  California  seems  to  increase 
the  virulence  of  the  blight.  The  long  growing  season  with  its  con- 
tinual production  of  new  soft  tissue,  the  unseasonable  bloom  which 
attracts  bees  to  bring  new  supplies  of  blight  germs,  the  break 
of  new  shoots  from  root,  trunk  and  main  branches — all  these  make 
the  tree  subject  to  repeated  renewals  of  the  disease  in  its  most 
vulnerable  parts.  How  far  growth  can  be  repressed  by  scant  cul- 
tivation or  by  summer  pruning;  how  far  suppression  of  later  shoots 
and  blooms  is  practicable  and  whether  the  tree  can  be  depleted 
so  that  it  can  only  make  fair  sized  fruit  and  no  surplus  soft  tissue 
for  blight  invasion — all  these  are  cultural  problems  which  make 
pear  growing  very  interesting  to  the  enquiring  mind.  A  Sonoma 
grower  suggests  that  pruning  may  be  used  to  control  pear  blight 
in  the  following  manner :  It  is  the  natural  tendency  of  the  pear 
and  apple  while  young  to  form  fruiting  spurs  upon  the  body  and 
larger  branches  of  the  tree.  These  fruiting  spurs  produce  blos- 
soms from  year  to  year,  which  are  in  turn  as  liable  to  be  visited 
by  bees  or  other  insects  carrying  the  destructive  spores  of  the 
disease  as  are  the  blossoms  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  a  blossom  situated  upon  the  body  or 
larger  branches  of  a  tree,  becoming  infected,  would  communicate 
the  disease  directly  to  the  framework  of  the  tree,  with  the  result 
that  it  would  be  fatally  injured;  but  if  these  fruiting  spurs  are  all 
removed  from  the  body  and  larger  branches  by  pruning,  the  possi- 
bilities of  infection  in  this  way  are  overcome.  The  available  means 
of  gaining  entrance  to  the  tree  by  this  parasite  is  confined  to  the 
smaller  branches,  which  if  affected  can  be  cut  away  without 
severely  injuring  or  disfiguring  the  tree.  All  suckers  at  the  base 
of  the  tree  should  be  removed  at 'the  point  where  they  emerge 
from  the  trunk  or  the  roots  as  they  favor  the  entrance  of  blight 
to  the  root.  The  Leconte  root  is  being  used  because  of  its  resist- 
ance. 

The  gcab  fungus  which  seriously  afifects  some  varieties,  and 
notably  the  Winter  Nelis,  in  the  Coast  region,  is  identical  with  the 
scab  of  the  apple  and  will  be  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  tree 
diseases.  Because  Of  the  liability  of  the  Winter  Nelis,  to  this  dis- 
ease, and  because  of  its  irregular  bearing  in  the  coast  region,  there 
have  been  many  trees  grafted  over  into  varieties  better  suited  to 
coast  conditions.  The  Beurre  Clairgeau,  because  of  its  health, 
prolific  bearing,  and  acceptability  to  shippers,  was  largely  intro- 
duced in  this  way,  but  it  has  not  sold  as  well  as  expected.  Ordi- 
nary top  grafting  succeeds  admirably  with  the  pear.  Clapp's  Fav- 
orite and  other  varieties  have  also  been  worked  upon  Winter  Nelis 
but  they  are  apt  to  be  more  susceptible  to  blight  than  Winter 
Nelis  so  this  old  practice  is  now  of  less  value  than  formerly. 


304 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW     TO    GROW     THEM 


GATHERING   AND    RIPENING    OF    PEARS 


Many  pear  growers  make  the  common  mistake  of  allowing 
the  fruit  to  hang  too  long  on  the  tree,  instead  of  gathering  and 
ripening  in  a  cool,  dark  place.  Pears  should  be  picked  at  the  first 
indication  of  ripeness,  the  first  sign  being  a  tendency  of  the  stem 
to  part  from  the  spur  when  the  pear  is  gently  raised  up.  This 
test  applies  especially  to  the  Bartlett.  Picking  at  this  stage  and 
laying  away  in  the  dark  ripens  up  the  Bartlett  well.  When  picked 
at  this  stage  and  sent  overland  by  slow  freight,  they  ripen  en  route 
and  the  boxes  open  well  on  the  Eastern  markets.  There  are  a  few 
varieties  which  shrivel  if  ripened  under  cover,  but  the  rule  is  a  good 
one,  and  the  grower  will  soon  note  the  exceptions.  Many  desirable 
varieties  have,  no  doubt,  been  pronounced  poor  and  insipid  because 
allowed  to  ripen  on  the  tree. 

To  ripen  well,  pears  should  be  packed  in  tight  boxes  or  inclosed 
in  drawers.  They  do  not  do  as  well  as  apples  on  shelves  open 
to  circulation  of  air.  As  already  stated,  the  oily-skinned  apple 
endures  exposure  and  maintains  a  smooth,  ruddy  cheek  and  sound 
heart  in  spite  of  wind,  rain,  and  rough  weather.  The  pear  under 
similar  conditions  decays  rapidly. 

POLLINATION    OF    PEARS 

As  very  few  varieties  of  pears  are  largely  grown  in  California 
and  as  the  Bartlett  generally  bears  well  when  grown  in  large  acre- 
ages by  itself,  the  eastern  claim  that  the  Bartlett  is  self-sterile 
does  not  seem  to  be  justified  in  California  experience.  Recent 
observations  indicate  that  even  at  the  east  the  Bartlett  is  self- 
fertile  when  conditions  are  favorable  to  setting  of  the  fruit  and 
self-sterile  when  they  are  otherwise.  As  conditions  are  usually 
favorable  in  California  this  may  be  the  reason  why  its  self-fertility 
is  more  conspicuous  here  than  at  the  east.  It  has  been  individ- 
ually noted,  however,  that  the  White  Doyenne  is  a  good  fertilizer 
for  the  Bartlett.  The  Winter  Nelis  is  the  one  of  the  pears  com- 
mercially worth  growing  which  is  most  apt  to  be  fruitless,  but 
thus  far  association  with  other  varieties  has  not  been  demon- 
strated to  be  a  full  remedy.  For  the  assistance  of  those  who  desire 
to  test  pear  pollination  the  following  statement  is  made  of  the 
relative  dates  of  bloom  of  a  large  number  of  varieties,  based  upon 
records  kept  in  Tulare  County : 


VARIETY.  First  bloom.  FuH  bloom. 

Barry    March  10  March  20 

Bartlett   March  14  March  24 

Belle   Lucrative    March  14  March  26 

Beurrg   Clairgeau    March  11  March  22 

Beurr4  d'Amanlis    March  10  March  20 

Beurrg  d'Anjou    March  16  March  24 


WHEN    PEARS    BLOSSOM 


305 


VARIETY.  First  bloom.  Full  bloom. 

Beurr6  Diel    March  20  March  30 

Beurre    Giffard     March  16  March  26 

Beurrg   Grls   d'Hiver March  14  March  24 

BeurrS   Hardy    March  18  March  28 

Clapp's  Favorite    March  14  March  24 

Colonel  Wilder   March  14  March  24 

Counseiller   de   la    Cour March  12  March  22 

Dearborn's    Seedling    March  16  March  28 

Doyenne   d'Alencon    March  18  March  28 

Doyenne    d'Ete    March  18  March  28 

Doyenne  du  Cornice March  16  March  26 

Duchesse  d'Angoulene    March  12  March  20 

Easter  Beurre March  14  March  20 

Flemish  Beauty  March  20  March  30 

Forelle   March     2  March  10 

Frederick   Clapp    March  16  March  26 

Howell    March  14  March  24 

Jaminette   March  12  March  22 

Josephine  de  Malines March  12  March  22 

Keifer's    Hybrid    March     2  March  10 

Kennedy   March  14  March  24 

Lawrence    March  12  March  22 

Lawson    March  16  March  26 

Le  Conte  Feb.       28  March     2 

Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey March  10  March  20 

Seckel  March  14  March  24 

Sheldon    March  18  March  28 

Souvenir  du  Congr6s March  20  March  29 

Swan's  Orange  March  14  March  24 

Vernon  March     8  March  19 

White  Doyenne   March  14  March  24 

Winter  Nelis  March  12  '      March  20 


VARIETIES    OF   THE    PEAR 

Though  large  collections  of  famous  Eastern  and  European 
pears  have  been  brought  to  California,  the  peculiarity  of  the  local 
market,  and  demand  for  canning  and  shipping  has  led  to  concen- 
tration upon  very  few  sorts.  The  pears  chiefly  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia are  the  following,  arranged  approximately  in  the  order 
of  their  ripening: 


Harvest;  syn.  Sugar  Pear  (American). — Small,  roundish,  pale  yellow, 
brownish  in  sun,  brown  and  green  dots ;  flesh  v/hitish,  rather  dry  but  sweet ; 
tree  upright,  young  wood  olive  yellow  brown. 

Madeleine  (French). — Medium,  obovate  pyriform,  stalk  long  and  slender, 
set  on  the  side  of  a  small  swelling ;  pale  yellowish  green,  rarely  brownish  blush ; 
calyx  small,  in  shallow,  furrowed  basin ;  flesh   white,  juicy,  delicate. 

Wilder  Early  (American). — Small  to  medium,  yellow  with  red  cheek;  sweet, 
and  good.  Recently  introduced  and  profitable  for  local  sale  in  San  Diego 
county.  Should  not  be  confused  with  Col.  Wilder,  a  California  seedling  which 
has  gone  out  of  use. 

Bloodgood  (New  York). — Tree  short,  jointed,  deep  reddish  brown  wood; 
fruit  medium  turbinate,  incHning  to  obovate,  thickening  abruptly  into  stalk ; 
yellow,  sprinkled  with  russet  dots ;  calyx  strong,  open,  almost  without  depres- 
sion ;  stalk  obliquely  inserted,  without  depression,  short,  fleshy  at  its  base ; 
flesh  yellowish   white,  melting,   sugary,  aromatic ;   core  small. 


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CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Clapp's  Favorite  (Massachusetts). — Tree  a  strong  grower;  young  shoots 
dark  reddish  brown;  fruit  large,  sHghtly  obtuse  pyriform;  pale  lemon  yellow 
with  brown  dots;  flesh  fine,  melting,  juicy,  with  rich,  sweet  delicate,  vinous 
flavor;  resembles  Bartlett,  but  lacks  musky  flavor. 

Dearborn's  Seedling  (Massachusetts). — Young  shoots  long,  reddish  brown; 
under  medium  size ;  roundish  pyriform ;  smooth,  clear,  light  yellow,  with  few 
minute  dots ;  stalk  slender  set  with  very  little  depression ;  calyx  spreading  in 
shallow  basin;  flesh  white,  very  juicy,  melting,  sprightly. 

Lawson;  syn.  Comet  (New  York). — Medium  to  large,  bright  crimson  on 
yellow  ground ;  flesh  fine,  rich  and  sweet. 

Souvenir  du  Congres  (French). — Large  to  very  large  (exceeding  Bartlett 
and  Clapp's  Favorite,  to  both  of  which  it  bears  a  strong  resemblance)  ;  skin 
smooth,  bright  yellow  when  fully  ripe,  brilliant  carmine  in  the  sun ;  flesh 
resembling  Bartlett,  but  has  not  the  musky  flavor ;  firm  to  the  core ;  tree  a 
good  grower,  but  somewhat   subject  to  smut. 

Bartlett  (English). — Tree  a  strong  grower,  early  bearer,  and  healthy;  fruit 
large,  smooth,  clear  yellow,  sometimes  with  delicate  blush ;  stalk  moderately 
long,  stout  and  inserted  in  shallow  cavity ;  calyx  open ;  flesh  white,  fine 
grained,   juicy,  buttery,   highly  perfumed    (musky),  vinous   flavor. 

/Beurre  Hardy. — Large,  long  obovate,  sometimes  obscurely  pyriform ;  skin 
greenish  with  thin,  brown  russet ;  stalk  an  inch  long ;  cavity  small,  uneven, 
oblique,  basin  shallow ;  buttery,  somewhat  melting,  rich,  slightly  subacid ;  tree 
a  strong  grower. 

Flemish  Beauty  (Belgian). — Large,  obovate,  often  obscurely  tapering  to  the 
crown,  very  obtuse,  surface  slightly  rough,  with  some  reddish  brown  russet 
on  pale  yellow  ground;  flesh  juicy,  melting,  and  good  if  picked  early  and 
ripened  in  the  house. 

Seckel  (Pennsylvania). — Rather  small,  regularly  formed,  obovate;  brownish 
green,  becoming  dull  yellowish  brown,  with  russet  red  cheek;  stalk  slightly 
curved,  and  set  in  a  trifling  depression ;  calyx  small  and  set  in  a  very  slight 
depression;  flesh  whitish,  buttery,  very  juicy  and  melting,  with  peculiarly  rich, 
spicy  flavor  and  aroma. 

Howell  (Connecticut). — Rather  large,  roundish  pyriform,  light  waxen  yel- 
low, often  with  finely-shaded  cheek  thickly  sprinkled  with  minute  russet  dots 
and  some  russet  patches ;  stalk  medium,  without  cavity  and  sometimes  lipped ; 
sometimes  in  small  cavity ;  calyx  open  in  large,  uneven  basin ;  flesh  whitish, 
juicy,  brisk,  vinous. 

Duchess  d'  Angouleme  (France). — Very  large,  oblong  obovate;  somewhat 
uneven,  knobby  surface ;  dull  greenish  yellow,  streaked  and  spotted  with  russet ; 
stalk  long,  stout,  bent,  deeply  set  in  irregular  cavity;  calyx  set  in  somewhat 
knobby  basin;   flesh   white,   buttery,   and  juicy,   with   rich   flavor. 

Louise  Bonne  of  Jersey  (France). — Large  oblong  pyriform,  a  little  one- 
sided; glassy,  pale  green  in  shade,  brownish  red  in  the  sun,  numerous  gray 
dots ;  stalk  curved,  rather  obliquely  inserted,  without  depression,  or  with  a 
fleshy,  enlarged  base;  calyx  open  in  a  shallow  uneven  basin;  flesh  very  juicy, 
and  melting,  rich,  and  excellent;  very  prolific. 

Beurre  Diel  (Belgium). — Large,  varying  from  obovate  to  obtuse  pyriform; 
skin  rather  thick,  lemon  yellow,  becoming  orange  yellow,  marked  with  large 
brown  dots  and  marblings  of  russet;  stalk  stout,  curved  in  rather  uneven 
cavity ;  calyx  nearly  closed,  in  slightly  furrowed  basin ;  flesh  yellowish  white,  a 
little  coarse-grained  near  the  core;  rich,  sugary,  buttery,  delicious. 

White  Doyenne;  syn.  Virgalieu  (Franch). — Medium  to  large,  regular,  obo- 
vate ;  smooth,  clear  pale  yellow,  sprinkled  with  small  dots,  sometimes  red 
cheeked ;  stalk  brown,  little  curved,  in  small  round  cavity ;  calyx  small,  closed 
in  shallow  basin;  flesh  white,  fine-grained,  buttery,  rich,  and  high  flavored. 

Beurre  Bosc  (Belgium). — Large  pyriform,  a  little  uneven,  often  tapering 
long  and  gradually  into  the  stalk ;  skin  pretty  smooth,  dark  yellow,  dots  and 
streaks  of  cinnamon  russet,  slightly  red  on  one  side;  stalk  long,  rather  slender, 
curved ;  calyx  short,  in  shallow  basin ;  flesh  white,  melting,  buttery,  rich,  with 
slightly  perfumed  flavor. 


POPULAR    PEAR    VARIETIES 


307 


Onondaga;  syn.  Swan's  Orange  (Connecticut). — Large,  obtuse,  oval  pyri- 
form,  neck  very  short  and  obtuse,  body  large  and  tapering  to  obtuse  apex ;  flesh 
melting,  sprightly,  vinous.  A  vigorous,  upright  grower,  healthy;  yellow  shoots; 
sells  well  in  distant  markets. 

Beurre  Clairgeau  (France).— Large,  pyriform,  but  with  unequal  sides;  yel- 
low, shaded  with  orange  and  crimson,  thickly  covered  with  russet  dots,  some- 
times sprinkled  with  russet;  stalk  short,  stout  and  fleshy,  inserted  by  a  lip  at 
an  inclination  almost  without  depression;  when  lip  is  absent,  the  cavity  is 
uneven;  calyx  open;  flesh  yellowish,  buttery,  juicy,  granular,  sugary,  perfumed, 
vinous.     A  popular  variety  for  local  and  distant  markets. 

Beurre  d'Anjou  (France). — ^Large,  obtuse  pyriform;  stem  short,  thick,  and 
fleshy,  in  a  cavity,  surrounded  by  russet;  calyx  small,  open  in  small  cavity, 
russeted;  skin  greenish,  sprinkled  with  russet,  sometimes  shaded  with  dull 
crimson,  brown  and  crimson  dots;  flesh  whitish,  not  very  fine,  melting,  juicy, 
brisk,  vinous  flavor,  perfumed;  tree  a  fair  grower,  but  somewhat  affected  by 
fungus. 

Dana's  Hovey;  syn.  Winter  Seckel  (Massachusetts). — Small,  obovate,  obtuse 
pyriform;  greenish  yellow  or  pale  yellow,  with  much  russet  and  brown  dots; 
stalk  rather  short;  a  little  curved,  set  in  slight  cavity,  sometimes  lipped;  calyx 
open   and  basin   small;    flesh   yellowish,   juic>,   melting,   sweet,   aromatic. 

Vicar  of  WinkHeld  (France). — Large  and  long  pyriform;  pale  yellow,  fair 
and  smooth,  sometimes  with  brownish  cheek  and  marked  with  small  brown 
dots ;  stalk  slender,  obliquely  inserted  without  depression ;  calyx  large,  open, 
set  in  a  basin  very  slightly  sunk;  flesh  greenish  yellow,  juicy,  with  good 
sprightly  flavor. 

Doyenne  du  Cornice  (France). — Large,  varying,  roundish  pyriform,  or 
broad,  obtuse  pyriform ;  greenish  yellow  becoming  fine  yellow,  shaded  with 
crimson,  slightly  marked  with  russet  spots,  and  thickly  sprinkled  with  russet 
dots ;  stalk  short,  stout,  inclined  and  set  in  shallow  cavity,  often  russeted ;  calyx 
small,  open ;  basin  large,  deep  and  uneven ;  flesh  white,  fine,  melting,  aromatic. 
Very  profitable  during  last  few  years  in  eastern  shipments. 

Glout  Morceau  (Flemish). — "Rather  large,  varying  in  form,  but  usually 
short  pyriform,  approaching  obtuse  oval;  neck  very  short  and  obtuse;  body 
large  and  tapering  towards  crown;  often  considerably  ribbed;  green,  becoming 
pale  greenish  yellow ;  stalk  stout,  moderately  sunk ;  calyx  large ;  basin  dis- 
tinct, rather  irregular  flesh  white,  fine-grained,  buttery,  melting,  rich,  sweet, 
and  fine  flavor." — J.  J.  Thomas. 

Block's  Acme  (California  seedling,  by  A.  Block,  of  Santa  Clara). — Large 
and  very  handsome,  surpassing  Beurre  Clairgeau  in  size  and  color ;  regularly 
formed,  pyriform,  skin  pale  yellow,  covered  with  russet  all  over,  which  becomes 
a  fine  growing  red  on  the  side  exposed  to  the  sun ;  flesh  white,  crisp,  and 
melting,  juicy,  sweet,  and  slightly  musky;  a  pear  that  will  rank  foremost 
with  our  best  shipping  pears;  reserved  by  originator  for  his  own  export  trade. 

Winter  Nelis  (Belgium). — Medium,  roundish,  obovate,  narrowed  in  near 
the  stalk ;  yellowish  green,  dotted  with  gray  russet  and  a  good  deal  covered 
with  russet ;  stalk  rather  long,  bent,  and  set  in  narrow  cavity ;  calyx  open  in 
shallow  basin ;  flesh  yellowish,  white,  fine  grained,  buttery,  very  melting,  and 
full  of  rich,  sweet,  aromatic  juice. 

P.  Barry  (California  seedling  by  B.  S.  Fox).— Fruit  large,  elongated  pyri- 
form, a  little  obtuse ;  skin  deep  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  a  rich  golden  russet ; 
stalk  of  medium  length  and  thickness,  set  rather  obliquely  on  a  medium  cavity, 
sometimes  by  a  lip;  flesh  whitish,  fine,  juicy,  melting,  sweet,  slightly  vinous, 
and  rich.  "An  early  and  prolific  bearer.  December  to  January." — California 
Nursery  Co.  The  pear,  P.  Barry,  is  recommended  for  planting,  by  the  South- 
ern California  Nurserymen's  Association.  It  is,  to  some  extent,  displacing 
the  Winter  Nelis  as  a  more  healthy  tree  and  a  more  certain  bearer. 

Easter  Beurre  (France). — Large,  roundish,  obovate  obtuse,  often  rather 
square  in  figure ;  yellowish  green,  sprinkled  with  many  russet  dots  and  some 
russet  patches;    stalk   rather   short,   stout,    set   in   an   abruptly   sunken,   obtuse 


oQo  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

cavity;  calyx  small,  closed,  but  little  sunk  among  plaited  folds  of  angular 
basin;  flesh  white,  fine-grained,  very  buttery,  melting,  and  juicy,  sweet,  rich 
flavor;  was  successfully  shipped  from  California  to  England  as  early  as   1872. 

Pound. — Large,  pyriform ;  yellowish-green  with  red  cheek,  esteemed  for 
cooking;   reaches  enormous  size  in  this   State  as  already  noted. 

Kieffer  and  Le  Conte. — These  pears,  recently  introduced  as  especially  hardy 
varieties,  are  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  but  are 
usually  condemned  as  inferior  to  the  European  varieties  which  attain  such 
excellence  in  this  State.  The  Le  Conte  root  is  used  as  a  stock  for  the  Bartlett 
because  of  its  resistance  to  blight. 

Crocker's  Bartlett  (California). — Chance  seedling  on  place  of  L.  L.  Crocker, 
Loomis,  Placer  county.  Introduced  by  Mr.  Crocker  in  1902.  Described  in 
year  book,  1905,  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture ;  medium  to  large,  oblong, 
obovate,  pyriform ;  rich  golden  yellow,  somewhat  russety ;  quality  very  good ; 
keeps  until   March.     Claimed  to  be  blight-free  and  regularly  productive. 

Winter  Bartlett  (Oregon). — Chance  seedling  in  a  dooryard  in  Eugene, 
Oregon.  Introduced  in  California  by  Geo.  C.  Roeding,  of  Fresno.  Closely 
resembles  Bartlett  in  shape  and  appearance  and  flavor  but  a  little  coarser ; 
ripens  four  months  later  than  Bartlett  in  interior  situations  in  California  and 
promising  as  a  winter  pear. 

Pear  varieties  approved   by  California  growers. 

Upper  Central        Interior       Mountain 

VARIETIES.  coast  coast       valley  and     valley  and  Southern 

valleys.  valleys.        foot-hill,     plateaux.  California. 

Angouleme,  Duchess'd. . . .  ***** 

Anjou **  *  

Bartlett **  **  **  **  ** 

Bloodgood  

Bosc 

B.    S.    Fox 

Brandywine 

Clairgeau ■ 

Clapp's  Favorite 

Cornice 

Dana's  Hovey 

Dearborn 

Diel   

Easter  Beurre    

Emile  d'Heyst 

Flemish  Beauty  

Glout  Morceau  

Hardy,    Beurre    

Howell   

Kieffer  

Lawson    

Louise,  Bonne  de  Jersey.. 

Madeleine   

Onondaga   

P.   Barry   

Seckel  

Souv.  du  Congres 

Vicar  of  Winkfield     ...... 

Wilder,  Early  

White  Doyenne    *  *  *  

Winter  Bartlett *  *  *  

Winter  Nelis  *  **  **  ** 

*  Indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designated. 
**  Most  highly  commended. 


** 

**^ 

** 

** 

** 

** 

** 

** 

** 

** 

** 

** 

**    , 

CHAPTER   XXIII 
PLUMS    AND    PRUNES* 


^H  The  plums  of  California,  are  exceptionally  fine  in  appearance 
""^  and  of  high  quality.  Both  tree  and  fruit  have  thus  far  escaped 
the  parasites  which  have  wrought  greatest  injury  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  continent.  The  curculio  has  never  been  found  here, 
and  the  "black  knot,"  though  detected  in  some  of  the  indigenous 
species  of  the  genus  prunns,^  has  never  been  observed  in  our 
orchards.  The  tree  suffers,  it  is  true,  as  do  most  other  fruit  trees, 
from  various  pests  and  diseases  but  their  work  is  a  light  affliction 
compared  with  the  ravages  of  the  curculio  and  black  knot  which 
Eastern  plum  growers  have  to  contend  against.  Because  of  reduced 
planting  during  the  last  few  years,  the  plum  stands  second  in  point 
of  number  among  the  fruit  trees  of  California,  for,  as  noted  in 
Chapter  XX,  the  peach  now  holds  first  place.  Of  the  plums,  at 
least  four-fifths  are  those  varieties  designated  as  prunes.  This  is, 
of  course,  owing  to  the  profitable  shipping  demand  for  our  prune 
product,  while  ordinary  dried,  pitted  plums  are  expensive  in  pro- 
duction and  do  not  always  command  good  prices.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  large  trade  at  the  East  in  our  fine  plums  in  a  fresh  state. 
Some  varieties  stand  shipment  well,  and  are  large,  handsome  and 
in  some  cases  possessed  of  unique  characters,  resulting  from  Mr. 
Burbank's  work  with  the  Japanese  species  as  will  be  noted  later. 
Considerable  shipments  of  fresh  plums  have  been  made  from  Cal- 
ifornia to  England.  The  maximum  in  plum  profits  is  much  like 
that  with  other  fruits,  for  L.  W.  Leak,  a  Placer  County  grower, 
reported  in  1906  a  net  return  of  $759  from  an  acre  of  "Hungarian 
prunes." 

By  choosing  varieties  ripening  in  succession,  the  plum  season 
extends  from  May  to  December,  thus  enabling  the  California  plum 
grower  to  strike  the  Eastern  markets  both  early  and  late.  It  is 
on  record,  also,  that  second  crop  plums  have  ripened.  In  1904 
Judge  Leib,  of  San  Jose,  sent  to  Luther  Burbank,  on  December 
1,  ripe  fruit  from  a  tree  which  ripened  its  first  crop  on  July  4  of 
the  same  year. 


*  All  prunes  are  plums,  but  all  plums  are  not  prunes.  A  prune  Is  a  plum  which 
can  be  dried  without  the  removal  of  the  pit  without  fermenting:  the  result  being  a 
fleshy  pulp  with  a  high  degree  of  sweetness.  All  plums  which  will  not  do  this  are 
not  prunes,  even  though  the  word  may  appear  in  their  California  common  names. 

t  Found  on  prunus  demissa,  in  Tosemite  valley  and  in  Coast  range  in  Skn  Mateo 
County,  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Harkness.    Report  State  Board  of  Horticulture,  1883,  pp.  54,  55. 

309 


3J^Q  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

There  is  also  a  considerable  demand  for  plums  by  the  canners 
who  do  not  use,  however,  the  varieties  in  chief  demand  for  ship- 
ping. 


LOCALITIES   FOR  THE   PLUM 

The  plum  has  an  exceedingly  wide  range  in  California.  The 
trees  are  thrifty  and  profitable  even  from  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  coast  and  in  coast  valleys,  where  the  sea  winds  and  fogs 
intrude,  eastward  across  the  great  interior  valleys,  and  upwards 
upon  the  sides  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  In  the  upper  half  of  the 
State,  at  least,  wherever  there  is  sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil, 
good  plums  can  be  grown.  The  tree  is  quite  hardy,  but  in  situa- 
tions open  to  sweep  of  the  winds  there  has  been  found  to  be  decided 
advantage  in  belts  of  sheltering  trees  for  protection.  At  some 
points  subject  to  direct  coast  influences,  there  is  sometimes  loss 
by  cracking  of  the  fruit.  It  is  seldom  encountered  in  the  interior  val- 
ley, except  near  the  rivers  or  in  draws  where  the  damp  coast 
air  makes  its  way  through.  It  seems  to  be  worst  where  there  are 
marked  differences  in  atmospheric  humidity  within  short  periods 
of  time.  Where  the  percentage  is  quite  uniformly  high  or  low 
there  seems  to  be  less  trouble.  Some  years  conditions  usually 
restricted  to  more  exposed  coast  situations  prevail  in  the  interior 
valley,  and  the  result  is  unusual  prevalence  of  mildew  and  other 
moist  fungi  and  cracking  of  fruit  also,  though  they  have  no  rela- 
tion to  each  other  except  that  the  same  conditions  favor  both. 
Only  certain  varieties  are  thus  affected,  and  they  can  be  avoided 
where  the  trouble  is  found  to  exist. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  held  that  southern  California  was  not 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  plum,  but  the  experience  of  the  last 
few  years  has  shown  that  the  conclusion  was  too  broad.  The 
"French  prune"  demonstrated  its  success  adjacent  to  the  coast 
in  Santa  Barbara  County,  and  elsewhere,  in  the  low,  rich  lands  of 
the  Santa  Ana  Valley,  of  Orange  County,  in  the  interior  at  various 
points  on  the  rim  of  the  San  Gabriel  Valley,  in  Los  Angeles 
County,  notably  at  Pomona,  and  still  farther  inland  in  the  San 
Bernardino  Valley,  but  the  Southern  California  prune  product  is 
small  because  the  land  and  water  can  be  more  profitably  used  for 
other  fruits.  There  is,  however,  difficulty  in  some  dry  uplands 
where  the  tree  is  shy  in  fruiting  and  subject  to  serious  gumming; 
but  this  is  encountered  locally  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  Irrigation 
does  not  always  overcome  these  troubles,  and  yet,  no  doubt,  the 
arrangement  of  proper  moisture  conditions  is  important.  The 
tree  should  be  helped  to  make  one  good  growth  and  to  ripen  its 
wood  in  the  fall.  To  have  growth  checked  by  drouth  and  a  sec- 
ond start  made  later  in  the  season  is  not  desirable. 


I 


VALUE    OF    HYBRID    PLUMS 


311 


Still  it  must  be  admitted  that  prune  planting  in  the  interior, 
proceeding  with  such  rapidity,  has  encountered  some  soils  and 
situations  in  which  bearing  has  not  been  altogether  satisfactory. 
New  planters  should  confer  with  older  residents  before  making 
investments  in  prune  planting  in  interior  valleys  and  foot-hills. 

All  the  foregoing  observations  are  based  upon  the  behavior 
of  plums  of  European  origin;  descendants  of  the  prunus  domestica. 
One  of  the  grandest  contributions  to  the  extension  of  the  range 
of  the  plum  in  California  was  the  introduction  of  the  Asiatic  species, 
prunus  triflora  and  simoni.  Varieties  of  these  species  directly  intro- 
duced or  locally  developed  by  Burbank  and  others,  have  proved 
productive  in  places  where  the  domestica  varieties  were  abandoned 
as  shy  or  sterile.  To  estimate  the  value  of  these  varieties  one  has 
only  to  visit  the  home  fruit  gardens  of  southern  California  or  in- 
spect the  fruit-stands  of  Los  Angeles  which  are  continuous  exhibits 
of  fine  specimens  of  these  varieties  in  their  seasons.  Even  in  places 
where  the  domestica  varieties  are  largely  grown  the  Asiatic  vari- 
eties are  also  prominent  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  Wickson,  a 
Burbank  triflora-simoni  hybrid,  is  the  leading  shipping  plum  of 
California,  and  shipping  plums  are  chiefly  grown  in  the  central  and 
northern  regions  of  the  State.  Other  notable  Burbank  plums  of 
recent  introduction  will  be  included  in  the  descriptions  of  varieties 
at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 

SOILS    AND    STOCKS    FOR   THE- PLUM 

With  the  plum,  as  with  the  apricot,  the  subject  of  soils  and 
stocks  are  intimately  related,  but  the  whole  matter  has  been  won- 
derfully simplified  by  the  experience  of  the  last  few  years.  This 
relief  has  come  through  the  adoption  of  the  myrobalan,  or  cherry 
plum  {Prunus  myrohalana)  as  a  general  all-around  stock  for  plums 
and  prunes.  Before  this  practice  was  taken  up  the  effort  to  grow 
the  plum  on  its  own  roots  generally  resulted  in  getting  an  orchard 
full  of  suckers,  and  to  avoid  this,  plums  were  worked  on  peach 
roots  wherever  this  root  would  succeed  in  the  soil  to  be  planted. 
But  some  varieties  of  plums  do  not  take  kindly  to  the  peach,  and 
then  "double  working"  (putting  first  on  the  peach  a  plum  which 
is  known  to  take  well  and  then  on  that  plum  wood  the  variety 
desired)  was  followed.  The  use  of  the  myrobalan  does  away  with 
the  suckering  nuisance  and  the  need  of  double  working. 

There  was  considerable  discussion  a  few  years  ago  as  to  what 
is  the  true  myrobalan,  and  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  some  of 
the  refined  distinctions  formerly  claimed  have  been  abandoned. 
Seedlings  grown  from  the  seed  of  the  myrobalan  vary  as  do  other 
fruit  seedlings,  both  in  fruit  and  in  foliage  and  habit  of  trees,  and 
perhaps  this  fact  has  given  rise  to  the  distinction  between  "true" 
and  "false"  myrobalan,  so  called.     Practice  has  proceeded  without 


312 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


much  reference  to  the  discussion,  and  our  nurserymen  now  have 
/  large,  thrifty  myrobalan  trees  from  which  they  secure  their  seed 
supply.  Growing  stock  from  myrobalan  cuttings  is  but  little  prac- 
ticed. The  myrobalan  is  now  the  accepted  plum  stock  for  Cali- 
fornia, except  in  light,  alluvial,  well  drained  soils,  where  for  the 
French  prune,  peach,  or  almond  may  be  preferred.  Though 
described  by  some  authorities  as  a  dwarfing  stock,  it  is  found  to 
be  sufficiently  free  growing  in  California  to  suit  all  purposes,  and 
to  form  a  good  foundation  for  full  standard  trees,  though  the  peach 
and  almond  roots  in  proper  soils  give  a  quicker  and  greater  growth. 
Experience  has  shown  that  the  myrobalan  root  thrives  in  this 
State  both  in  low,  moist,  valley  lands,  in  comparatively  dry  lands, 
and  in  stiff  upland  soils. 

In  some  soils  especially  adapted  to  the  peach,  peach  roots  are 
preferred  as  stock  for  the  French  prune,  but,  as  already  said,  all 
plums  can  not  be  worked  directly  on  the  peach  root,  the  Robe  de 
Sergeant,  Columbia,  Yellow  Egg,  Washington,  and  Sugar  Prune 
for  example.  Sometimes  the  bud  or  scion  may  make  a  large 
growth,  but  the  two  woods  do  not  unite,  and  the  trees  break  off 
sooner  or  later. 

Some  work  the  plum  on  the  apricot  root,  and  report  success 
when  the  soil  suits  the  apricot  root,  and  the  gophers  do  not  get  at 
it.  But  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  French  prune  parts  from 
the  apricot  root  even  after  growing  some  time  upon  it.  There  are, 
however,  instances  of  the  French  prune  thriving,  and,  apparently 
making  good  union  with  the  apricot  root  and  some  of  the  softer 
wood  varieties,  like  the  Sugar  Prune,  take  kindly  to  it. 

Some  plums  do  well  on  the  almond  root  and  some  do  not.  The 
French  prune  succeeds  admirably  both  when  worked  on  young 
almond  stocks  and  top  grafted  in  old  almond  trees.  Success  is 
also  reported  with  the  Felenberg  on  the  almond.  But  the  almond 
root  is  suited  especially  for  warm,  dry  soils.  Excellent  results 
from  the  use  of  almond  stock  are  reported  from  the  interior  valley 
and  the  Sierra  foot-hills. 

Propagating  by  Sprouts. — The  French  practice  of  growing  cer- 
tain varieties  of  the  plum  by  means  of  sprouts  from  the  base  of 
old  trees  has  been  successfully  followed  in  this  State  by  Felix 
Gillet,  of  Nevada  City,  and  was  strongly  commended  by  him  as 
securing  a  tree  which  will  not  gum,  which  is  one  of  the  reasons 
why  the  same  practice  prevails  in  France.  Sprouts  growing  at 
the  foot  of  old  and  large  trees,  and  but  few  are  found  to  each 
tree,  are  taken  off  and  planted  close  together  in  a  bed  to  make  them 
root  well,  and  the  ensuing  spring  planted  in  nursery  rows,  where 
they  are  trained  like  any  other  trees,  and  transplanted  where  to 
remain,  when  branched.  For  this  method  it  is  necessary  that 
the  parent  tree  should  be  upon  its  own  roots,  else  one  is  apt  to 


PRUNING    THE    PRUNE 


313 


get  suckers  from  a  wild  stock.  Sprout-grown  trees  can  not,  how- 
ever, be  defended  unless  some  special  point  like  that  claimed  by 
Mr.  Gillet  can  be  attained  by  them. 

PLANTING   AND    PRUNING 

As  with  other  trees,  there  is  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
best  distance  apart  for  plum  trees.  The  present  tendency  is 
toward  wider  planting;  not  nearer  than  twenty  feet  is  the  usual 
advice,  and  on  rich  land,  twenty-two  or  twenty-four  feet  is  better. 

The  plum,  in  California,  is  a  most  rapid  grower;  six  to  ten 
feet  from  the  bud  or  graft  in  a  season,  and  about  as  much  after 
the  first  winter's  cutting  back,  is  not  at  all  unusual.  At  this  rate 
of  progress,  then  the  tree  soon  runs  up  and  away,  in  a  spindling, 
sprawling  fashion,  unless  severely  cut  back  for  the  first  few  years. 
Neglected  trees  of  some  varieties  show  long,  streaming  branches, 
arching  outward,  and  exposing  the  bark  to  sunburn  (to  which 
it  is  very  sensitive),  breaking  the  tree  to  pieces  as  the  fruit  gets 
weight,  and,  even  if  supported  by  props,  breaking  off  at  the  bear- 
ing of  the  prop.  This  condition  of  the  tree  can  only  be  obviated 
by  low  heading  and  moderate  cutting  back  each  year,  with  due 
regard  to  limiting  the  amount  of  bearing  wood  to  get  large  fruit. 
For  such  plum  varieties  the  suggestions  on  forming  the  tree  and 
subsequent  treatment  in  the  chapter  on  pruning  will  be  found  help- 
ful. This  reference  to  repressive  treatment  for  brittle-wood  plums 
is  emphasized  by  experience  with  the  Sugar  Prune  of  which 
Mr.  Leonard  Coates  of  Morgan  Hill  says : 

"The  sugar  prune  is  a  great  bearer,  but  the  tree  must  receive  very  different 
pruning  from  that  given  the  French  prune.  The  annual  growth  must  be  short- 
ened in  every  winter  from  one-half  to  two-thirds,  and  all  laterals  and  fruit 
spurs  must  be  cut  back  at  every  pruning.  Of  course,  judicious  thinning  out 
of  wood  also  needed.  This  will  result  in  a  very  large,  showy  product  for  long- 
distance shipments,  as  fresh  fruits,  which  have  brought  satisfactory  returns." 

Pruning  the  French  Prune. — Growers  of  the  French  prune,  and 
other  varieties  of  similar  growth  of  strong  and  pliable  wood,  have 
reached  substantial  agreement  as  to  the  best  practice.  The  old 
method  of  cutting  back  bearing  trees  has  been  abandoned.  Cutting 
back  the  young  tree  to  secure  sufficient  low  branching  is  followed 
by  thinning  of  shoots  from  this  low  head  so  that  the  tree  shall 
not  become  too  dense  or  carry  too  much  bearing  wood.  .  The 
strength  in  the  head  depends  upon  proper  spacing  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  branches  as  insisted  upon  in  the  chapter  on  pruning; 
and  large,  well-ripened  fruit,  which  is  essential  to  successful  and 
profitable  drying,  is  conditioned  upon  avoiding  excess  of  branches 
and  admission  of  sufficient  light  to  the  tree. 

A  rather  longer  central  stem  is  retained  than  in  the  old  style, 
and  a  central  stem  throughout  is  admissible  if  one  prefers  it  and 


314 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


;;--.->-f  J  -  -.'TTt., 


Young  and  old  French  Prune  trees,  never  pruned  and  assuming  natural  form. 


does  not  desire  to  dispense  with  it  as  the  first  step  toward  secur- 
ing a  more  open  tree.  Some  retain  the  longer  stem  at  planting, 
others  cut  back  to  eighteen  inches,  develop  three  side  branches 
upon  that  and  train  the  branch  from  the  top  bud  for  a  lengthen- 
ing of  the  stem,  and  bring  out  more  branches  upon  that  the  second 
year,  and  then  dispense  with  its  farther  extension.  The  engravings 
on  page  316  show  this  method  of  developing  the  head  of  a  young 
French  prune.  The  tree  was  cut  back  as  planting  in  orchard  to 
a  straight  switch  about  eighteen  inches  high.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  summer  this  showed  the  form  in  the  first  picture,  which  is 
marked  for  the  first  winter  pruning.  The  second  engraving  shows 
the  branching  developed  from  this  during  the  second  summer's 
growth,  also  marked  to  prune  away  some  undesirable  branches. 
Upon  a  tree  of  this  form  farther  cutting  back  is  not  desirable  as  it 
has  enough  well-placed  branches  to  form  the  tree. 

How  long  cutting  back  shall  continue  depends  partly  upon  the 
locality  and  partly  upon  the  notion  of  the  owner.  In  interior 
localities  the  tree  grows  with   great  rapidity  and  branches   more 


PRUNING    THE    PRUNE 


315 


WW--  V 


Al/. 


■vi 


V 


jYoung  and  old  French  Prune  trees  rationally  pruned  for  number  and  spacing  of  branches. 


freely.  During  the  third  summer  it  will  bear  some  fruit  if  not  cut 
back  the  previous  winter  and,  where  growth  is  so  rapid,  there  is 
little  danger  of  injuring  the  tree  by  early  bearing.  In  the  coast 
valleys  cutting  back  may  continue  another  year,  and  fruiting  be 
thus  postponed  a  year  to  get  another  summer's  freer  wood  growth. 
Though  cutting  back  may  properly  cease  early  with  the  French 
prune,  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  allow  the  trees  to  go  unpruned. 
Remove  of  defective  wood,  prevention  of  branch  crowding  and 
overbearing  are  of  the  highest  importance,  as  insisted  upon  in  the 
chapter  on  pruning. 

Special  Study  of  Varieties  in  Pruning. — ^The  points  just  ad- 
vanced apply  especially  to  the  management  of  the  French  prune. 
In  addition  to  what  has  been  already  said  about  the  Sugar  prune, 
the  grower  must  be  exhorted  to  study  the  habit  of  the  variety  he 
has  to  deal  with.  The  general  rules  for  handling  trees  with  differ- 
ent habits  of  growth  are  applicable  to  a  certain  extent  to  the  plum. 
When  to  apply  a  rule  or  make  an  exception  must  be  learned  by 


316 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


observation  and  experience.  Some  plums,  like  the  Silver  prune, 
have  something  of  the  growth  habit  of  the  peach,  and  this  is  also 
very  true  of  some  of  the  Japanese  varieties.  Cutting  back  in  winter 
and  pinching  in  summer  are  both  useful  facts  in  securing  lower 
branching  and  low-growing  fruit  spurs. 


Pruning  after  first  summer's 
growth  in  orchard. 


Growth  during  second  summer 
in  orchard. 


Grafting  the  Plum. — The  plum  has  been  grafted  and  regrafted 
in  the  constant  effort  to  secure  varieties  promising  superiority  in 
various  directions.  Within  the  scope  of  their  affinities  plums  graft 
easily  by  common  top-grafting  methods,  and  if  the  roots  are  strong 
the  new  growth  is  so  rapid  as  to  need  special  attention.  Mr. 
Luther  Bowers  gives  these  hints  about  pruning  such  growths : 
"From  practical  experience  I  have  found  out  that  the  Sugar  prune 
wood  should  only  be  summer  pruned  and  only  cut  while  the  shoots 
are  tender,  or  so  soft  that  the  top  can  be  pinched  out;  this  will 
cause  the  top  to  be  well  branched  and  this  should  be  done  at  least 
twice  during  the  first  year  of  the  graft.  This  system  will  avoid 
long,  slender  limbs.  After  a  graft  is  two  years  old  I  would  never 
cut  the  top  off  of  a  limb.  If  a  tree  gets  too  thick  a  top,  I  would 
cut  out  some  of  the  main  branches." 


CALIFORNIA    PRUNE    PROBLEMS 


THE    PLUMCOTS 


317 


One  of  the  most  striking  achievements  of  Mr.  Burbank  from 
the  fruit  grower's  point  of  view  is  the  cross  of  the  plum  and  the 
apricot,  which  he  has  very  fitly  named  the  **plumcot."  He  has 
combined  in  a  single  fruit  enough  of  the  diverse  characters  of 
two  fruits  to  that  the  ordinary  observer  can  recognize  the  com- 
bination clearly  and  distinguish  the  gift  of  each  to  it.  Mr.  Bur- 
bank  has  secured  several  such  crosses,  the  first  of  which  to  be 
made  public  is  the  ''Rutland,"  introduced  by  Mr.  George  C.  Roed- 
ing  in  1907.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  apricot 
with  a  deep  purple  velvety  skin.  One  of  its  striking  features 
is  its  brilliant  red  flesh  possessed  of  a  strong  sub-acid  flavor 
rendering  it  suitable  for  cooking,  jellies  and  jams,  and  it  ,is  in 
good  demand  for  such  uses.  When  fully  ripe,  it  is  an  excellent 
dessert  fruit  possessing  an  apricot-plum  flavor.  Obviously  the 
amalgamation  of  the  apricot  and  the  plum  must  produce  a  fruit 
unique  m  character,  hence  its  economic  value  is  a  matter  still 
largely  to  be  determined  by  its  development  and  the  exploitation 
of  its  uses. 

HOW     A     PRUNE     QUEST     DISTURBED     THE     PLUM 
FAMILY    IN    CALIFORNIA 

Referring  to  the  distinction  between  plums  and  prunes  cited 
at  the  opening  of  this  chapter,  and  to  the  extent  and  methods  of 
the  great  prune  industry  of  the  State  which  will  appear  later,  in 
Part  Eight  of  this  work,  it  may  be  stated  here  that  the  Cali- 
fornia prune  product  was  obviously  undertaken  in  emulation  of 
the  globe-trotting  French  prune,  which  had  attained  position  as 
the  leading  commercial  dried  fruit  of  the  world  long  before  Cal- 
ifornia arose  on  the  horticultural  horizon.  Naturally,  French 
settlers  in  California  bethought  themselves  of  transplanting  this 
great  industry  in  their  new  home,  and  Mr.  Louis  Pellier  intro- 
duced scions  from  the  district  of  Agen  to  his  place  near  San 
Jose  in  1856.  The  product  was  good,  and  planting  for  a  large 
output  was  entered  upon,  though  slowly  at. first.  There  was 
disappointment  over  the  fact  that,  while  all  fruits  came  sur- 
prisingly large  in  California,  the  dried  prunes  were  smaller  than 
the  great  French  prunes  in  cartons  and  cannisters  which  sold 
for  great  prices.  Had  we  secured  the  true  French  prune :  did 
they  not  have  larger  ones  which  they  were  holding  back  from 
us?  This  was  the  great  question  of  five  decades  ago.  Some 
nurserymen  of  that  day  had  spirits  of  enterprise  larger  than 
their  consciences.  If  the  people  demand  larger  prunes  they 
must  have  them,  surely.  Because  of  the  small  average  size  of 
the  prunes  of  Pellier's  introduction,  they  christened  that  variety 
''petite    prune    d'Agen,"    which    was    subsequently    corrupted    into 


3X8  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

"petty  prune" — a  free  translation  and  a  mispronunciation  at  the 
same  time,  for  a  prune  which  seemed  to  be  too  small  and  inferior. 
The  people  must  have  something  large,  and  they  happened  to 
mix  a  little  German  into  the  title  which  they  manufactured,  and 
offered  trees  of  the  "gros  prune  d'Agen."  When  shown  that  if 
the  French  had  such  fruit  it  would  probably  be  called  "grande" 
and  not  *'gros,"  because  the  French  word  "gros"  is  not  a  compli- 
mentary term,  the  propagators  simply  changed  their  geographical 
base  and  declared:  "This  immense  prune,  just  what  you  need 
to  beat  the  French,  is  really  German,  and  if  you  desire  you  may 
call  it  Hungarian  prune."  It  of  course  did  not  matter  much 
what  it  was  called,  because  it  did  not  come  from  either  France 
or  Hungary,  but  was  the  fine,  old,  large,  light  red,  English  plum, 
properly  called  Pond's  Seedling,  re-christened  in  California  to 
meet  a  long-felt  want.  But  it  did  not  meet  such  a  want;  it  would 
not  dry  sweet  nor  fleshy,  but  became  merely  a  skin  and  pit,  with 
a  sour  streak  between.  Still  the  question  persisted :  Have  we  the 
true  French  prune?  It  was  definitely  settled  by  the  late  W.  B. 
West  of  Stockton,  who  visited  France  in  1878,  and  after  close 
examination  of  the  trees,  announced  that  the  variety  grown  in 
California  was  really  the  prune  d'Agen,  and  that  we  had  made  no 
mistake  so  far  as  getting  the  main  standard  variety  of  French  prune 
was  concerned. 

But  still  we  needed  a  variety  which  would  run  more  to  large 
sizes,  and  how  to  get  it,  with  sweetness  and  flesh,  characters 
which  would  resemble  the  best  French  product,  was,  and  even 
now  is,  still  a  question.  One  of  the  early  introductions  to  meet 
this  end  is  now  generally  known  as  Robe  de  Sergeant.  Here 
again  confusion  attends  the  name.  Robe  de  Sergeant  is  one  of 
the  synonyms  of  prune  d'Agen,  and  yet  the  fruit  we  secured 
was  different.  Much  discussion  was  given  to  the  elucidation  of 
this  problem,  and  the  conclusion  seemed  to  be  that  the  variety 
is  grown  in  France,  but  in  another  district,  and  is  generally  con- 
sidered inferior  to  the  prune  d'Agen.  Still  it  runs  larger,  and 
has  sold  well,  even  though  of  distinctly  different  quality,  and 
would  probably  have  cut  a  much  larger  figure  in  California 
prune  production  if  it  had  shown  itself  to  be  more  free  and  reg- 
ular in  bearing.  The  same  is  true  of  the  "prune  d'ente,  or 
Imperial  epineuse,"  which  has  been  quite  widely  planted,  but 
because  of  shy  bearing,  especially  when  attacked  by  the  thrips, 
as  discussed  upon  another  page  of  this  book,  and  because  of  the 
difficulty  in  drying  such  a  large  prune  which  ripens  rather  late, 
this  variety,  of  which  so  much  was  expected,  has  fallen  into  dis- 
favor, and  many  which  were  grafted  in  have  been  grafted  out 
again.  Other  introductions  made  much  earlier,  like  the  German 
and  Italian,  also  fell  out  of  the  race  very  early,  for  shy  bearing 
and  for  different  flesh   characters.     Although   the   latter  leads   in 


PLUMS    WHICH    ARE    NOT    PRUNES 


319 


Oregon  and  other  States  north  of  us,  it  is  out  of  California  cal- 
culations. The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  now  is  that  we 
have  never  secured  from  abroad  a  better  than  the  one  which 
came  50  years  ago — the  true  prune  d'Agen.  We  have  learned 
to  grow  it  better,  to  seek  places  where  it  comes  larger  and  in 
full  quality;  to  use  irrigation  when  it  is  needed  by  the  tree  to  do 
its  best;  to  guard  against  overbearing  by  reducing  the  amount 
of  bearing  wood  and  excessive  branching;  to  strengthen  the  ,soil 
by  fertilization,  and  to  grade  the  fruit  into  sizes  which  commend 
themselves  to  different  demands.  Here  we  are  again,  doing  our 
main  business  at  the  old  stand,  but  knowing  how  to  do  it  better. 
Have  we  anything  more  to  expect?  Probably  nothing  from  old 
varieties,  for  we  have  prospected  them  all  from  a  prune-making 
point  of  view,  taking  Coe's  Golden  Drop  plum,  or  its  seedling, 
for  the  Silver  Prune,  and  canceling  all  others  as  possibly  good 
plums  for  various  uses,  but  not  for  prunes. 

Probably  our  only  expectation  lies  along  the  line  of  plant 
breeding,  although  nothing  to  supplant  the  prune  d'Agen  has 
yet  been  attained.  The  Giant  prune  is  a  large  red  plum ;  several 
Oregon  prunes  are  simply  large  red  plums.  The  standard  of 
sugar  in  the  prune  d'Agen  as  grown  in  California  is  from  15  to 
23  per  cent  of  sugar  in  the  fresh  juice,  according  to  degree  of 
ripeness  and  localities  in  which  the  fruit  is  grown.  The  sugar 
in  Pond's  Seedling  and  in  the  large  red  plums  just  named  is  less 
than  10  per  cent — sometimes  very  much  less.  But  percentage 
of  sugar  in  the  juice  is  not  the  whole  story;  there  are  tissue  or 
flesh  characters  which  are  essential  also.  Mr.  Burbank's  Sugar 
prune  answers  the  sugar  requirement;  it  is  a  free  bearer  and 
early  ripening  variety,  and  it  dries  easily  though  large ;  but  it 
has  not  the  fine  grain  nor  distinctive  flavor  of  the  prune  d'Agen, 
and  it  becomes  a  good  plum  for  shipping  and  possibly  for  other 
plum  purposes.  But  Mr.  Burbank  has  many  of  the  plum  family 
in  training,  and  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  he  should  announce 
at  any  time  a  variety  educated  fully  up  to  the  very  definite  Cali- 
fornia requirements,  which  he  fully  understands.  Others  are 
also  working  at  the  problem,  and  the  next  generation  of  California 
prune  growers  may  attain  what  the  last  and  present  have  striven 
for.  The  most  promising  line  at  the  present  time  is  the  search 
for  better  types  of  the  Prune  d'Agen  which  are  found  here  and 
there,  arising  from  natural  variation.  Mr.  Leonard  Coates  of 
Morgan  Hill,  is  giving  particular  attention  to  this  subject. 

POLLINATION    OF    PLUMS 

The  shy  bearing  of  certain  plums  is  probably  due  to  lack  of 
pollination,  either  through  the  self-sterility  of  the  variety  or 
lack  of  acceptable  pollinating  agencies.  Bearing  can  be  induced 
in  many  cases,  no    doubt,    by  either    planting    or    grafting-in  of 


320 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


efifective  pollinating  varieties.  But  this  is  not  always  profitable. 
For  instance,  there  are  many  instances  proving  that  the  Tragedy 
can  be  brought  to  greater  bearing  by  the  presence  of  Clyman, 
but  an  early  variety  like  the  Clyman  is  not  worth  growing  for 
sale  in  a  late  district,  though  in  an  early  district  both  are  valuable 
as  shipping  plums  and  should  be  planted  together.  The  pollina- 
tion of  plums  has  not  been  given  as  much  attention  as  of  other 
fruits. 


Plums  and   Prunes  approved   by  California   growers 


VARIETIES. 


Abundance   

Agen,   Prune   d' . . .  . 

Bradshaw 

Burbank    

Chabot 

Climax   

Clyman    

Coe's  Late  Red.... 

Columbia 

Damson 

Diamond   . 

Duane  Purple  

German  Prune   . . . . 

Giant    

Golden  Drop,  Coe's. 

Golden   Prune   

Grand  Duke  

Green  Gage   

Hale    

Imperial   Epineuse 

Imperial  Gage 

Italian  Prune    . . . . , 

Jefferson 

Kelsey 

Peach   

Pond   (Hungarian) 

Red  June 

Robe  de  Sergeant.. 

Royal  Hative    

Satsuma 

Silver   

Simon 

Sugar   

Tragedy   

Washington 

Wickson    

Yellow  Egg    


Upper 
coast 
valleys. 


Central        Interior       Mountain 

coast        Valley  and    valleys  and  Southern 

valleys.       foot-hills.       plateau.  California. 


*  Indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designated. 
'*  Most   highly   commended. 


POPULAR    PLUMS 


321 


VARIETIES    OF    PLUMS    AND    PRUNES 

As  with  other  fruits,  comparatively  few  varieties  of  the  plum 
are  largely  grown  in  California,  and  the  list  is  continually  being 
reduced.  The  following  tabulation  is  the  result  of  a  very  wide 
inquiry  made  during  the  year  1907: 

Simon  (Prunus  Simoni). — Medium  to  large,  roundish,  flattened,  with  cavi- 
ties at  base  and  apex ;  brick  red,  small  yellow  spots ;  stalk  stout  and  short ; 
flesh  yellow,  adhering  to  flattened  pit ;  largely  grown  for  shipment  in  early 
interior  regions  where  it  has  good  quality ;  lacks  flavor  and  cracks  badly  near 
the  coast.  , 

Climax  (Burbank). — Large;  very  early;  heart-shaped;  deep  red;  flesh  yel- 
low.    Popular  for  shipping  in  places  where  it  does  not  crack  badly. 

Clyman  (California  seedling  introduced  by  Leonard  Coates). — Large,  rourwl- 
ish  oblong,  flattened  suture  indistinct ;  mottled  reddish  purple,  beautiful  blue 
bloom ;  freestone ;  flesh  firm,  dry  and  sweet ;  prolific ;  the  leading  early  plum 
for  shipment. 

Red  June  (Japanese). — Medium  to  large,  deep  red  flesh  light  yellow,  firm, 
good  quality.     The  best  of  the  early  Japanese  plums. 

Tragedy  (California  seedling). — Medium  to  large,  suture  shallow,  wide  and 
extending  beyond  apex ;  dark  purple ;  flesh  yellowish  green,  sweet  and  well 
flavored ;  freestone.  Very  valuable  for  shipping  from  early  regions  in  all  parts 
of  the  State. 

Ahundance  (Japanese)  ;  syns.  Yellozv-flcshcd  Botan,  Mikado  of  Hinclay. — 
Large,  globular  with  point  at  apex ;  cherry  color  covered  with  white  bloom ; 
flesh  yellow,  juicy  and  rich.     Popular  for  shipment  from  early  regions. 

California  Red  (California  seedling).— Introduced  by  J.  T.  Bogue,  of  Marys- 
ville.     Large,  light  red,  firm  flesh  and  small  pit.     A  good  shipping  plum. 

Peach  (French,  prune  peche). — Very  large  loundish  oblate,  regular,  flat- 
tened at  ends ;  suture  distinct,  shallow ;  color  varying  from  salmon  to  light 
brownish  red ;  stalk  very  short,  cavity  narrow,  shallow,  flesh  rather  coarse, 
juicy,  sprightly,  free  from  the  nearly  round,  very  flat,  much  furrowed  stone; 
shoots   smooth.     A  prominent  variety   for  early  eastern  shipment. 

Royalc  Hative  (French). — Medium  roundish,  slightly  wider  at  base;  light 
purple,  stalk  half  an  inch  long,  stout,  scarcely  sunk ;  flesh  amber  yellow,  with 
rich,  high  flavor,  nearly  free  from  the  small,  flattened,  ovate  stone ;  shoot! 
very  downy.     Grown  as  an  early  market  plum  and  for  eastern  shipment. 

Bradshazv. — Large,  obovate,  with  obtuse  suture  on  one  side,  sometimes  with 
very  slight  neck ;  dark  purple,  with  light  blue  bloom ;  stalk  three-fourths  inch 
long;  cavity  narrow;  flesh  a  little  coarse,  becoming  light  brownish  purple,  at 
first  adhering,  but  becoming  nearly  free  when  fully  ripe;  juicy,  good,  slightly 
acid ;  tree  vigorous ;  shoots  purple,  smooth.  Reported  from  Sacramento  county 
as  blooming  late  and  seldom  injured  by  frost.     Not  in  high  favor. 

Green  Gage  (French).-— Rather  small,  round;  suture  faint  green,  becoming 
yellowish  green,  usually  with  reddish  brown  dots  and  network  at  base ;  stalk 
half  to  three- fourths  inch,  scarcely  sunk;  flesh  pale  green,  melting,  juicy,  ex- 
ceedingly  rich,   and   flavor   excellent ;    shoots   smooth. 

Burbank.— TreQ  imported  from  Japan  by  Luther  Burbank.  Named  "Bur- 
bank"  by  Professor  Van  Deman.  Tree  usually  vigorous,  with  strong,  upright 
shoots,  and  large,  rather  broad  leaves ;  comes  into  bearing  very  early.  Almost 
globular,  being  five  and  a  half  inches  around  horizontally,  and  five  and 
five-eighths  inches  around  vertically ;  rich  cherry  red,  slightly  mottled  with  yel- 
low and  freely  dotted  with  same  tint;  flesh  deep  yellow,  juicy,  very  sweet,  and  of 
fine,  somewhat  peculiar,  but  very  agreeable  flavor ;  pit  is  very  small,  three- 
fourths  by  a  trifle  over  half  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Duane's  Purple  (New  York). — Very  large,  oblong  oval,  longer  on  one  side; 
slightly  narrowed  towards  the  stalk;  reddish  purple,  bloom  lilac;  stalk  three- 
fourths  inch;   slender;  cavity  narrow   flesh   juicy,   moderately  sweet,   and  mod- 


322 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


shoots    very   downy   and    leaves    large 


erate   flavor,   mostly   adhering   to   stone 
and  downy  beneath. 

Washington  (New  York). — Very  large,  roundish  oval,  suture  obscure,  dis- 
tinct at  base ;  yellowish  green,  faintly  marbled,  often  with  pale  red  blush ; 
stalk  half  to  three-fourths  inch ;  slightly  downy ;  cavity  wide,  shallow ;  flesh 
rather  firm,  sweet,  mild,  very  rich  and  lucious,  free  from  the  pointed  stone; 
shoots  downy;  very  vigorous. 


Burbank's  Wickson  Plum. 


Wickson. — A  crossbred  by  Luther  Burbank ;  form  suggests  the  Kelsey,  but 
more  symmetrical ;  in  ripening,  the  color  develops  from  a  deep  cherry  red  down 
to  a  rich  claret  as  full  ripeness  is  attained.  The  color  is  solid  and  uniform. 
The  flesh  is  of  amber  tint,  very  juicy  and  translucent;  the  pit  is  small  and 
shapely,  the  flavor  is  striking  and  agreeable,  but  likely  to  be  deficient  near 
the  coast.     The  most  popular  shipping  plum  in  the  State. 

Yellozv  Egg;  syns.  White  Egg,  White  Magnum  Bonuni  (English). — Very 
large,  oval,  narrow  at  ends,  necked  at  base,  suture  distinct ;  stalk  one  inch, 
not  sunk,  surrounded  by  fleshy  ring  at  insertion ;  light  yellow,  bloom  thin, 
white,  flesh  firm,  rather  acid  until  fully  ripe,  and  then  sweet,  adheres  to  the 
pointed  stone. 

Jefferson  (New  York). — Large,  oval,  base  slightly  narrowed,  suture  slight; 
greenish  yellow,  becoming  golden,  with  reddish  cheek ;  bloom  thin,  white ;  stalk 
one  inch,  but  httle  sunk  or  not  at  all;  flesh  rich  yellow,  very  rich,  juicy,  high 
flavored  and  luscious,  adheres  partly  to  its  long,  pointed  stone ;  shoots  smooth ; 
tree  a  slow  grower,  but  productive. 

Columbia  (New  York). — Very  lar^e,  nearly  globular,  one  side  slightly 
larger;  brownish  purple,  reddish  brown  where  much  shaded,  with  many  fawn- 
colored  dots;  bloom  blue,  copious;  stalk  one  inch,  rather  stout;  cavity  small; 
flesh  orange,  very  rich  and  sweet,  free  from  the  stone,  which  is  very  small 
and  compressed.     Shoots  downy,  stout,  blunt,  spreading;  leaves  nearly  round. 

Satsuma;  syn.  Blood  Plum  of  Satsuma.— Introduced  and  first  fruited  in  this 
country  by  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa  Rosa.  Described  by  Prof.  H.  E.  Van 
Deman,    U.    S.    Pomologist,    as    follows:     "Leaves    more    lanceolate    than    those 


POPULAR    PLUMS  323 

of  Kelsey;  fruit  averages  about  two  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter,  nearly 
round,  and  but  slightly  sutured  on  one  side ;  surface  dark  red,  under  a  thick 
bloom ;  dots  rather  conspicuous  and  numerous ;  flesh  dark  purplish  red,  which 
has  caused  the  name  of  'Blood  Plum  of  Satsuma'  to  be  given  by  some;  stone 
very  small  and  pointed."     Chiefly  grown. in   Southern   California. 

Red  Magnum  Bonum  syn.  Red  Egg. — Large,  oval,  tapering  to  the  stalk; 
suture  strong,  one  side  swollen ;  deep  red  in  the  sun ;  slight  bloom ;  stalk  one 
inch,  slender,  cavity  narrow ;   flesh  greenish,  coarse,  subacid ;   shoots  smooth. 

Imperial  Gage  (New  York). — Medium  size,  oval,  suture  distinct;  stalk 
three-fourths  inch,  slightly  hairy,  evenly  sunk ;  green,  slightly  tinged  with 
yellow,  with  marbled  green  stripes ;  bloom  copious  and  white ;  flesh  greenish, 
juicy,  melting,  rich,  and  delicious,  usually  free  from  the  oval,  pointed  stone; 
tree  very  vigorous  and  productive ;  shoots  long  upright,  slightly  downy ;  leaves 
with  slight  shade  of  blue.     A  popular  canning  variety. 

Damson  (English). — Small,  roundish  oval;  purple, '  with  thick  blue  bloom; 
melting,  juicy,  subacid. 

German  Prune  {Common  Quetsche,  Germany). — "This  name  has  been 
applied  in  this  State  to  numerous  plums  and  prunes  which  are  sold  under  it. 
The  fruit  of  the  true  German  prune  is  long  oval,  and  swollen  on  one  side ; 
skin  purple,  with  thick  blue  bloom ;  flesh  firm,  green,  sweet,  with  a  peculiar 
pleasant  flavor ;  separates  readily  from  the  stone." — John  Rock.  Complaint 
is  made  in  many  localities  of  the  tendency  of  the  variety  to  drop  before  ripen- 
ing, almost  the  whole  crop   sometimes  dropping. 

Kelsey  Japan. — Trees  brought  from  Japan  by  the  late  Mr.  Hough,  of  Vaca- 
ville,  in  1870,  and  purchased  by  the  late  John  Kelsey,  of  Berkeley,  who  propa- 
gated and  fruited  them  for  several  years.  First  wide  distribution  was  made 
by  W.  P.  Hammon  &  Co.,  in  1874,  who  named  the  fruit  after  Mr.  Kelsey. 
The  following  description  is  by  H.  E.  Van  Deman,  U.  S.  Pomologist,  from 
California  and  Florida  specimens :  "Tree  upright  in  growth,  leaves  narrow, 
twigs  brownish  gray.  Fruit  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  inches 
diameter,  heart-shaped,  with  a  distinct  suture  on  one  side  from  stem  to 
apex ;  stem  is  short,  and  set  in  a  depression  at  the  larger  end ;  colors  mixed 
yellow  and  purple,  which  vary  in  depth,  but  rarely  make  a  brilliant  appear- 
ance, covered  with  a  bloom ;  flesh  yellow,  very  firm,  and  clings  to  the  stone, 
which  is  rather  small,  and  nearly  always  partly  surrounded  by  a  cavity ;  when 
fully  ripe  the  quality  is  very  good."  Very  widely  grown;  is  in  less  favor 
than  formerly  in  interior  valleys  where  color  is  not  well  developed.  Where 
the  fruit  is  of  good  color  it  is  profitable  for  shipping  and  is  highly  regarded 
everywhere  for  domestic  use. 

Quackenbos  (New  York). — Large,  oblong  oval;  deep  purple;  suture  faint; 
stalk  short,  slightly  sunk ;  slightly  coarse,  sprightly,  sweet  and  subacid ;  partly 
freestone. 

Victoria  (English). — Large,  obovate,  suture  distinct;  color  a  fine  light  red- 
dish purple ;  stem  half  inch,  cavity  rather  deep  and  narrow ;  flesh  yellow,  pleas- 
ant ;  clingstone ;  next  to  Pond's  Seedling  in  size,  beauty  and  productiveness. 

Hungarian  Prune;  English  Pond's  Seedling;  Gros  Prune  d'Agen  (English). 
— This  variety  was  brought  to  San  Jose  probably  about  1856,  and  in  some  unac- 
countable way  was  first  contrasted  with  the  French  prune  and  called  the 
"great  prune  of  Agen ;"  afterwards,  also  in  a  mysterious  way,  it  took  the 
name  "Hungarian  prune."  It  is  still  marketed  by  these  names  both  here 
and  at  the  East.  The  true  name  is  English  Pond's  Seedling.  Fruit  very 
large,  ovate,  slightly  tapering  to  stalk ;  skin  thick,  reddish  violet,  with  numer- 
ous brown  dots,  and  covered  with  handsome  bloom;  rather  coarse,  juicy, 
sweet ;  a  very  showy  fruit ;  tree  a  strong  grower  and  prolific  bearer ;  fruit 
has  a  tendency  to  double ;  sells  well  in  local  and  distant  markets  on  its  style 
and  is  largely  grown. 

Giant. — Burbank  seedling ;  very  large,  dark  crimson  upon  3^cllow  ground ; 
fle.sh  yellow,  flavor  good ;  freestone.  A  shipping  plum,  disappointing  as  a 
drying  plum. 


324 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO     GROW     THEM 


Splendor. — Burbank  seedling;  medium  size  but  larger  than  French  prune; 
clear  red,  drying  dark,  does  not  shake  from  the  tree ;  earlier  than  French  prune. 

Sugar. — Burbank  seedling,  introduced  in  1898;  large  and  sweet;  sugar  in 
fresh  fruit  23.92  per  cent ;  not  a  good  prune  but  valuable  for  shipping ;  oval, 
slightly  flattened ;  dark  purple  with  thick  white  bloom ;   freestone. 

■^  Imperial  Epineuse  S3^n.  Clairac  Mammoth. — Introduced  in  1884  by  Felix 
Gillet  and  in  1886  by  John  Rock.  Described  by  Mr.  Rock  as  follows:  "Uni- 
formly large  size,  reddish  or  light  purple,  thin  skin,  sweet  and  high  flavor." 
Described  by  Mr.  Gillet :  "Uniformly  large,  more  oval  than  the  French 
prune ;  nearly  of  the  same  color  but  somewhat  lighter  or  reddish  purple ;  earlier 
than  the  French  and  with  thinner  skin."  Fruit  grown  by  Mr.  Rock  analyzed 
at  the  State  University  in  1898,  showed  20.4  per  cent  of  sugar  against  18.53 
per  cent  average  of  three  analyses  of  French  prune.  Largely  planted  and 
grafted  in,  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  as  a  drying  prune  but  irregular  in 
bearing. 

There  has  been  quite  widely  planted  another  prune  called  Imperial  which 
is  very  inferior  in  sugar  content  and  likely  to  prove  much  less  satisfactory. 


Robe  de  Sergeant. 


Prune  d'Agen. 


^  Prune  d'  Agen;  syn.  Petite  Prune  d'  Agen;  French  Prune,  etc. — This  is 
the  drying  prune  at  present  most  widely  grown  in  this  State.  It  is  described 
by  John  Rock  as  follows:  "Medium-sized,  egg-shaped,  violet  purple,  very 
sweet,  rich  and  sugary;  very  prolific  bearer."  The  first  trees  of  the  kind 
were  grown  by  Louis  Pellier,  at  San  Jose,  about  the  year  1857,  the  graft 
having  been  brought  from  France  by  his  brother  in  December,  1856.  The 
identity  of  this  variety  (which  was  first  largely  grown  in  the  neighborhood 
of  San  Jose)  with  the  variety  chiefly  grown  in  the  French  district  tributary 
to  Agen,  was  first  announced  by  W.  B.  West,  of  Stockton,  in  the  year  1878, 
during  his  visit  to  France. 

_j      Robe  de  Sergeant. — Though  this  term   is  given   in  Downing  as  a   synonym 
of   Prune  d'Agen,  and  seems  also  to  be  in   French  a   synonym    for  the   d'Fnte 


BURBANK'S    NEWER    PLUMS 


325 


prunes ;  another  prune  grown  in  this  State  from  an  importation  by  John 
Rock,  is  quite  distinct  from  the  foregoing.  Mr.  Rock  describes  the  variety 
as  follows:  "Fruit  medium  size,  oval;  skin  deep  purple,  approaching  black, 
and  covered  with  a  thick  blue  blo(^m ;  flesh  greenish  yellow,  sweet,  and  well- 
flavored,  sugary,  rich  and  delicious,  slightly  adhering  to  the  stone."  This 
variety  makes  a  larger,  darker-colored  dried  prune  than  the  Prune  d'Agen, 
and  has  sold  in  some  cases  at  a  higher  price.  It  has  recently  been  in  disfavor 
in  coast  valleys  for  defective  bearing,  but  is  more  satisfactory  at  some  interior 
points. 

Bulgarian. — "An  undetermined  variety  grown  under  this  name,  chiefly  in 
the  vicinity  of  Haywards,  Alameda  County ;  above  medium  size ;  almost  round ; 
dark  purple ;  sweet  and  rich,  with  pleasant  acid  flavor ;  tree  a  vigorous  grower, 
and  an  early,  regular  and  profuse  bearer." — John  Rock. 

Coe's  Golden  Drop  (English). — Very  large,  oval,  suture  distinct,  one  side 
more  enlarged,  necked;  light  yellow,  often  dotted  red  to  the  sun;  stalk  three- 
fourths  inch,  rather  stiff;  flesh  yellowish,  firm,  juicy,  and  rich,  closely  adher- 
ing to  the  pointed  stone ;  shoots  smooth,  rather  glossy.  A  standard  late  variety 
for  canning. 

Silver  Prune  (Oregon). — Originated  with  W.  H.  Prettyman,  who  says: 
"It  is  a  seedling  from  Coe's  Golden  Drop,  which  it  much  resembles,  but  it 
is  much  more  productive."  Profitable  as  a  bleached  prune,  but  defective  in 
bearing  in  some  California  districts.  A  red  variety  by  bud  variation  is  reported 
by  Mr.  J.  G.  Grundel  of  Alma. 

Golden  Prune. — Originated  from  seed  of  Italian  prune  by  Seth  Lewelling, 
of  Milwaukee,  Oregon,  and  described  by  him  as  larger  than  Italian ;  light 
golden  color ;  exquisite  flavor ;  dries  beautifully. 

Bavay's  Green  Gage;  syn.  Reine  Claude  de  Bavay  (French). — Large,  round 
oval,  greenish  yellow,  spotted  with  red,  with  small  violet-colored  longitudinal 
veins;  flesh  rather  firm,  juicy,  sugary,  rich,  of  fine  quality,  adhering  slightly 
to  the  stone ;  shoots  smooth,  leaves  roundish,  shining ;  a  free-grower  and  very 
productive. 

Ickzvorth  Imperatrice  (English). — Large  to  medium,  obovate,  purple,  with 
irregular  streaks  of  fawn  color ;  stalk  medium ;  flesh  greenish  yellow,  sweet, 
juicy,  rich,  mostly  adhering  to  the  rather  small  stone ;  shoots  smooth ;  very 
late,  hangs  long  on  the  tree,  and  keeps  well ;  endures  long  shipment  well. 

FeUenherg,  syns.  Large  German  Prune,  Swiss  Prune,  Italian  Prune. — 
Medium  size,  oval,  pointed  and  tapering  at  both  ends ;  suture  small,  distinct ; 
dark  purple,  with  dark  blue  bloom ;  stalk  one  inch,  scarcely  sunk ;  flesh  green- 
ish yellow,  juicy,  sweet,  delicious,  parts  from  the  stone;  tree  a  free  grower 
and  very  productive;  late,  excellent  for  drying.  But  little  grown  in  California, 
but  largely  in  Oregon. 

Coe's  Late  Red,  syn.  Red  St.  Martin. — Size  medium,  roundish,  suture 
distinct  on  one  side ;  skin  light  purplish  red,  or  dark  red ;  bloom  thin,  blue ; 
stalk' three- fourths  inch,  scarcely  sunk;  flesh  rather  firm,  crisp,  rich,  vinous; 
very  late,  shoots  downy. 

LUTHER    BURBANK'S    NEWER    VARIETIES 

Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa  Rosa,  has  not  only  produced  the 
leading  shipping  plum  of  California,  as  already  stated,  but  he 
has  six  others  in  the  list  of  twenty  varieties  which  are  chiefly 
grown  as  plums  and  prunes.  During  the  last  few  years  he  has 
introduced  many  other  varieties  not  included  in  the  foregoing 
list,  which  possess  striking  characters  and  some  of  which  will 
become  famous.  They  must,  however,  endure  the  test  of  trial 
and  await  later  credit.  Seedlings  by  other  growers  are  also  under- 
going a  similar  ordeal. 


326  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

Two  of  Mr.  Biirbank's  recent  creations,  introduced  by  Mr. 
George  C.  Roeding,  are  of  striking  characters,  and  are  described 
as  follows : 

Santa  Rosa. — "It  is  a  fine  grower,  the  wood  is  very  tough  and  the  limbs 
will  not  break.  It  is  a  sure,  regular  bearer  and  bears  always  most  abundantly. 
It  does  not  have  any  oflf  years.  The  fruit  runs  remarkably  fine,  even  in  size, 
and  astonishingly  smooth  and  clear  of  any  defects.  It  is  beautiful,  delicious 
and  a  very  fine  carrier  to  Eastern  markets.  It  will  keep  well  in  hot  weather 
for  a  week  after  it  is  ripe,  so  there  is  no  occasion  to  pick  it  half  ripe  in  order 
to  ship,  I  intend  to  plant  it  very  largely  myself,  and  to  the  exclusion  of  ajl 
other  shipping  plums." — S.  F.  Leib. 

Formosa. — "Unusually  large,  thick,  healthy,  light  green  foliage ;  strong, 
hard,  wiry  wood ;  blooms  with  the  Burbank  and  Abundance,  and  always 
escapes  late  spring  frosts,  and  always  bears  profusely  even  when  contiimous 
rainy  weather  prevents  full  pollination  in  most  other  plums.  No  disease  has 
ever  found  lodgment  with  Formosa.  The  fruit  is  of  uniform  size,  averaging 
about  six  inches  in  circumference  one  way  by  eight  the  other.  Fruit  yellow 
with  a  pale  bloom  until  nearly  ripe,  turning  to  a  clear  rich  red.  Flesh  pale 
yellow,  unusually  firm,  sweet,  rich,  delicious,  with  a  delightful  apricot  flavor, 
nearly  freestone.  Formosa  has  been  very  thoroughly  tested  for  its  keeping 
qualities,  which  are  unequaled  except  by  Santa  Rosa,  Wickson,  Burbank,  and 
a  few  others." — Luther  Burbank. 


) 


CHAPTER    XXIV 
THE  QUINCE 

The  quince  enjoys  California  conditions  to  the  utmost,  and 
rewards  the  grower  with  large  crops  of  very  large  and  beautiful 
fruit.  A  quince  weighing  a  pound  is  no  curiosity,  and  it  is  unlikely 
that  any  city  of  the  world  can  show  such  fine  quinces  at  such 
low  prices  as  San  Francisco.  The  lesson  from  this  fact  is  that 
the  fineness  of  the  fruit,  and  the  evident  adaptation  of  the  State 
to  its  growth,  should  not  alone  be  considered  by  the  planter. 
The  local  consumption  of  quinces  is  naturally  small,  and  it  is 
chiefly  for  home  preserving  and  jelly  making.  The  commercial 
jelly  makers  use  apple  juice  as  the  basis  of  nearly  all  their  jellies, 
only  using  a  little  quince  for  flavoring,  and  some  housewives 
follow  the  same  course.  The  hope  for  profitable  sale  of  the  fruit 
in  large  quantities  must  therefore  rest  on  distant  markets,  and 
though  those  well  acquainted  with  the  growth  and  sale  of  the  fruit 
in  the  cities  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  have  predicted  a  great 
demand  for  the  California  quince  in  that  territory,  experiences 
of  shippers  thus  far  have  been  varied,  and  not  such  as  to  induce 
the  extension  of  our  quince  product'ion,  as  present  at  least. 

But  though  the  quince  in  California  has  at  present  narrow  com- 
mercial limitations,  a  few  trees  should  find  a  place  in  every  orchard, 
for  family  use  or  local  sale. 

CULTURE    OF    THE    QUINCE 

The  quince  is  readily  grown  from  cuttings.  Take  good-sized 
shoots  of  well-matured  wood  of  the  current  year's  growth,  after 
the  leaves  drop  in  the  fall,  and  set  out  at  once  in  nursery  row  in 
moist,  alluvial  soil,  or  in  any  loose  soil  which  is  well  drained 
and  can  be  kept  moist  enough  by  cultivation  or  irrigation. 

Quinces  are  planted  at  all  distances  apart,  and  are  grown  either 
as  bushes  or  trees.  Undoubtedly  the  best  way  is  to  plant  about 
fourteen  or  sixteen  feet  apart,  and  prune  into  low  standard  tree 
form.  This  can  be  done  much  as  already  advised  for  other  fruit 
trees.  An  annual  cutting  back  of  about  half  of  the  new  growth, 
while  forming  the  tree,  will  strengthen  the  trunk  and  limbs  and 
prevent  the  running  out  of  long  leaders,  which  droop  to  the 
ground  on  all  sides  when  laden  with  fruit,  and  are  often  broken 
by  the  weight  and  the  wind.  Owing  to  the  disposition  of  the 
quince  to  throw  out  several  small  shoots  at  a  single  point,  it  is 
advisable,   when   forming  the   tree,   to   remove   all   buds   but   one,, 

327 


328  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

just  as  the  growth  is  starting.  This  will  give  one  good,  strong 
branch  where  it  may  be  needed,  instead  of  several  weak  ones. 
Pinching  off  shoots  which  start  out  too  vigorously,  or  at  unde- 
sirable points  is,  of  course,  advisable. 

Soils  for  the  Quince. — As  the  quince  grows  naturally  in  moist, 
though  not  wet  lands,  many  persons  think  it  always  does  best 
in  springy  ground  or  along  the  banks  of  rivulets ;  but  though 
moist  soils  are  preferable  to  dry,  such  positions  are  not  essential 
to  obtaining  large  crops  of  fine  fruit.  In  fact,  the  quince,  like 
most  fruit  trees,  prefers  a  well-drained  location,  and  does  best 
on  a  soil  which  can  be  freely  worked.  It  thrives  when  fanned 
by  the  ocean  breeze  and  does  fairly  well  in  the  interior,  providing 
it  has  moisture  in  the  soil,  and  in  some  situations  will  doubtless 
require  summer  irrigation. 

VARIETIES   OF   THE   QUINCE 

Though  notably  all  varieties  of  the  quince  are  introduced  by 
our  nurserymen  and  carried  by  them  in  small  stock,  most  plan- 
tations are  of  the  "apple"  or  "orange" .  variety.  The  following 
may  be  enumerated,  however,  as  growing  in  this  State : 

Apple  or  Orange. — Large ;  bright  yellow ;  the  best.    August  and  September. 

Rea's  Mammoth. — A  very  large  and  fine  variety  of  the  Orange  quince;  a 
strong  grower  and  very  productive. 

Smyrna. — Introduced  from  Smyrna  in  1897  by  George  C.  Roeding  of  Fresno ; 
large,  lemon  yellow,  handsome,  tender  and  delicious  after  cooking;  keeps  well; 
tree  a  strong  grower,  with  heavy  foliage. 

Pineapple. — Originated  by  Luther  Burbank  and  distributed  by  him  in  1899; 
the  result  of  a  long  effort  to  secure  a  quince  which  would  cook  tender  like  an 
apple.  The  name  comes  from  its  flavor,  which  is  suggestive  of  the  pineapple. 
Resembles  Orange  quince  but  is  smoother  and  more  globular. 

Portugal. — Very  large,  and  fine  flavor,  turns  a  fine  purple  or  deep  crimson 
when  cooked. 

The  Chinese  Quince. — A  most  extraordinary  fruit,  oblong,  of  immense  size, 
often  weighing  from  two  to  two  and  one-half  pounds ;  growth  rapid  and  distinct. 

West's  Mammoth. — Originated  by  W.  B.  West,  of  Stockton,  from  seed  received 
from  Boston  in  1853;  of  the  Orange  quince  family;  round;  clear  yellow;  very 
large;  fine  flavor  and  for  the  class  a  very  good  keeper. 

Champion. — Fruit  very  large,  fair  and  handsome ;  tree  very  productive,  sur- 
passing any  other  variety  in  this  respect;  bears  abundantly  when  young;  flesh 
cooks  as  tender  as  an  apple,  and  without  hard  spots  or  cores ;  flavor  delicate, 
imparting  an  exquisite  quince  taste  and  odor  to  any  fruit  with  which  it  is  cooked. 


PART    FOUR— THE    GRAPE 
CHAPTER   XXV 


THE    GRAPE    INDUSTRY    IN    CALIFORNIA 

The  grape  grows  in  all  parts  of  California,  from  near  sea  level 
on  the  coast  to  an  elevation  of  5000  feet  or  more  on  the  mountains. 
It  is  contented,  too,  with  nearly  all  fertile  soils,  from  the  deep 
valley  loams,  where  the  great  fat,  firm-fleshed  grapes  are  grown 
for  raisin  and  table  grape  shipments,  to  the  shallow  soils  of  the 
high  foothill  and  mountain  slopes,  where  the  grapes  are  less  in 
quantity,  but  of  superior  aromatic  qualities.  This  wide  adaptation 
gives  an  immense  area'  suited  for  grape  culture,  but  the  chief 
reason  for  the  achievement  and  the  promise  of  the  grape  in  Cali- 
fornia is  in  the  fact  that  the  European  species,  Vitis  vinifera, 
thrives,  and  thus  the  Californian  grower  has  command  of  all  that 
Europeans  have  accomplished  in  centuries  by  developing  special 
varieties  of  the  species  for  special  purposes.  The  grapes  of  the 
States  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains  are  only  grown  in  California 
in  a  small  way  because  the  European  varieties  are  the  only  ones 
from  which  raisins  can  be  made;  they  also  furnish  the  world's 
wine  and  brandy,  and  they  give  size,  beauty  and  shipping  quality 
beyond  all  comparison  with  American  varieties.  Wherever 
wealthy  Eastern  connoisseurs  choose  grapes  for  their  glass  houses, 
they  select  European  varieties ;  the  Californian  grows  his  "hot 
house"  grapes  in  the  open  air.  He  also  grows  most  of  them  with- 
out the  cost  of  trellising,  because  the  European  varieties  generally 
will  bear  well  in  short-pruned  bush  form.  California  has  a  large 
acreage  of  grape  vines,  and  planting  has  been  very  active  during 
the  last  few  years,  because  good  prices  have  prevailed,  especially 
through  the  increased  opportunity  for  fresh  grape  shipments.  At 
the  same  time,  new  economic  and  commercial  problems  are  con- 
tinually arising  and  the  industry  has  to  readjust  itself  to  new  con- 
ditions. Discussion  of  such  problems  does  not  come  within  the 
scope  of  a  cultural  treatise  like  this.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  grower 
to  keep  himself  up  to  date  on  such  subjects  by  faithful  reading  of 
California  periodicals  and  by  participation  in  public  assemblies  in 
the  grape  interest.  Concerning  cultural  difficulties,  the  protection 
of   vine    from    its    enemies    and    problems    in    vinification,    special 

329 


330 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


researches  are  constantly  pursued  by  the  University  Experiment 
Station  at  Berkeley  and  publications  are  furnished  on  application. 
The  culture  of  the  grape  is  one  of  the  great  branches  of  Cali- 
fornia horticulture.  Its  three  chief  divisions  are :  Grapes  for  the 
table,  grapes  for  wine,  and  grapes  for  raisins.  In  all  these 
branches  the  product  has  far  exceeded  local  requirements  and  has 
become  an  important  item  in  the  export  trade  of  the  State.  The 
attainments  of  the  industry  can  be  roughly  measured  by  the  sta- 
tistics of  the  shipments  of  grapes,  raisins,  wine  and  brandy,  which 
are  given  at  the  close  of  Chapter  VI. 

THE    GRAPE    AREA    OF    CALIFORNIA 

The  grape  has  a  very  wide  range  in  California.  If  the  imme- 
diate seacoast  and  the  higher  altitudes  on  the  mountains  be 
excepted,  the  grape  may  be  planted  with  a  good  chance  of  suc- 
cess anywhere  if  soil  and  local  topography  be  suitable.  As  has 
been  shown  in  Chapter  I,  the  vine  can  approach  quite  close  to 
the  ocean  if  some  shelter  from  prevailing  cool  winds  be  aflforded, 
and  quite  high  on  the  mountains  if  one  keeps  out  of  depressions 
where  late  frosts  are  frequent.  In  planting  the  grape  in  doubtful 
situations  much  depends  upon  choice  of  proper  varieties.  For 
example,  in  the  cool  air  of  the  coast  region  and  the  short  summer 
of  the  higher  altitudes,  early  maturing  varieties  must  be  the  main 
reliance,  for  late  sorts  will  not  receive  heat  enough  to  bring  them 
to  full  maturity. 

Away  from  immediate  coast  influences,  and  up  to  perhaps  three 
thousand  feet  or  more  on  the  sides  of  the  Sierra,  the  grape  is  suc- 
cessfully grown  both  upon  the  floors  of  the  valleys  and  upon  the 
hillsides.  But  there  is  still  need  of  choice  both  of  special  loca- 
tions and  of  varieties  according  to  the  purposes  which  the  grower 
has  in  view.  The  coast  valleys  of  the  upper  part  of  the  State 
produce  good  table  grapes,  but  they  are  unfavorable  for  the 
raisin  industry  because  of  the  deficient  sunshine  and  excessive 
atmospheric  humidity  of  the  autumn  months.  The  best  raisins 
are  made  in  the  dry,  heated  valleys  of  the  interior,  and  the  condi- 
tions which  there  develop  the  fullest  quality  of  the  raisin  grape 
also  develop  the  sugar  in  some  kinds  of  wine  grapes  beyond  a 
desirable  percentage.  Here  again  the  choice  of  suitable  varieties 
intrudes  itself,  for  the  varieties  which  yield  light  table  wines  in 
the  coast  valleys  may  yield  heavy  ''heady"  wines  in  the  interior. 
Valleys,  too,  as  a  rule,  although  they  yield  larger  crops  of  grapes 
and  greater  measure  of  wine  than  similar  area  on  the  hillsides, 
must  yield  the  palm  for  quality  to  the  warm  soils  of  the  slopes. 
And  here  enters  the  business  proposition  whether  large  amount 
and  less  quality  is  better  than  less  amount  and  higher  quality. 
To  this  there   can   be   no  general   answer.     It   depends   upon   the 


SOILS    FOR    THE    GRAPE  33  J 

disposition  which  is  to  be  made  of  the  crop,  and  the  demand  for  it. 
The  coloring  of  certain  varieties  is  a  matter  underlying  their 
profitable  production  for  fresh  shipments  and  this  is  determined 
by  local  conditions  concerning  which  the  best  information  is  actual 
observation  of  their  eflfects.  These  few  facts  out  of  many  which 
could  be  stated  will  serve  to  enforce  the  fact  that  wide  as  is 
the  range  of  the  grape,  both  localities  and  varieties  for  certain 
purposes  must  be  intelligently  chosen.  Much  has  been  learned 
during  the  last  few  years,  but  it  will  require  the  experience  of 
another  generation,  perhaps,  to  make  the  matter  clear. 

Soils  for  the  Grape. — The  grape  will  thrive  on  a  great  variety 
of  soils,  in  fact,  on  any  of  those  enumerated  as  fruit  soils  in 
Chapter  III.  There  are  thrifty  vineyards  on  the  light,  deep  valley 
loams,  on  the  heavy  clayey  loams,  on  adobe,  and  on  the  red  soils 
of  the  foothills.  Even  on  shallow  soils  the  grape  will  do  well  if 
given  sufficient  moisture,  and  on  rocky  subsoils  it  thrives  if  there 
be  crevices  for  the  roots  to  penetrate,  or  if  the  rock  be  shattered 
to  admit  the  roots  to  permeable  substrata.  Standing  water  dur- 
ing the  active  period  of  the  vine  is,  however,  unfavorable  to 
growth,  and  alkali  is  adverse  to  satisfactory  results  in  wine  mak- 
ing. Almost  any  soil  which  does  not  hold  excess  of  water  or 
is  not  tainted  with  alkali  will  do  for  the  vine,  although  the  plant 
appreciates  good,  deep  soil,  and  will  grow  and  bear  fruit  in  pro- 
portion to  its  supply  of  it.  Of  course  the  economic  question  of 
ease  of  cultivation  enters  into  the  choice  of  soil  for  the  grape, 
as  for  other  fruits,  but  its  claims  are  obvious  and  need  not  be 
enlarged  upon. 

Length  of  the  Grape  Season. — By  choice  of  early  and  late  vari- 
eties the  grape  season  extends  over,  half  a  year  in  California, 
without  recourse  to  artificial  means  of  preservation.  Where  the 
fall  lains  are  not  very  protracted,  the  late  varieties  sometimes 
remain  in  good  condition  on  the  vines  until  the  winter  pruning. 
Good  grapes  have  been  picked  from  the  vines  as  late  as  the  mid- 
dle of  January. 


CHAPTER    XXVI 

PROPAGATING    AND    PLANTING    VINES 

The  grape  is  propagated  from  seed  or  by  layers,  or  by  cuttings 
of  various  lengths.  Growing  from  seed  was  somewhat  resorted 
to  in  California  to  get  stocks  for  resisting  the  phylloxera,  but  such 
wide  variation  in  resistance  occurred  in  seedlings  that  propaga- 
tion by  cuttings,  of  varieties  demonstrated  to  be  best  in  this 
regard,  has  become  universal.  There  is  at  present  little  dispo- 
sition to  grow  grape  seedlings  in  the  hope  of  securing  better  and 
hardier  varieties,  as  is  so  largely  done  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 
The  vast  numbers  of  varieties  of  the  European  species,  vinifera, 
which  we  have  to  draw  from,  makes  the  effort  for  new  seedlings 
of  little  object. 

Growing  Vines  from  Seed. — Seed  is  easily  removed  from  the 
grapes  by  crushing  the  berries  and  stirring  the  pulp  rapidly  in 
water.  From  one  pound  of  good,  fresh  seed  one  might  get  from 
two  to  three  thousand  seedlings.  Some  advocate  sowing  grape 
seed  in  the  fall,  just  as  it  is  taken  from  the  fruit,  but  best 
results  are  usually  obtained  by  spring  sewing,  after  danger  from 
frost  is  over.  It  is  advisabk  to  keep  grape  seed  moist  for  some 
time  before  sowing.  Seed  soaked  one  week  in  water,  and  after- 
ward ^allowed  to  lie  in  a  heap  for  three  weeks  germinates  quickly, 
starting  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks  after  being  put  in  the  ground. 
Professor  Husmann  advised  pouring  hot  water  on  the  seed  and 
allowing  it  to  cool,  the  seed  remaining  in  the  water  for  twelve 
hours,  and  after  that  it  is  kept  for  a  week  in  a  sack,  exposed  to 
the  sun,  and  covered  at  night,  the  sack  being  moistened  from  time 
to  time. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  open  ground,  the  soil  having 
been  worked  deeply  and  finely,  as  for  a  garden.  Sow  the  seed 
about  an  inch  apart,  in  drills  far  enough  from  each  other  to  admit 
the  use  of  the  cultivator  in  the  summer;  cover  not  to  exceed  an 
inch  in  depth,  and  after  moderate  pressing  of  the  ground,  cover 
the  whole  bed  with  rotten  straw,  which  should  be  gradually 
removed  as  the  sprouts  appear  above  the  ground.  This  mulch 
will  not  only  retain  moisture,  but  will  prevent  the  surface  from 
being  crusted  by  heavy  showers.  Summer  cultivation  with  cul- 
tivator and  hoe  should  be  given. 

332 


WAYS    TO    GROW    GRAPE    VINES  333 

Growing  Vines  by  Layering. — This  is  another  method  of  mul- 
tiplying vines  which  is  but  little  employed  in  California,  because 
it  is  so  much  easier  to  secure  plants  by  cuttings,  as  the  vinifera 
species  roots  so  readily.  Layering  consists  in  bending  down  and 
burying  one  of  the  lower  canes  so  as  to  facilitate  top  and  root 
growth  from  each  of  the  buds.  To  hold  the  cane  in  place,  stakes 
are  used,  the  trench  being  left  open  until  the  shoots  grow  out 
and  then,  by  covering  the  roots  are  developed.  The  cane  must 
rest  in.  moist  earth,  and  usually  has  to  be  watered  artificially,  as 
well  as  treated  to  prevent  evaporation.  The  following  winter  the 
cane  is  raised  and  a  plant  made  at  each  node. 

Another  use  for  layering  is  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  the  row,  a  cane 
being  taken  from  the  nearest  living  vine.  In  this  case  the  layer 
must  be  set  in  a  deep  trench  so  as  not  to  be  torn  out  by  the  plow, 
and  the  layered  cane  is  at  once  covered  in  with  earth,  all  but 
one  or  two  buds  at  the  extremity,  where  the  new  vine  is  desired. 
Such  a  layer  usually  bears  the  second  year  and  is  then  detached 
from  the  parent  vine. 

Both  the  layers  described  are  laid  down  early  in  the  spring, 
before  growth  starts  in  the  vine.  Summer  layers  of  the  current 
season's  growth  are  sometimes  made,  but  are  not  usually  satis- 
factory. 

Growing  Vines  from  Cuttings. — This  is  the  prevailing  method 
in  this  State  both  to  secure  grafting  stocks  and  to  grow  vines  on 
their  own  roots.  In  growing  from  cutting^,  different  policies  are 
adopted,  L  c,  placing  the  cuttings  in  permanent  place  in  the  vine- 
yard, or  rooting  them  in  nursery  to  be  afterward  transferred  to 
the  vineyard  as  "rooted  vines."  First,  the  various  kinds  of  cuttings 
will  be  considered,  and  their  placing  mentioned  later. 

Growth  from  Single  Eyes. — The  use  of  single  eyes  or  single 
buds,  the  shortest  possible  form  of  cutting,  is  not  large  in  Cali- 
fornia, but  some  growers  have  reported  good  results.  The  method 
is  to  prepare  the  cuttings  with  a  half-inch  or  so  of  the  cane  on 
each  side  of  the  bud  and  plant  them  carefully,  with  the  bud  upwards, 
in  well-prepared  soil,  covering  the  cutting  completely,  but  very 
little  under  the  surface.  Success  depends  upon  retention  of  mois- 
ture in  the  surface  soil  to  induce  rooting,  and  mulching  is  advis- 
able. The  method  of  propagation,  too,  seems  best  adapted  to  the 
moister  parts  of  the  State,  whence,  in  fact,  most  success  with  it 
has  been  reported.  Besides  economy  of  wood  in  getting  a  plant 
from  each  bud  of  the  cane,  which  is  sometimes  an  object,  growing 
from  single  eyes  is  advocated  because  of  the  satisfactory  root 
system  secured,  which  much  resembles  that  of  a  seedling.  The 
use  of  single  eyes  is  obviously  better  adapted  to  nursery  than 
to  field  growth. 


334 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


The  Use  of  Longer  Cuttings.-'' — It  was  formerly  considered 
good  practice  to  leave  a  piece  of  old  wood  attached  to  the  base 
of   the   cutting,   on   the   ground   that   such   cuttings   always   grew. 


Properly  made  cuttings. 


This  practice  is  now  very  generally  abandoned,  as  it  often  gives 
rise  to  weak  and  diseased  vines.  The  piece  of  old  wooi  always 
decays  finally,  and  the  decay  may  spread  into  the  trunk  and  roots 


*  Much  of  the  following  description  of  handling  cuttings  is  taken  bodily  from  the 
excellent  University  publications  by  Mr.  F.  T.  Bioletti,  viz.:  Circular  26,  "Selection 
and  preparation  of  Vine  Cuttings."  Bulletin  180,  "Resistant  Vineyards — grafting, 
planting,  cultivation."  Bulletin  193,  "The  Best  Wine  Grapes  for  California,"  etc. 
All  these  contain  discussions  of  propagation  methods. 


MAKING    GRAPE    CUTTINGS 


335 


of  the  vine.  A  good  cutting  should  consist  exclusively  of  one- 
year-old  wood ;  that  is,  the  wood  which  has  grown  during  the 
previous  season. 

The  form  and  length  of  the  cuttings  will  depend  on  the  use 
that  is  to  be  made  of  them.  If  they  are  to  be  used  as  scions  for 
grafting  they  may  be  cut  up  in  any  way  and  of  any  length  that 
is  found  convenient  for  handling  and  keeping  them  in  good  con- 
dition. If  they  are  to  be  used  for  rooting  either  in  the  nursery 
or  the  vineyard  it  is  most  convenient  to  cut  them  up  into  the 
exact  lengths  which  are  to  be  planted. 

The  length  will  depend  altogether  on  the  soil  and  climate 
where  they  are  to  be  planted.  They  should  be  of  such  a  length 
that  when  planted  the  base  of  the  cutting  will  be  at  the  level 
where  the  conditions  are  most  favorable  to  root  formation.  If 
the  base  is  too  deep,  it  will  be  too  wet  and  too  cold  to  develop 
roots.  Roots  will  start  higher  up  and  the  bottom  part  will  be 
wasted,  or  worse  still,  may  decay  and  injure  the  vine.  If  the 
base  is  too  near  the  surface  the  whole  cutting  may  dry  out  and 
die  before  its  roots  have  developed  sufficiently  to  supply  it  with 
water. 

In  the  moister  soils  of  the  cooler  districts  a  cutting  10  inches 
long  is  sufficient  for  direct  planting  in  the  vineyard.  In  the  drier 
and  warmer  interior  a  14-inch  to  16-inch  cutting  is  better,  while 
in  the  driest  soils  of  the  warmest  districts  it  is  often  necessary 
to  have  a  cutting  18  to  20  inches  long.  For  planting  in  the  nursery 
a  12  or  14-inch  cutting  is  about  the  most  convenient.  -If  the  soil 
of  the  nursery  is  wet  and  cold  more  of  the  cutting  should  be  left 
above  ground;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  soil  tends  to  be  hot  and 
dry  the  cutting  must  be  planted  deeper  and  even  covered  up  com- 
pletely. 

It  is  not  necessary,  or  possible,  to  make  every  cutting  of 
exactly  the  same  length,  because  they  should  all  terminate  at  each 
end  at  a  node.  A  vine  cane  consists  of  nodes  where  the  buds  are 
and  internodes  between  them.  The  pith  is  interrupted  at  each 
node  by  a  woody  partition  (called  the  ''diaphragm")  which  extends 
through  the  cane  at  each  bud.  In  making  a  cutting,  therefore, 
we  should  cut  exactly  through  a  bud  both  at  the  top  and  at  the 
bottom.  This  will  leave  the  woody  partitions,  which  will  prevent 
decay  at  the  bottom  and  drying  out  at  the  top.  If  removed,  the 
pith  in  the  upper  internode  will  be  exposed  to  alternate  wetting  and 
drying,  and  may  decay,  thus  weakening  or  killing  the  bud  below. 

In  planting,  the  cutting  should  be  placed  with  just  one  bud 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line 
in  the  accompanying  engraving.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  leave 
more  than  one  bud  out  of  the  ground,  as  this  increases  the  danger 
of  drying  out. 


336  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW  *  THEM 

Making  and  Caring  for  Cuttings. — Cuttings  can  be  taken  from 
the  vines  at  any  time  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf  and  before  the 
spring  flow  of  sap  begins.  The  earlier  cuttings — those  taken 
before  January — are  more  likely  to  make  a  successful  start  and 
after-growth  than  those  cut  later  in  the  season. 

It  is  common,  however,  to  defer  preparation  of  cuttings  till 
the  pruning  is  done,  be  it  early  or  late,  and  this  will  generally 
answer  the  purpose,  if  care  be  taken  to  secure  the  cuttings  imme- 
diately at  the  pruning;  but  if  the  branches  be  allowed  to  lie  upon 
the  ground  for  days,  exposed  to  sun,  wind,  or  frost,  before  the 
cuttings  are  secured,  their  chances  of  growth  are  seriously  lessened, 
and  a  good  part  of  the  failures  in  planting  are  due  to  such  cuttings. 

Cuttings  should  be  taken  from  the  short-jointed,  well-ripened 
wood  of  the  previous  year's  growth,  cut  squarely  and  smoothly 
as  already  described.  Cuttings  from  the  outer  ends  of  long  canes 
are  not  so  likely  to  root,  nor  to  grow  so  vigorously,  as  those  from 
stronger  wood,  from  three-eighths  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch  diam- 
eter generally. 

Keep  them  dormant  until  the  time  comes  to  set  them  in  the 
vineyard,  else  the  tender  shoots  may  get  broken.  To  keep  them 
back,  place  them,  at  the  pruning,  in  trenches,  about  as  deep  as  the 
length  of  the  cuttings,  on  the  north  side  of  a  close  board  fence 
or  a  building,  cover  with  loose  earth,  and  over  that  throw  some 
straw  and  boards.  Take  care  that  the  trenches  are  in  moist  but 
not  wet  ground  as  too  much  moisture  rots  the  cuttings.  If  the 
ground  has  not  been  moist  enough,  and  the  cuttings  seem  dry 
or  withered,  plunge  them  in  water  to  within  three  or  four  inches 
of  their  top,  for  a  few  days  before  setting,  and  do  not  let  them 
dry  again  before  planting. 

Rooting  Cuttings  in  Nursery. — What  has  been  written  is  in 
reference  to  cuttings  designed  for  placing  in  permanent  position 
in  the  vineyard,  but,  for  the  most  part,  applies  as  well  to  the 
preparation  of  cuttings  for  the  nursery.  For  nursery  treatment, 
however,  shorter  cuttings  can  be  used  than  for  field  planting, 
because  of  the  better  cultivation  and  more  generous  moisture  con- 
ditions which  are  usually  provided. 

In  preparation  of  ground  for  the  rooting  of  vines  and  the 
planting  of  cuttings  therein,  the  suggestions  in  Chapter  VIII  are 
directly  applicable,  as,  to  secure  rooting  of  the  cuttings,  there  is 
just  as  great  need  for  deep  and  fine  working  of  the  soil,  pressing 
of  it  around  the  cutting,  and  for  careful  culture  during  the  grow- 
ing season,  as  there  is  for  such  treatment  of  fruit-tree  seedling 
or  root  graft.  It  is  just  as  necessary,  too,  that  the  rooted  cuttings 
should  be  carefully  lifted  and  guarded  from  drying  out  while  on 
the  way  from  the  nursery  to  permanent  place.  The  reader  is, 
therefore,  referred  to  Chapter  VIII  for  suggestions  on  ])reparation. 


BUDDING    THE    GRAPE 


337 


laying  out,  and  care  of  nursery  ground  intended  for  the  rooting 
of  grape  cuttings. 

To  secure  vines  upon  resistant  roots  recourse  has  recently 
been  made  by  some  growers  to  the  cutting-graft  which  will  be 
mentioned  presently. 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  to  use  rooted  vines  instead  of 
cuttings  in  planting  out  vineyards,  for,  although  the  former  cost 
several  times  as  much  as  the  latter,  either  in  the  time  of  the 
grower  or  in  cash  outlay,  the  balance  is  believed  to  be  usually  on 
the  other  side,  when  the  uniform  stand  and  more  satisfactory 
growth  secured  by  rooted  vines  are  considered. 

BUDDING    AND    GRAFTING    THE    GRAPE    VINE 

Working  over  the  grape-vine  is  largely  practiced  in  this  State 
and  is  easily  accomplished.  The  occasion  is  twofold :  Replacing 
undesirable  varieties  with  those  of  better  quality,  or  in  better 
market  demand,  and  in  bringing  the  vinifera  varieties  upon  roots 
which  resist  the  attacks  of  the  phylloxera.  The  employment  of 
resistant  stocks  has  proved  eminently  satisfactory  in  this  State, 
the  resistant  stock  having  been  successfully  installed  even  in  the 
hole  from  which  the  dead  vinifera  root  had  been  taken.  For  this 
reason  resistant  roots  are  largely  relied  upon  in  the  planting  of 


Budding  from  previous  season's  growth. 


new  vineyards  in  infested  districts,  and  also  used  to  some  extent 
in  regions  where  the  insect  is  not  now  found,  by  those  who  fear 
and  desire  to  provide  against  its  coming.  And  yet  in  the  large 
planting   of   vineyard   in    the    interior   valley    which    has    recently 


338 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


been  undertaken  very  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  resistant 
roots.  It  is  so  cheap  to  proceed  with  simple  cuttings  of  the  variety 
desired,  and  the  vine  comes  into  bearing  so  soon,  that  most 
planters  are  willing  to  take  the  risk  of  infection  with  phylloxera 
for  it  may  be  long  delayed  and  several  profitable  crops  may  be 
realized  before  its  arrival.  This  is  a  question  which  each  planter 
must  answer  for  himself. 

Budding  the  Grape. — Buds  can  be  readily  made  to  grow  in 
grape  canes,  though  budding  is  not  largely  used.  Success  can 
be  had  with  the  same  method  of  budding  that  is  common  with 
fruit  trees  as  described  in  Chapter  IX.  Insert  the  bud  (which  is 
taken  from  a  cane  of  the  previous  season's  growth)  in  the  spring 
as  soon  as  the  bark  will  slip  well  on  the  stock,  and  before  the 
run  of  the  sap  is  too  strong.  Keep  the  cuttings  in  a  cool  place 
so  their  growth  will  be  retarded,  and  then  seize  upon  just  the 
right  condition  of  the  stock,  insert  the  bud  under  the  bark  of  a 
cane  of  the  previous  season's  growth,  tie  it  around  with  a  string, 
and  the  bud  starts  readily  without  further  treatment.  When  its 
growth  shows  its  ability  to  take  the  sap,  the  top  of  the  stock  is 
removed. 

Herbaceous  budding  is  also  practicable.  It  consists  of  taking 
buds  from  the  current  season's  growth  and  working  them  upon 
canes  also  of  current  growth  by  the  usual  shield  budding  process. 
Mr.  Thomas  Casalegna  of  San  Martin  succeeds  well  with  this 
under  these  conditions:  All  buds  put  in  from. July  15  to  August 
15  start  the  same  year,  but  may  be  injured  by  fall  frosts.  Those 
put  in  from  August  15  to  September  15  remain  dormant  until  the 
following  year,  unless  the  stock  is  exceptionally  vigorous.  Bud- 
ding is  most  successful  in  the  month  of  August.  The  buds  should 
be  taken  from  canes  which  have  reached  the  stage  of  maturity 
indicated  by  the  pith  turning  white  and  just  before  the  bark  turns 
yellow. 

Grafting  the  Vine. — Grafting  in  old  vine  roots  is  a  simple  opera- 
tion, and  is  performed  in  various  ways.  The  principles  involved 
in  vine  grafting  are  similar  to  those  affecting  tree  grafting,  as 
described  in  Chapter  IX.  The  processes  employed  are  also  sim- 
ilar, but  the  graft  requires  less  binding  and  covering,  because  it 
is  usually  made  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  is,  there- 
fore, less  subject  to  accident,  exposure,  and  drying  out. 

Grafting  in  the  old  Stump. — This  is  resorted  to  when  the  char- 
acter of  the  vineyard  is  to  be  changed.  Out  of  the  many  ways 
for  working  into  old  stumps,  one  introduces  the  scion  by  a  side 
cut  into-  the  stock  without  splitting  across  as  shown  at  C  C  in  the 
engraving  on  page  341.  The  earth  is  removed  from  the  old  vine 
down  to  its  first  lateral   roots,  and   the   top   is  sawed   off  cleanly 


GRAFTING     THE    GRAPE 


339 


a  few  inches  above  the  first  laterals.  A  cut  is  then  made  into  the 
side  of  the  stump  with  a  knife  and  mallet,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
The  scion  is  then  cut  long  enough  so  that  one  bud  will  remain 
above  ground   when  the   surface   is   leveled   again,   the  bottom  of 


Herbaceous  buds  which  have  taken  hold. 


the  scion  being  given  an  oblique  wedge-shape,  so  as  to  fit  the 
crevice  in  the  stock.  Some  care  is  needed  in  shaping  the  wedge 
of  the  scion,  so  that  the  surfaces  are  in  contact  will  give  good 
results.  If  the  stock  is  well  made  and  the  end  of  the  scion  so 
adjusted  that  the  stock  will  pinch  it  when  it  is  pushed  into  place, 
nothing  more  will  be  needed  except  to  smear  over  the  cut  surface 
of  the  stump  and  the  joint  of  the  scion  and  stock  with  clay  or 
with  a  mixture  of  two  parts  clay  and  one  part  fresh  cow  manure. 
If  the  scion  is  held  firmly  and  sealed  in  with  this  mixture,  it  usually 
needs  no  tying,  and  the  hole  can  be  carefully  filled  with  loose  earth, 
with  a  strong  stake  to  mark  the  place  of  the  graft,  and  to  which 
the  new  growth  can  be  securely  tied  afterwards. 

Another  common  method  of  grafting  beneath  the  ground  is  to 
split  the  stump  across  its  center,  as  is  done  in  top-grafting  fruit 
trees  as  shown  in  Chapter  IX,  and  one  or  two  scions  inserted. 
If  two  are  used  and  both  grow,  the  weakly  one  is  afterward  sup- 
pressed. In  this  cross  cleft  graft  some  grafters  rely  upon  the 
stock  to  hold  the  scion  without  tying,  and  daub  it  over  with  the 
clay  mixture,  care  being  taken  to  fill  and  cover  the  split  in  the 


340  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

stock  to  exclude  water.  Others  put  a  ligature  around  the  split 
stump,  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  Strips  of  cotton  cloth  answer 
well  for  this  purpose.  Tying  offers  better  security  from  knocking! 
out  the  graft  with  the  cultivator. 

In  grafting  into  very  tough  old  stumps,  some  growers  leave  a 
slim  wedge  of  wood  in  the  cleft  with  the  scion  to  prevent  the 
stock  from  closing  too  forcibly  upon  the  scion. 

Side  Grafting. — Side  grafting  the  vine  is  commended  by  some 
growers.  It  consists  in  inserting  a  graft  by  a  cut  into  the  side  of 
the  stock,  the  method  being  essentially  the  same  as  that  employed 
with  fruit  trees,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX,  except  that  in  side 
grafting  the  vine  the  top  is  not  amputated,  but  is  allowed  to  bear 
its  crop  and  is  then  removed  the  following  winter.  The  next 
summer  the  scion  will  bear  a  crop,  and  the  vine  is  worked  over 
without  cessation  in  its  bearing. 

Herbaceous  Grafting. — This  term  is  applied  to  a  graft  in  which 
the  scion  of  the  current  season's  growth  is  set  by  a  cleft  graft 
into  canes  also  of  the  current  season's  growth,  while  both  scion 
and  cane  are  elastic,  but  not  too  soft.  The  method  has  not 
been  usually  successful  in  this  State,  apparently  because  of  the 
dryness  of  the  summer  air.  Still  some  satisfactory  results  are 
reported.  Mr.  Casalegna  of  Santa  Clara  county,  whose  success 
with  herbaceous  buds  has  been  noted,  does  well  also  with  soft- 
wood grafting  by  the  whip-graft  method.  .  He  says  it  is  most 
successful  in  June,  provided  the  scions  are  hard  enough.  The 
pith  must  be  white.  In  a  strong-growing  vineyard  grafting  may 
be  done  in  July.  The  leaves  are  taken  off  the  scions  when  they 
are  cut.  If  they  are  to  be  used  immediately  they  are  placed  in 
water;  if  to  be  carried  some  distance  they  are  placed  in  a  wet 
sack.  Tie  the  grafts  with  German  knitting  yarn,  not  with  raffia. 
The  season  for  herbaceous  grafting  will,  of  course,  vary  according 
to  the  locality.  Hot  weather  immediately  following  the  work  is 
fatal  to  most  of  the  grafts.  If  two  or  three  cool  days  follow  the 
insertion  of  the  scions  he  obtains  an  almost  perfect  stand. 

Care  of  Scions. — Scions  should  be  kept  cool  and  moist  enough 
to  prevent  drying  but  not  wet  enough  to  cause  decay,  as  has 
already  been  described  in  the  keeping  of  cuttings. 

Time  of  Grafting. — Grafting  into  old  vine  stumps  is  done  in 
February,  March  and  April  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  March 
being  the  month  usually  chosen  for  the  work.  If  a  spring  graft 
fails,  the  stump  may  be  regrafted  in  August  or  in  the  following 
spring.  In  regrafting,  the  stump  is  cut  off  again  below  the  pre- 
vious cleft.  The  time  for  the  work  is  when  the  sap  has  ceased 
flowing,  usually  from  the  first  to  the  tenth  of  August. 


GRAFTING    THE    GRAPE 


341 


The  recourse  to  resistant  roots  to  escape  the  phylloxera  has 
been  attended  with  some  disappointment  because  the  wild  roots 
at  first  widely  used  proved  only  partially  resistant.  Recently, 
in  the  main  through  employment  of  French  selected  varieties  of 
the    American    wild    species,    stocks    with    satisfactory    resistance, 


Methods  of  field  grafting  grape  vines 

A.     Whip  graft  for  stocks  1-2  to  2-3  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

B,  BB.     Whip  graft  for  stocks  2-3  to  3-4  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

C,  CC.     Cleft  graft  for  stocks  3-4  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  for  old  stumps. 


342 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


larger  growth  and  vigor  and  adaptation  to  different  California 
soils  have  been  secured.  Notable  success  has  been  attained  in 
the  habilitation  of  vineyards  on  the  basis  of  resistant  roots.  The 
University  Experiment  Station,  at  Berkeley,  has  maintained  lead- 
ership in  this  direction  by  publication  of  specific  information  which 
can  be  had  by  application  to  the  Director. 


Instances  of  successful  herbaceous  grafts. 

Resistant  Varieties. — American  wild  vines  are  characterized  by 
very  marked  dififerences  in  degree  of  resistance  to  phylloxera,  and 
especially  in  adaptability  to  soils.  Not  only  do  species  dififer  in 
this  respect,  but  varieties  of  the  same  species  show  widely  differ- 
ent characteristics.  As  a  result  of  the  process  of  selection  varieties 
have  been  secured  which  are  far  above  the  average  of  the  species 
in  vigor  of  growth  and  development,  degree  of  resistance  and  gen- 
eral suitability  for  resistant  root  purposes.  The  few  varieties 
which  have  thus  demonstrated  particular  excellence  in  France 
and  have  given  notable  indications  of  success  in  California,  are 
presented  by  Mr.  Bioletti  as  follows : 

The  varieties  of  resistant  stocks  which  will  in  all  probability 
be  most  used  in  California  are  Rupestris  St.  George  (du  Lot), 
Riparia  X  Rupestris  3306.  Riparia  X  Rupestris  3309,  Riparia  So- 
lonis  1616,  Mourvedre  X  Rupestris  1202,  Aramon  X  Rupestris  2, 
Riparia  gloire,  and  Riparia  grande  globre.     These  are  all  varieties 


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344 


VARIOUS    RESISTANT    VINES  g45 

which  have  given  excellent  results  for  years  in  Europe,  and  have 
all  been  tested  successfully  in  California.  Among  them  are  vari- 
eties suitable  for  nearly  all  the  vineyard  soils  of  California,  with 
perhaps  the  exception  of  some  of  the  heavier  clays. 

The  Rupestris  St,  George  is  remarkably  vigorous  and  grows 
very  large,  supporting  the  graft  well  even  without  stakes.  It 
roots  easily  and  makes  excellent  unions  with  most  vinifera  vari- 
eties. It  is  well  suited  to  deep  soils  where  its  roots  can  penetrate. 
Its  defects  are  that  it  is  very  subject  to  root-rot,  especially  in  moist 
soils;  it  suckers  badly  and  it  suffers  from  drought  in  shallow  soils. 
Its  great  vigor  produces  coulure  with  some  varieties  and  often 
necessitates  long  pruning. 

In  moist  or  wet  soils  1616  or  3306  have  given  better  results  in 
France  and  give  indications  of  doing  equally  well  here.  In  drier 
soils  3309  will  probably  be  found  preferable. 

Aramon  Rupestris  No.  2  is  suited  to  the  same  soils  as  Rupestris 
St.  George,  and  does  particularly  well  in  extremely  gravelly  soils. 
It  has  some  of  the  defects  of  the  St.  George  and  is  moreover  more 
difficult  to  graft,  and  its  only  advantage  in  California  is  that  it 
is  rather  less  susceptible  to  root-rot. 

There  are  no  better  resistant  stocks  than  Riparia  gloire  and 
Riparia  grande  glabre,  wherever  they  are  put  in  soils  that  suit 
them.  They  do  well,  however,  only  in  deep,  rich,  alluvial  soils 
which  are  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry.  Their  grafts  are  the  most 
productive  of  all,  and  ripen  their  grapes  from  one  to  two  weeks 
earlier  than  the  grafts  on  St.  George.  Their  principal  defect  is 
that  they  are  very  particular  as  to  the  soil,  and  they  never  grow 
quite  as  large  as  the  scion.  The  gloire  is  the  most  vigorous,  and 
the  difference  is  less  with  this  variety  than  with  any  other  Riparia. 

The  Mourvedre  X  Rupestris  1202  is  extremely  vigorous,  roots 
and  grafts  easily,  and  is  well  adapted  to  rich,  sandy  and  moist 
soils.  In  drier  and  poorer  soils  its  resistance  is  perhaps  not  suffi- 
cient. 

The  most  promising  varieties  for  general  use  at  present  seem 
to  be  the  two  hybrids  of  Riparia  and  Rupestris,  3306  and  3309. 
They  have  great  resistance  to  the  phylloxera,  root  and  graft  almost 
as  easily  as  St.  George,  and  are  quite  sufficiently  vigorous  to  sup- 
port any  variety  of  vinifera.  The  former  is  more  suited  to  the 
moister  soils  and  wherever  there  is  danger  of  root-rot,  and  the 
latter  to  the  drier  soils.  In  general,  they  are  suited  to  a  larger 
variety  of  soils  and  conditions  than  perhaps  any  other  varieties. 

Riparia  gloire  should  be  planted  only  on  rich,  deep  alluvial  soil 
containing  an  abundance  of  plant  food  and  humus,  what  would 
be  called  good  garden  land,  such  as  river  bank  soil  not  liable  to 
overflow. 


346 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


In  most  Other  soils  Riparia  X  Rupestris  3306  is  to  be  recom- 
mended, except  those  which  are  rather  dry,  where  3309  is  to  be 
preferred,  or  those  which  are  very  wet,  where  Solonis  X  Riparia 
1616  is  surer  to  give  good  results. 

The  Cutting  Graft. — Grafting  the  desired  variety  upon  a  resist- 
ant cutting,  putting  these  cutting-grafts  through  a  callusing  bed 
and  then  planting  the  grafted  cutting  in  nursery  for  rooting  is 
an  accepted  French  method  which  is  being  successfully  employed 
in  California.  This  has  advantage  in  time  gained  and  in  securing 
a  full  stand  of  vines  as  compared  with  grafting  upon  cuttings 
already  rooted  in  place  in  the  vineyard  though  the  latter  has  been 
successfully  practiced. 

If  cutting-grafts  are  placed  directly  in  the  nursery  many  will 
fail.  For  this  reason  it  is  always  best,  except  at  the  extreme  end 
of  the  grafting  season,  to  "stratify''  the  grafts  in  a  "callusing''  bed, 
where  conditions  of  moisture,  temperature,  and  aeration  can  be 
controlled.  This  callusing  bed  is  usually  a  pile  of  clean  sand 
placed  in  the  south  end  of  a  wall  or  building  surrounded  by  a 
board  partition  where  there  is  no  possibility  of  its  becoming  too 
wet  by  the  flow  of  water  from  a  higher  level  or  from  an  over- 
hanging roof.  It  should  be  protected,  if  necessary,  by  a  surround- 
ing ditch.  It  should  be  furnished  with  a  removable  cover  of  canvas 
or  boards  to  protect  it  from  rain  and  to  enable  the  temperature 
to  be  controlled  by  admission  or  exclusion  of  the  sun's  rays.  A 
water-proof  wagon-cover,  black  on  one  side  and  white  on  the 
other,  is  excellent  for  this  purpose. 

The  bottom  of  the  callusing  bed  is  first  covered  with  2  or  3 
inches  of  sand.  The  bundles  of  grafts  are  then  placed  in  a  row 
along  one  end  of  the  bed,  and  sand  well  filled  in  around  them. 
The  bundles  should  be  placed  in  a  slightly  inclined  position  with 
the  scions  uppermost,  and  the  sand  should  be  dry  enough  so  that 
it  sifts  in  between  the  grafts  in  the  bundle.  The  bundles  of  grafts 
are  then  covered  up  completely  with  sand,  leaving  it  at  least  2 
inches  deep  above  the  top  of  the  scion.  There  should  be  but  little 
more  moisture  present  for  callusing  than  in  the  sand  used  for 
keeping  the  cuttings  over  winter.  Too  much  moisture  will  stim- 
ulate the  emission  of  roots  and  starting  of  buds  without  aiding 
the  dallus  formation,  which  is  a  perfectly  distinct  process  from  the 
formation  of  roots. 

An  adjacent  engraving  shows  the  subsequent  rooting  of  cutting- 
grafts  in  the  nursery. 

Grafting  of  Resistant  Stocks  after  Rooting. — Grafting  on  resist- 
ant roots  differs  from  working  in  old  stumps  in  the  size  of  the 
wood  to  be  operated  on,  and  in  the  fact  that  the  graft  must  be  set 
higher  up  because  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  the  scion  strike  roots 


LAYING    OUT    VINEYARD 


347 


P^' 


of  its  own,  for  the  obvious  reason  that  depending  on  such  roots 
ould  make  the  vine  no  longer  resistant.  The  advantage  of  cov- 
ering the  graft  with  earth  is,  however,  still  to  be  enjoyed,  for  the 
earth  can  be  raised  in  a  little  mound  around  the  graft,  to  be 
removed  when  the  graft  has  taken  well.  For  this  reason  grafting 
on  resistant  roots  is  usually  done  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

The  common  cleft  graft  is  used  when  the  stock  is  large  enough 
to  give  a  split  strong  enough  to  hold  in  the  scion.  In  grafting 
smaller  stocks  the  whip  graft  is  used  both  in  making  cutting- 
grafts  and  in  grafting  cuttings  already  rooted.  This  graft  is 
variously  treated.  It  is  covered  with  clay  by  some,  by  others 
with  grafting  wax ;  but  the  common  experience  is  that  grafting 
wax  makes  too  tight  a  joint,  and  holds  in  surplus  sap,  which 
begets  disease.  The  use  of  a  wax  band  specially  adapted  to  ruling 
conditions  has  proved  very  successful,  but  the  easiest  and  usually 
most  satisfactory  way  is  to  wind  with  soft  twine  or  raffia  which 
will,  decay  and  loosen  as  the  graft  enlarges,  but  care  must  be  taken 
to  cut  the  band  if  it  has  not  decayed  at  the  time  of  transplanting. 


LAYING   OUT   THE   VINEYARD 

Vines  are  planted  in  rectangles,  generally  in  squares,  but  some- 
times at  a  less  distance  in  the  rows  than  the  rows  are  from  each 
other.  The  stakes  which  are  to  represent  the  future  vines  are  in 
either  case  placed  by  the  same  methods  of  measuring  or  mark- 
ing off.  All  the  methods  described  for  clearing  and  preparing 
lands,  in  Chapter  VII,  and  for  laying  off  ground  in  squares, 
described  in  Chapter  X,  are  applicable  to  vineyard  ground.  The 
measuring  wire  therein  described  is  the  means  usually  employed 
for  laying  off.  A  special  contrivance  which  has  been  used  to 
some  extent  on  level  ground  is  thus  described : 

The  marker  most  in  use  is  made  in  the  form  of  a  sled,  sixteen,  fourteen, 
or  twelve  feet  long,  with  three  runners  so  placed  as  to  mark  rows  eight, 
seven,  or  six  feet  wide.  These  runners  should  be  made  about  three  feet  long, 
of  some  hard  wood  (Oregon  pine  will  do),  two  inches  thick  and  firmly 
nailed  to  two  planks  placed  upon  them  of  the  lengths  first  above  named. 
Upon  these  should  be  bolted  two  strong  pieces  of  joist  in  the  form  of  wagon 
hounds  projecting  in  front  far  enough  to  receive  a  stout  pole  like  a  wagon- 
tongue,  well  braced  and  fastened  with  an  iron  rod.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
the  motion  of  the  machine  is  steady  and  true  in  all  its  parts.  With  a  well- 
made  marker,  a  gentle  team,  and  a  careful  driver,  excellent  work  may  be 
done. 

Distance  of  Planting. — There  is  as  much  difference  of  opinion 
and  practice  in  fixing  the  distance  between  vines  as  between 
orchard  trees,  but  usually  more  room  is  given  than  formerly. 
Planted  in  squares,  the  distance  varies  from  seven  to  ten  feet, 
with   eight   feet  as   most  prevalent,   taking  the   State   as  a   whole. 


348 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Planting  in  rows  is  also  adopted  to  some  extent.  Such  planta- 
tions are  made  with  the  vines  seven  by  ten  or  eight  by  ten  feet, 
four  and  one-half  by  eleven  feet,  etc.  There  is  great  variation 
in  the  distances.  Some  advantages  of  the  row  system  are  as 
follows:  Greater  space  to  spread  trays  for  raisin  curing;  plow- 
ing can  be  done  with  double  team  and  larger  plows ;  the  brush 
can  be  gathered  and  burned  between  the  rows  instead  of  carry- 
ing it  to  the  avenues;  sulphur  and  materials  for  spraying  can  be 
brought  in  by  team  to  any  part  of  the  vineyard ;  empty  boxes  can 
be  distributed  and  filled  ones  gathered  up  without  carrying,  etc. 
Planting  in  rows  recommends  itself  not  only  for  planting  new 
vineyards,  but  also  for  changing  old  vineyards  from  seven  by 
seven  feet  to  three  and  one-half  by  fourteen  feet,  or  from  eight 
by  eight  feet  to  four  by  sixteen  feet,  giving  opportunity  to  change 
from  g.  vinifera-voot  vineyard  to  a  resistant-root  vineyard.  This 
can  be  accomplished  by  planting  resistant  roots  in  the  alternate 
rows  to  be  preserved,  right  between  the  two  old  vines. 

Number  of  Vines  to  the  Acre. — However  the  vines  be  set,  it 
is  very  easy  to  calculate  the  number  of  vines  which  an  acre  will 
accommodate.  Multiply  the  distance  in  feet  between  the  rows 
by  the  distance  the  plants  are  apart  in  the  rows,  and  the  product 
will  be  the  number  of  square  feet  for  each  plant,  which,  divided 
into  the  number  of  feet  in  an  acre  (forty-three  thousand  five  hun- 
dred and  sixty),  will  give  the  number  of  plants  to  the  acre. 

Avenues  in  the  Vineyard. — For  convenience  of  access  with 
team  and  wagon  there  should  always  be  avenues  through  the 
vineyard.  They  are  usually  arranged  so  as  to  cut  up  the  vine- 
yard into  blocks  about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  if  the  vineyard 
be  on  level  land.  Of  course,  on  hilly  lands  the  avenues  should 
be  located  for  ease  of  hauling.  The  avenue  is  made  by  leaving 
out  a  row  of  vines,  and,  therefore,  the  exact  size  of  the  block 
will  depend  upon  the  distance  between  the  rows.  Some  advise 
having  not  more  than  forty  vines  between  the  avenues.  Plant- 
ing in  rows,  with  wide  spaces  between  the  rows,  renders  few  ave- 
nues necessary. 


PLANTING   CUTTINGS   AND    ROOTED   VINES 

Various  means  are  used  for  planting  cuttings.  An  essential 
condition  to  successful  growth  is  to  have  the  lower  part  of  the 
cutting  well  embedded  in  the  soil,  as  it  will  not  root  unless  in 
close  contact  with  the  earth.  To  lack  of  care  in  this  regard  most 
failures  are  due,  and  for  lack  of  surety  that  such  contact  is  made 
the  various  contrivances  for  speedy  planting,  such  as  the  plant- 
ing bar,   are   widely   condemned ;   an   excavation   of   the   hole   and 


I 


WAYS    TO    PLANT    CUTTINGS 


349 


refilling  with  fine  surface  earth,  just  as  advised  in  Chapter  XI, 
for  planting  orchard  trees,  is  commended  as  the  safest  practice. 
Much,  however,  depends  upon  the  soil.  In  loose,  free  soil  such 
a  use  of  bar  or  '*sheep's-foot"  as  will  be  presently  described  may 
be  satisfactory,  while  it  would  be  impracticable  on  firmer  soils, 
both  because  of  the  difiiculty  of  insertion  and  because  the  packed 
condition   caused  by  the   forcing  in   would   not   favor   root   exten- 


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a 


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Dibbles  for  planting  vine  cuttings. 

sion,  and  not  desirable  on  shallow  soils  because  the  contact  of  the 
better  surface  soil  with  the  bottom  of  the  cutting  will  stimulate 
the  growth  of  the  cutting,  and  is,  therefore,  very  desirable. 

The  post-hole  auger  and  a  device  for  taking  out  soil  as  a 
**trier"  takes  out  a  sample  of  cheese  or  butter,  have  also  been 
used  to  some  extent,  but  not  widely,  in  making  holes  for  cuttings. 


350  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Other  forms  of  dibbles  for  planting  vine  cuttings  relate  par- 
ticularly to  the  setting  of  cutting-grafts  in  a  light  deeply-worked 
nursery  soil,  but  may  be  also  used  to  advantage  in  placing  cut- 
tings in  the  vineyard  if  the  soil  favors  such  a  method.  They  are 
described  by  Mr.  Bioletti  as  follows : 

Two  of  the  best  forms  of  nursery  dibbles  are  shown  in  the 
engraving.  The  first,  A,  consists  of  a  piece  of  round  one-half-inch 
iron,  18  inches  long,  furnished  with  a  wooden  handle  at  one  end 
and  a  curved  double  point  with  a  V-shaped  cleft  in  the  other. 
The  bottom  node  of  the  stock  is  caught  in  the  cleft  and  the  graft 
forced  down  to  the  desired  depth.  Unless  the  ground  is  very 
light  the  other  dibble,  B,  is  preferable.  It  consists  of  a  sword- 
shaped  piece  of  iron  18  to  20  inches  long  and  2  inches  wide,  fur- 
nished also  with  a  handle.  The  usual  way  of  using  it  is  to  press 
it  into  the  ground  to  the  desired  depth,  open  the  hole  a  little  with 
a  lateral  thrust,  withdraw  it  and  insert  the  graft.  The  dibble 
is  then  pushed  into  the  ground  again  at  about  an  inch  to  one  side 
of  the  graft  and  by  another  lateral  thrust  the  earth  is  pressed 
tightly  around  the  graft.  This  takes  more  time  than  is  necessary 
with  the  other  form  of  dibble,  and  usually  done  carefully  there  is 
danger  of  failing  to  make  the  soil  close  around  the  base  of  the 
stock,  which  is  thus  left  surrounded  by  an  air  space.  Grafts 
left  in  this  way  are  apt  to  become  moldy  and  fail  to  make  good 
roots.  The  figure  C  is  a  planting  dibble  to  be  used  with  hand 
and  foot  like  a  spade.  All  such  contrivances  are  only  suited  to 
light  soils  which  crumble  and  settle  easily.  On  heavier  soils, 
digging  holes  and  placing  the  soil  around  the  roots  or  the  base 
of  the  cutting  by  hand  is  indispensable. 

Planting  Bar  and  Sheep's-foot. — The  following  methods, 
described  by  Dr.  Gustav  Eisen  as  prevailing  in  the  raisin  districts 
of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  on  sandy,  loamy  soils,  will  well  illus- 
trate similar  methods  wherever  followed : 

The  planting  bar  consists  of  a  bar  of  hard  iron,  sharpened  at  the  lower  end 
and  furnished  with  a  cross-handle  at  the  other.  The  length  of  the  bar  is  about 
three  and  a  half  feet,  width  about  two  and  a  half  inches,  and  thickness  a  third  to 
half  an  inch.  If  less  than  this  the  bar  will  bend.  The  planting  is  done  by  pushing 
the  bar  perpendicularly  in  the  ground.  After  withdrawing  it,  insert  the  cutting 
and  push  it  down  to  the  bottom.  Fill  up  the  hole  by  again  inserting  the  bar,  in 
the  ground  close  by  and  pressing  the  flat  side  against  the  hole. 

The  sheep's-foot  consists  of  a  round  rod  with  cross-handle  at  the  upper  end. 
The  lower  end  of  the  rod  is  slightly  flattened,  bent,  and  forked.  The  planting  is 
done  by  fitting  the  forked  end  over  the  butt-end  of  the  cutting,  and  immediately 
pushing  cutting  and  rod  together  to  the  desired  depth  in  the  soil.  A  slight  twist 
is  now  given  to  the  sheep's-foot.  This  loosens  it  from  the  cutting  and  allows  it 
to  be  withdrawn.  A  tamp  with  the  foot  fills  the  hole.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
in  withdrawing  the  sheep's-foot,  lest  in  doing  so  the  cutting  should  be  lifted  also, 
and  this  will  leave  a  fatal  air  chamber  at  the  lower  end.  The  slight  twist  given 
the  rod  before  withdrawing  loosens  it  and  leaves  the  cutting  undisturbed. 


PLANTING    ROOTED    VINES 


351 


For  planting  in  dry  situations  some  careful  planters  run  water 
and  fine  earth  into  the  hole  made  by  the  bar  after  inserting  the 
cutting;  others  run  in  fine  sand  dry  and  then  pour  on  water.  In 
using  water  in  this  way  one  must  take  care  that  he  does  not 
use  adobe  earth,  for  a  succeeding  dry  spell  may  bake  it,  and  the 
cutting  will  be  worse  off  than  if  not  puddled. 

Planting  Rooted  Vines. — Planting  rooted  vines  is  governed  by 
the  same  rules  commended  for  planting  trees  in  Chapter  XI,  sa 
far  as  preparation  of  holes,  care  in  placing  and  firming  the  soil 
around  the  roots,  etc.,  is  concerned.  In  handling  rooted  vines 
there  must  be  greater  care  in  packing  and  transportation  to  pre- 
vent the  roots  from  drying,  and  in  carrying  to  the  field  it  is  gen- 
erally advised  that  the  plants  be  kept  in  a  pail  or  other  receptacle 
with  water.  The  vine  roots  are  very  small  and  tender,  and 
success  will  largely  depend  upon  good  care  of  them.  At  planting 
all  dead  or  injured  roots  should  be  trimmed  away,  healthy  roots 
shortened  so  that  they  can  be  placed  well  in  the  hole,  and  the 
top  reduced  to  a  single  cane  cut  back  to  two  eyes. 

When  to  Plant. — The  exact  time  to  plant  can  not  be  stated, 
for  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  local  season-points  are  the 
best  guides.  Planting  can  be  done  much  later  as  a  rule  in  the 
coast  regions  than  in  the  interior,  because  the  soil  is  usually 
later  in  getting  into  good  condition  of  mellowness  and  warmth, 
and  the  late  rains  are  usually  heavier.  It  is  certainly  not  advis- 
able to  place  cuttings  in  cold,  wet  soil,  and  dry  soil  will  quickly 
destroy  their  vitality.  The  suggestions  given  in  Chapter  XI 
should  be  carefully  considered.  The  planter  must  use  good  judg- 
ment in  choosing  his  time  for  planting,  aided  in  forming  it  by  the 
best  local  experience  he  can  get. 

Cultivation  of  Vineyard. — General  suggestions  concerning  the 
cultivation  of  the  vineyard  have  already  been  given  in  Chapter 
XIII,  preceding. 


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Instance  of  large  bearing  by  long  pruning. 


352 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

PRUNING    AND    CARE    OF    THE    VINE* 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  vinifcra  grown  in  California  at  present 
thrive  under  the  short  pruning  system.  There  are  exceptions, 
however,  which  will  be  noted  later.  The  prevalence  of  the  short 
pruning  system  frees  our  growers  from  the  expense  and  incon- 
venience of  trellises.  Though  in  the  early  years  of  the  vine  stakes 
are  used,  our  older  vines  stand  by  themselves  and  are  as  inde- 
pendent of  supports  as  our  fruit  trees.  The  vines  are,  in  fact, 
shaped  upon  something  the  same  model  as  our  fruit  trees,  the 
so-called  ''goblet  form"  of  the  French  being  our  prototype. 

THE    FIRST.   YEAR 

During  the  summer  of  the  year  the  vines  are  planted,  no  prun- 
ing or  training  of  any  kind  is  needed  in  most  cases.  For  this 
reason  it  is  nearly  always  unnecessary  to  stake  the  vines  when 
they  are  planted.  The  only  exception  to  this  is  when  strong- 
rooted  vines  are  planted  in  a  rich,  moist  soil  in  which  they  will 
make  a  very  large  growth  the  first  year.  In  this  case  it  is  desir- 
able, though  not  quite  necessary,  to  stake  the  vines  immediately 
after  planting  to  adopt  the  method  of  summer  treatment  described 
below  for  the  second  year. 

In  most  cases  it  is  best  to  allow  all  shoots  to  remain  to  feed 
the  vine  and  to  insure  a  good  root  growth  the  first  year. 

Staking. — In   the   autumn   or   winter   following   planting,   the 
vines  should  be  staked,  either  before  or  after  pruning,  but  in  any 
case  some  time  before  the  buds  start  in  the  spring. 

The  kind  of  stake  used  will  depend  on  the  variety  of  vine  and 
on  the  method  of  pruning  to  be  ultimately  adopted.  For  ordinary 
short-pruning,  the  stake  should  be  of  such  length  that,  after  being 
driven  into  the  ground,  sufhcient  will  be  below  the  surface  to 
keep  it  firm  and  prevent  its  being  loosened  by  the  force  of  the  wind 
acting  on  the  vine  which  is  tied  to  it,  and  sufficient  above  the 
surface  to  extend  one  or  two  inches  above  the  height  at  which 
it  is  intended  to  head  the  vines.  It  should  be  from  one  and  one- 
quarter  to  one  and  one-half  inches  square,  according  to  the  length. 


*  The  detailed  instructions  and  accompanying  illustrations  in  this  chapter  are 
taken  from  the  excellent  writings  of  Mr.  F.  T.  Bioletti  for  the  California  Experiment 
Station,  and  embody  the  teachings  of  long  experience  and  wide  observation. 

353 


854 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


In  firm  ground,  for  small-growing  vines  such  as  Zinfandel,  a 
stake  1  1-4  by  1  1-4  inches  and  27  inches  long  will  be  sufficient. 
This  will  allow  15  inches  to  be  driven  into  the  ground  and  leave 
12  inches  above,  which  is  enough  for  vines  to  be  headed  at  10 
inches.  If  the  ground  is  loose  or  sandy  a  30-inch  stake  driven  18 
inches  into  the  ground  will  be  needed.  For  strong-growing  vari- 
eties, such  as  Carignane  or  Tokay,  especially  when  planted  in  rich 
soil,  a  stake  1  1-2  by  1  1-2  inches  and  36  inches  long  will  be  neces- 
sary, and  15  or  18  inches  of  this  should  be  left  above  the  ground. 
This  will  permit  the  heading  of  the  vines  at  15  inches. 

If  the  vines  are  to  be  trellised  with  one  wire,  a  36-inch  stake 
driven  18  inches  into  the  ground  is  the  proper  length.  If  two 
wires  are  to  be  used,  a  48-inch  stake  will  be  needed,  leaving  30 
inches  above  the  surface. 

If  the  vines  are  to  be  pruned  long  and  the  canes  tied  to  the 
stake,  a  5-foot  stake  will  usually  be  needed,  and  this  must  be 
stronger,  2  by  2  inches  square.  This  stake  should  be  driven  2 
feet  into  the  ground. 

These  dimensions  are  all  smaller  than  are  usual  in  California, 
but  are  quite  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  stake  should 
be  placed  1  to  2  inches  from  the  vine  on  the  side  opposite  to  the 
prevailing  heavy  winds.  The  force  of  the  wind  will  thus  keep 
the  vine  pressed  against  the  stake  and  the  tying  material  less  liable 
to  break. 

First  Winter  Pruning. — In  California,  the  young  vines  may  be 
pruned  at  any  time  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  except  in  sections 
very  subject  to  spring  frosts,  where  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to 
defer  the  pruning  until  after  the  top  buds  of  the  canes  start. 

The  way  the  vines  are  to  be  pruned  will  depend  altogether  on 
the  growth  they  have  made.  If  the  growth  has  been  small  the 
tops  are  pruned  exactly  like  rooted  vines  before  planting.  All 
the  canes  are  removed  entirely,  except  the  strongest,  and  this  is 
cut  back  to  two  buds  (see  Fig.  1,  a). 

Any  vines  which  have  made  a  strong  growth  and  possess  at 
least  one  cane  of  which  a  sufficient  length  is  well  ripened  may  be 
pruned  for  tying  up.  All  the  canes  are  removed  entirely,  except 
the  strongest,  and  this  is  cut  back  to  10,  15,  or  18  inches,  accord- 
ing to  the  height  at  which  it  is  intended  to  head  the  vine  (see 
Fig.  2,  a).  The  top  cut  is  made  through  a  bud,  just  as  in  making 
cuttings.  This  will  facilitate  tying  up  and  insure  the  healthy 
growth  of  the  top  bud. 

Sometimes,  even  when  the  vine  has  made  sufficient  growth,  the 
canes  are  prostrate  or  crooked  and  none  can  be  tied  up  straight 
to  the  stake.  In  this  case  the  vine  must  be  pruned  like  a  weak 
vine — that  is,  thinned  to  one  cane  and  this  cane  cut  back  to  two 
buds. 


FIRST    STEP    IN    SHORT    PRUNING 


855 


Fig.  1.     Treatment  of  an  average  vine  during  second  season. 

a.  Winter  pruning. 

b.  Spring  pruning — removal   of   suckers    (S)    and   thinning  of   shoots    (W). 

c.  Summer  treatment — tying  to  stake  and  topping. 


In  no  case  should  two  canes  of  any  length  be  left,  and  in  all 
cases  where  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  the  full  length  of  well-ripened 
wood  for  tying  up,  the  cane  should  be  cut  back  to  two  buds.  It 
is  very  bad  practice  to  leave  some  of  the  canes  of  intermediate 
length,  as  this  causes  the  vines  to  head  out  at  various  heights 
and  produces  an  irregularity  of  shape  which  can  never  be  remedied 
and  which  interferes  with  regular  pruning,  cultivation  and  other 
vineyard  work. 

The  idea  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  to  cut  back  each  winter  nearly 
to  the  ground — that  is,  to  two  buds — until  a  cane  is  produced 
with  a  length  of  well-ripened  wood  and  good  buds  equal  to  the 
height  at  which  the  vine  is  to  be  headed.  It  is  very  important 
that  this  cane  should  be  straight,  healthy  and  well-ripened,  as  it 
is  from  it  that  the  trunks  of  the  mature  vine  develops.  All  the 
vines  on  which  a  cane  has  been  left  should  be  carefully  tied  up. 
Two  ties  will  be  needed  in  most  cases.  A  half  hitch  should  be 
made  around  the  cane  below  the  swelling  left  by  the  bud  which 
has  been  removed,  and  the  cane  tied  firmly  to  the  top  of  the  stake. 
Another  tie  is  made  about  half-way  down  the  stake.  The  lower 
tie  need  not  be  very  tight,  and  in  any  case  the  tying  material  should 
not     be     passed     completely     around     the     cane,     except     above 


356 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


Fig.  2.     Treatment  of  average  vine  during  the  third  season, 
or  of  a  vigorous  vine  during  the  second. 

a.  Vine  pruned  to  one  cane  and  tied  to  stake. 

b.  Removal  of  sucker  (S)   and  lower  shoots   (W)   in  spring. 

c.  Vine  in   summer  at   time  of  pinching. 

the  top  bud,  or  the  vine  will  be  strangled  when  it  commences  to 
grow  (see  Fig.  2,  a).  Any  kind  of  string  or  twine,  sufficiently 
strong  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  the  growing  vine  in  a  heavy 
wind,  may  be  used.  Binding  twine,  or  a  single  strand  of  good 
baling  rope,  is  suitable.  No.  16  or  17  galvanized  wire  is  preferred 
by  some  and  is  better  than  string,  if  care  is  taken  to  remove  the 
bottom  ties  the  following  year  before  they  strangle  the  vine. 
Wire  is  a  little  more  expensive  and  takes  a  little  longer  to  put  on 
than  string,  but  holds  the  vines  better  and  can  be  used  for  several 
years. 

SECOND   YEAR 

Summer  Pruning. — The  treatment  during  the  second  and  third 
spring  and  summer  is  of  great  importance  to  the  future  welfare 
of  the  vine.  A  little  judicious  care  at  this  period  will  avert  many 
troubles  in  later  years.  It  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  vine- 
yard four  or  five  times  to  do  the  suckering,  topping,  and  tying 
which  are  necessary. 

The  shoots  starting  from  the  vines  which  have  been  cut  back 
to  two   buds   should  be   thinned   to  a   single   one.     I'his   thinning 


FORMS    OF    THREE-YEAR-OLD    VINES 


357 


Fig.  3.     Three-year-old  vines  after  pruning. 

a.  Average  vine  with  two  spurs. 

b.  Vigorous   vines   with   three   spurs,    the   lowest   of  which   is   to   be   removed   the 

following  year. 

c.  Vigorous   vine   with   three   spurs. 

should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  never 
necessary  to  remove  a  shoot  more  than  3  or  4  inches  long  (see  Fig. 
I,  b).  If  the  thinning  is  deferred  until  the  shoots  are  a  foot  or 
more  long  the  vine  will  be  weakened  by  the  removal  of  so  much 
foliage.  If  the  thinning  can  not  be  done  early,  it  is  better  not  to 
do  it  at  all.  The  object  of  this  thinning  .is  to  throw  all  the  force 
and  growth  of  the  vine  into  the  cane  which  is  to  form*  finally 
the  trunk  of  the  vine.  If  it  is  done  too  late  not  only  does  the 
growth  not  go  into  this  cane,  but  the  vine  is  weakened  so  much 
that  this  cane  does  not  grow  so  well  as  it  would  have  done  without 
thinning. 

The  first  thinning  can  be  done  with  the  first  hoeing,  and  the 
second  with  the  suckering.  The  suckering  consists  of  the  removal 
of  all  shoots  which  come  from  below  the  ground.  These  also 
should  be  removed  as  early  as  practicable,  both  to  avoid  weaken- 
ing the  vine  by  the  removal  of  mature  leaves  and  also  because  a 
young  sucker  is  much  more  easily  separated  from  the  vine  at  this 
time.  Every  sucker  must  be  cut  or  broken  off  at  the  point  where 
it  originates.     If  a  little  piece  of  the  sucker  is  left,  several   new 


358  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

suckers  will  start  at  the  same  place.  The  more  completely  the 
suckering  is  done  during  the  first  two  years,  the  less*  trouble  in 
this  respect  there  will  be  in  later  years.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  grafted  vines. 

A  few  weeks  after  the  first  thinning,  the  single  shoot  which 
has  been  left  will  have  grown  10  or  15  inches.  At  this  length 
it  should  be  tied  up  to  the  stake  (see  Fig.  1,  c).  If  this  tying 
is  neglected  or  deferred  too  long,  a  heavy  wind  is  very  liable  to 
break  off  the  whole  shoot.  A  piece  of  string  tied  rather  loosely 
about  the  middle  of  the  shoot  is  all  that  is  needed.  If  the  vines 
are  to  be  headed  high  (18  inches)  another  tie  near  the  top  of  the 
stake  may  be  necessary. 

For  vines  which  are  making  only  a  moderate  growth  this  is 
all  the  treatment  needed  during  the  summer.  Strong-growing 
vines  in  rich  soil,  however,  should  be  topped. 

Topping. — The  object  of  this  is  to  force  the  shoot  to  send 
out  laterals  at  the  right  height  above  the  surface  of  the  soil,  to 
be  used  as  spurs  during  the  following  year.  This  topping  is 
an  operation  which  requires  a  good  deal  of  judgment.  If  the 
topping  is  done  too  soon,  laterals  will  not  start,  but  a  new  ter- 
minal shoot  will  be  formed.  This  is  not  a  serious  defect,  how- 
ever, but  simply  necessitates  a  second  topping  two  or  three 
weeks  later.  Neither  will  the  laterals  start  if  the  topping  is 
done  too  late,  or  if  they  start  they  will  not  mature,  and  the  vine 
is  weakened  by  the  removal  of  foliage  without  any  compensating 
advantage. 

Until  experience  has  shown  the  proper  time  for  the  variety 
and  locality,  it  is  best  to  top  when  the  shoot  has  grown  to  from 
8  to  12  inches  above  the  top  of  the  stake,  and  if  necessary  top 
again  later. 

The  shoot  should  be  topped  within  1  or  2  inches  of  the  top 
of  the  stake,  if  the  stakes  have  been  chosen  and  driven  as  advised 
above  (see  Fig.  1,  c).  This  will  insure  the  growth  of  laterals 
just  where  they  are  needed  for  the  next  winter  pruning. 

The  vines  on  which  a  cane  has  been  left  and  tied  up  during 
the  preceding  winter  must  be  treated  a  little  differently.  The 
removal  of  underground  shoots  or  suckers  is  the  same.  Instead 
of  thinning  out  the  shoots  to  a  single  one,  as  for  the  vines  just 
described,  all  the  shoots  should  be  left  to  grow,  except  those  too 
near  the  ground  (see  Fig.  2.  b). 

As  a  rule,  all  shoots  between  the  ground  and  the  middle  of 
the  stakes  should  be  taken  off.  It  is  even  more  important  that 
this  should  be  done  early  than  in  the  case  described  above.  If 
the  lower  shoots  are  allowed  to  become  large  and  then  removed, 
not  only  is  the  vine  weakened  by  the  removal  of  mature  leaves, 
but  the  stem  of  the  vine  is  suddenly  exposed   to  the  direct   rays 


SUMMER    PRUNING    OF    VINES 


359 


of  the  hot  sun  and  is  very  liable  to  injury.  This  injury  does  not 
show  by  the  peeling  off  of  the  bark  as  with  fruit  trees,  but  by 
a  general  weakening  and  dwarfing  of  the  vine. 

The  shoots  coming  from  the  upper  half  of  the  cane  are  to 
form  the  spurs  for  the  following  winter  pruning,  and  can  often 
be  left  to  grow  without  further  treatment. 


Fig.  4.    An  ideal  three-year-old  vine  after  pruning. 

If  the  growth  is  very  rapid  and  succulent,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  pinch  them,  or  the  first  heavy  wind  may  break  them  off 
(see  Fig.  2,  c). 

Pinching  consists  in  the  removal  of  1  or  2  inches  of  growth 
at  the  extreme  tip  of  the  shoot.  This  delays  the  growth  in  length 
temporarily  and  gives  the  shoot  time  to  strengthen  its  tissues 
before  its  length  gives  too  much  leverage  to  the  wind.  This 
pinching  usually  has  to  be  repeated  at  least  once. 

Pinching  may  be  replaced  by  topping  a  few  weeks  later,  but 
the  latter  is  somewhat  weakening  to  the  vine. 

In  all  summer  pruning — that  is,  removal  of  green  shoots  and 
leaves — of  young  vines,  two  things  should  be  kept  in  mind  :  First, 
that  all  summer  pruning  is  weakening;  second,  that  the  object 
of   summer   pruning  of  young   vines   is   to   direct   the   growth   as 


360 


CALIB^ORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


much  as  possible  into  those  parts  which  are  to  become  perma- 
nent portions  of  the  mature  vine.  The  weakening  effect  is  almost 
nil  if  the  shoots  or  tips  are  removed  when  they  are  very  small, 


Fig.    5.     Showing    method    of    bending    fruit 
canes   to   insure   growth  of  shoots 
from   replacing   spurs. 

but  may  be  very  serious  if  large  shoots  are  removed  or  heavily 
topped.  When  a  large  shoot  covered  with  leaves  is  removed  it 
is  a  total  loss  to  the  vine.  When  a  small  shoot  is  removed  the 
food  materials  which  would  have  gone  into  that  shoot  are  diverted 
to  the  shoots  that  remain,  and  the  vigor  and  size  of  the  latter  are 
increased. 


LONG    PRUNING    OP    VINES  3g][ 

THIRD   YEAR 

Winter  Pruning. — After  the  leaves  have  fallen  at  the  end  of 
the  third  summer  every  vine  should  have  a  well-formed,  straight 
stem  with  two,  three,  or  more  canes  growing  from  the  upper  part, 
and  the  formation  of  the  "head"  or  crown  should  commence.  Any 
vines  which  have  not  been  brought  to  this  condition  must  be 
pruned  like  two  or  one-year-old  vines,  as  the  case  may  be. 

If  the  work  up  to  this  point  has  been  well  done,  the  formation 
of  the  head  is  a  simple  matter.  It  consists  in  leaving  two, 
three,  or  four  spurs,  arranged  as  symmetrically  as  possible  near 
the  top  of  the  vine.  The  stronger  the  vine,  as  evidenced  by  the 
number,  length,  and  thickness  of  the  canes,  the  larger  the  num- 
ber of  spurs  and  buds  that  should  be  left. 

A  spur  consists  of  the  basal  portion  of  a  cane,  and  normally 
of  two  full  internodes.  This  leaves  two  buds  besides  the  base 
bud.  The  number  of  buds  to  leave  on  a  spur  depends  on  the 
strength  or  thickness  of  the  cane  from  which  the  spur  is  made. 
A  thin,  or  weak,  cane  should  be  cut  back  to  one  bud  or  even  to  the 
base  bud.  A  strong  cane,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  left  with 
three  buds  besides  the  base  bud. 

The  pruning  of  each  vine  requires  judgment,  and  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  an  inflexible  rule  to  follow.  The  ideal  of  a  perfect 
vine  should  be  kept  in  mind  and  each  vine  pruned  as  nearly  in 
accordance  with  this  ideal  as  circumstances  permit.  Fig.  3  and 
Fig.  4  represent  nearly  perfect  three-year-old  vines  consisting  of 
two  or  three  symmetrically  placed  spurs  of  two  buds  each  near 
the  top  of  the  stem. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  leave  a  spur  lower  down  (see 
Fig.  3,  b).  This  spur  will  be  removed  the  following  year  after 
it  has  produced  two  or  three  bunches  of  grapes.  Sometimes  a 
vine  may  be  very  vigorous  but  have  only  two  canes  properly 
placed  for  making  spurs.  In  this  case  the  spurs  should  be  left 
longer — three  buds  and  even  in  extreme  cases  four  buds  long. 

In  stump  pruning  there  is  a  difference  of  practice  as  to  low 
heading  according  to  locality.  In  the  interior  regions  the  vine 
is  now  headed  almost  at  the  surface  of  the  ground;  in  the  coast 
regions  there  is  usually  a  stump  of  one  to  two  feet  or  more.  As 
with  trees  so  with  vines,  the  practice  is  to  prune  to  make  lower 
heads  than  during  the  early  years  of  California  fruit  growing. 

Long  Pruning. — Some  v^arieties  grown  for  market  and  for 
raisin  making  do  not  thrive  if  pruned  by  the  short-spur  system. 
Notable  among  these  are  the  Sultana,  Sultanina,  (Thompson's 
Seedless),  Emperor  and  Sabalskanski.  There  are  also  a  number 
of  wine  varieties  which  must  be  pruned  long.  Whatever  the  vari- 
ety of  vine  and  whatever  the  system  of  pruning  to  be  ultimately 


862 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


adopted,  the  treatment  for  the  first  two  and  even  three  years  is 
practically  identical  and  is  that  which  has  already  been  described 
in  detail. 

Long  pruning  admits  of  degrees,  but  it  usually  signifies  using 
a  five  or  six  instead  of  a  four-foot  stake  and  leaving  the  selected 
canes  from  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  or  longer  instead  of 
cutting  back  to  two  or  three  buds,  as  in  short  pruning.  These 
long  canes  are  securely  tied  to  the  long  stakes. 

With  varieties  needing  long  pruning  the  first  two  or  three 
buds  next  the  old  wood  do  not  bear  fruit,  hence  the  need  of 
leaving  buds  farther  removed  from  the  old  wood  to  secure  it. 
This  habit  of  the  vine  invites  the  practice  of  growing  a  long  cane 
for  fruit  and  at  the  same  time  providing  for  wood  growth  for 
the  following  year's  fruiting  by  cutting  another  cane  from  the 
same  spur  down  to  two  or  three  buds.  By  this  practice  the 
wood  which  has  borne  the  fruit  is  cut  back  to  a  bud  each  winter 
and  the  cane  which  has  grown  only  wood  is  pruned  long  for  the 
fruit  of  the  following  summer.  A  modification  of  the  practice 
is  to  prune  the  canes  from  some  of  the  spurs  long,  and  from 
other  spurs  short,  thus  making  the  spurs  alternate  from  wood 
bearing  to^  fruit  bearing  from  year  to  year.  Unless  some  method 
is  adopted  to  promote  the  growth  of  strong  canes  from  near  the 
head  of  the  vine,  long  pruning  becomes  unsatisfactory.  Accord- 
ing to  the  common  way  with  those  vines  which  are  known  to 
require  longer  canes  for  satisfactory  bearing,  such  canes  are 
selected  when  the  vine  is  well  established  and  two,  three,  four,  or 
more  canes  four  or  five  feet  long  are  tied  up  vertically  to  a  high 
stake.  This  process  is  repeated  the  next  year  and  the  next,  and 
the  result  is,  with  the  Sultanina  at  least,  that  after  the  second  or 
third  year  all  the  bearing  wood  is  at  the  top  of  the  stake,  and  the 
vine  must  be  pruned  short  again  or  suckers  and  watersprouts 
left  as  long  canes.     Neither  way  is  satisfactory. 

Two  methods  have  been  successfully  used  to  insure  the  growth 
of  new  fruit  wood  every  year  in  a  position  where  it  can  be  util- 
ized. The  first  consists  in  bending  the  fruit  canes  into  a  circle, 
as  illustrated  in  Fig.  5.  This  diminishes  the  tendency  of  the 
sap  of  the  vine  to  go  to  the  end  of  the  fruit  canes.  The  conse- 
quence is  that  more  shoots  start  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  fruit 
canes.  All  the  shoots  on  these  canes  are  made  weaker  and  more 
fruitful  by  the  bending,  and  at  the  same  time  the  sap  pressure  is 
increased  and  causes  strong  shoots  to  start  from  the  wood-spurs 
left  near  the  bases  of  the  fruit  canes.  These  shoots  are  used 
for  fruit  canes  at  the  following  winter  pruning,  and  new  wood 
spurs  are  then  left  for  the  next  year. 

The  tying  and  bending  of  the  fruit  canes  require  great  care, 
and  repeated  suckering  and  removal  of  watersprouts  are  neces- 
sary to  insure  a  strong  growth  of  replacing  canes  on  the  wood 


'                        -1           \. 

r" 

_^.        '               .        Tiir 

r    ' 

1 

xn 


363 


364 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO    GROW     THEM 


Spurs.      This    method    can    be    used    successfully    only    by    skilful 
hands. 

The  other  method  requires  some  form  of  trellis.  The  most 
practicable  trellis  is  a  wire  stretched  along  the  rows  at  about 
lyi  or  2  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  For  very  vigorous 
vines  in  rich  soil  as  second  wire  12  inches  above  the  first  is 
advisable. 

The  pruning  is  the  same  as  for  the  method  just  described. 
The  fruit  canes,  however,  instead  of  being  bent  in  a  circle  and 
tied  to  the  stake,  are  placed  in  a  horizontal  position  and  tied  to 
the  wire.  The  horizontal  position  has  the  same  effect  as  curv- 
ing in  promoting  the  starting  of  more  shoots  on  the  fruit  canes 
and  the  consequent  production  of  more  bunches  of  grapes.  At 
the  same  time  the  buds  on  the  wood  spurs  are  forced  to  start, 
and  not  being  shaded  they  tend  to  grow  vigorously.  It  is  best 
to  tie  the  shoots  from  the  wood  spurs  in  a  vertical  position  to 
the  stake,  and  they  should  not  be  topped.  This  system  of  prun- 
ing is  not  only  theoretically  correct,  but  is  easy  to  explain  to 
pruners,  and  can  be  carried  out  much  more  perfectly  than  the 
first  method  with  ordinary  labor. 

Whatever  system  of  winter  pruning  is  adopted  with  the  Sul- 
tanina,  careful  summer  pruning,  suckering,  sprouting  and  top- 
ping are  necessary  for  the  best  results.  This  variety  has  a  ten- 
dency to  send  out  large  numbers  of  suckers  from  below  ground 
and  watersprouts  from  the  old  wood.  These  shoots  are  usually 
sterile,  grow  vigorously,  and  unless  removed  in  time  divert  the 
energies  of  the  vine  from  the  fruit  and  fruit  shoots.  Two  or 
three  times  during  the  spring  the  vineyard  should  be  gone  over 
carefully  and  all  sterile  shoots  which  are  not  needed  to  balance 
the  vine  or  to  replace  weak  or  missing  arms  should  be  removed. 
This  removal  of  shoots  should  be  done  in  such  a  way  that  no 
shoot  longer  than  12  inches  is  ever  removed.  If  the  watersprouts 
are  allowed  to  grow  large  their  removal  weakens  the  vine.  The 
shoots  which  are  to  give  fruit  canes  for  the  following  year  should 
not  be  topped.  The  shoots  from  the  horizontal  fruit  canes  on 
the  trellises,  however,  will  set  their  fruit  better  and  are  less  likely 
to  be  broken  by  the  wind  if  they  are  pinched  or  topped  early. 

SUMMER   PRUNING   AND   SUCKERING 

Summer  pruning  or  topping  of  bearing  vines  is  usually  prac- 
tised. Some  follow  the  pinching  process,  by  which  the  terminal 
of  the  growing  cane  is  nipped  off  with  the  thumb  and  finger  when 
it  has  grown  out  about  two  feet.  Others  wait  longer  and  then 
slash  oflf  the  ends  of  the  canes  with  a  sickle.  The  tendency  is  to 
leave  summer  pruning  until  too  late  and  to  slash  off  wood  indis- 
criminately, to  the  injury  of  the  vine.     Summer  pruning,  if  done 


HINTS    ON    PRUNING    VINES 


365 


early  enough,  and  this  would  be  while  the  growth  is  still  soft 
at  the  point  of  removal,  will  induce  the  growth  of  laterals  and 
will  shade  and  improve  the  fruit,  and  at  the  same  time  thicken 
the  growth  of  the  main  cane  and  strengthen  its  connection  with 
the  spur.  Slashing  of  canes  too  late  in  the  season  deprives  the 
fruit  of  the  service  of  enough  leaf  surface  for  the  elaboration  of 
the  sap,  often  seriously  checks  the  growth  of  the  vine,  and  in 
hot  regions  induces  sunburn.  The  first  summer  pruning  should 
be  done  soon  after  the  bloom,  but  not  during  blooming.  The 
second  could  take  place  whenever  the  canes  or  laterals  extend 
beyond  the  length  necessary  to  shade  the  grapes. 

Suckering  is  an  important  process  and  usually  has  to  be 
attended  to  at  least  twice  in  the  season.  It  consists  in  removing 
all  shoots  from  old  wood  which  are  not  provided  for  at  the  pre- 
vious winter  pruning.  The  growth  of  these  suckers  takes  sap 
which  should  go  to  the  other  canes.  All  such  shoots  should  be 
rubbed  or  pulled  off  while  they  are  still  soft;  if  a  sucker  puts  out 
at  a  point  where  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  a  spur  to  balance 
the  head  of  the  vine,  it  should  of  course  be  allowed  to  grow,  to 
be  cut  back  to  two  buds  the  following  winter.  By  such  selection 
of  suckers  new  spurs  are  secured  to  replace  old  and  failing  ones. 

GENERAL  NOTES  ON  PRUNING 

Longer  or  shorter  pruning  produces  effects  not  only  upon  the 
amount  and  early  ripening  of  the  fruit  of  certain  varieties,  but 
upon  quality,  as  shown  in  the  wine.  Such  effects  have  to  be 
discerned  by  local  observation. 

It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  lay  down  any  rule  for  pruning 
a  vineyard,  so  much  depends  on  the  age  of  the  vines,  the  differ- 
ent varieties,  and  the  quality  of  the  soil.  A  basis  on  which  to 
build  a  theory  on  the  subject  might  be  found  in  and  through  an 
understanding  of  the  quantity  of  grapes  that  may  be  expected 
from  a  vine,  as  the  secret  of  pruning  is  to  keep  a  just  medium 
between  the  production  of  grapes  to  the  injury  of  the  vine  and 
its  wood  and  an  overproduction  of  wood  to  the  detriment  of  the 
crop.  In  older  vines  a  proportion  should  be  maintained  between 
the  vigor  of  the  vines  and  the  crop  desired ;  each  bud  may  be  con- 
sidered good  for  two  bunches  of  grapes  the  ordinary  size,  and 
upon  this  estimate  may  be  obtained.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  result  of  overloading  the  vine  is  detrimental  to  its  vigor 
and  health,  while  the  reverse  will  not  injure  it,  but  will  lessen  the 
profits  for  that  season,  often  giving  greatly  increased  returns  in 
after  years. 

Close  attention  should  be  given  to  the  growth  of  the  wood 
and  fruit  of  the  preceding  year.  If  the  canes  are  very  large 
and  the  bunches  of  grapes  poor  and  there  are  many  suckers,  it 


3gg  CALIP^ORNIA    P^RUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

indicates  that  more  eyes  are  necessary.  On  the  contrary,  if  the 
canes  are  small,  and  the  bunches  of  grapes  numerous  and  strag- 
gling, and  the  ripening  not  even,  it  indicates  that  the  number 
of  eyes  left  should  be  less. 

Pruning  may  be  regulated  to  produce  a  good  second  crop  of 
grapes  or  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  second  crop.  The  second 
crop  is  often  desirable  in  raisin  and  table  varieties,  but  unde- 
sirable in  wine  varieties. 

Attention  should  be  paid  to  the  tools  used  in  pruning.  Let 
the  blades  be  kept  sharp  and  thin;  large  shears  are  very  apt  to 
bruise  the  wood  more  than  small  ones. 

Pruning  is  done  after  the  fall  of  the  leaves  and  before  the 
swelling  of  the  buds,  usually  in  January  and  February.  Early 
pruning  has  a  tendency  to  make  the  vines  start  growth  early, 
consequently  in  frosty  situations  pruning  is  often  deferred  till 
late  in  the  winter — as  late  as  the  middle  of  March  in  some  cases. 
In  such  situations  it  is  advised  to  leave  more  buds  at  pruning, 
so  if  the  frost  kills  the  first  shoots  there  are  buds  below  to  make 
later  growth.  This  practice  has  been  followed  with  m.arked 
advantage  in  some  regions  liable  to  late  spring  frosts. 

The  treatment  of  vines  injured  by  spring  frosts  is  clearly  the 
immediate  removal,  by  a  sharp  downward  jerk,  of  the  frosted 
shoots.  P.  C.  Rossi,  a  large  vineyardist,  recites  this  experience, 
both  in  the  San  Joaquin  and  Santa  Rosa  Valleys : 

We  had  all  the  vines  affected  by  frost  entirely  stripped  of  the  damaged  shoots, 
and  we  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  that,  in  a  short  time  after,  all  the  dormant  buds 
came  out  finely,  with  their  regular  two  bunches  of  grapes ;  therefore  we  have  lost 
only  one-third  of  the  crop.  In  order  to  make  careful  experiment  we  left  a  row 
of  vines  untouched,  and  the  result  proved  that  the  vines  that  were  not  stripped 
did  not  do  as  well  as  the  others,  as  the  dormant  buds  in  many  cases  did  not  come 
out,  and  those  that  came  out  were  not  healthy  and  strong,  and  hardly  had  any 
grapes.  The  damaged  shoots  that  were  not  removed  died  gradually,  and  at  the 
junction  with  the  cane  new  shoots  came  out  without  any  grapes  at  all.  The 
result  clearly  proves  that  we  will  have  fully  two-thirds  of  the  crop  out  of  the 
frost-bitten  vines  which  were  stripped  of  the  damaged  canes,  while  we  had  hardly 
any  first  crop  and  only  a  second  crop  on  the  vines  which  were  not  attended  to. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    VINE 

One  of  the  most  prevalent  diseases  of  the  vine  in  California 
is  caused  by  a  fungus  which  afifects  leaves,  canes,  and  berries, 
and  is  locally  known  as  "mildew."  This  disease  is  recognized 
by  grayish  white  coloring  of  the  affected  leaves,  which,  as  the 
disease  progresses,  shrivel  and  dry  up;  the  young  cane  also  black- 
ens and  dries,  and  the  berries  show  whitish  patches,  which  be- 
come darker  colored  and  the  berries  crack  open.  The  usual  rem- 
edy for  the  trouble  is  finely-ground  or  sublimed  sulphur  applied 
several  times  during  the  season,  as  will  be  described  in  the  chap- 
ter on  diseases  of  trees  and  vines. 


VARIOUS    VINE    TROUBLES 


367 


The  Bordeaux  Mixture  and  other  copper  preparations  are 
sometimes  useful  upon  grape-vines,  as  will  be  cited  in  the  chapter 
on  plant  diseases. 

Coulure. — A  frequent  misfortune  of  the  vine,  and  for  w^hich 
no  remedy  is  yet  known,  is  coulure,  a  term  signifying  the  failure 
of  the  fruit  to  set  or  to  remain  on  the  cluster.  This  occurs  in 
varying  degrees  from  the  loss  of  a  few  berries  to  the  almost 
complete  clearing  of  fruit  from  the  stem.  It  is  worse  with  some 
varieties  than  others  and  in  some  localities  than  others.  The 
trouble  is  believed  to  arise  from  various  causes. 

There  is,  also,  occurring  with  more  or  less  frequency,  a  red- 
dening and  death  of  the  vine  leaves,  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  the  trouble  known  to  the  French  as  "rougeole."  The  leaves 
show  light-colored  spots  at  first,  which  afterward  turn  red  and 
finally  involve  the  whole  leaf  or  cane,  and  sometimes  the  whole 
vine.  It  usually  occurs  in  mid-summer,  and  is  not  necessarily 
fatal  in  its  effects. 

Root  Knot. — An  evil  occurring  on  the  main  stem  of  the  vine, 
generally  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  is  an  excresence  of 
woody  character  commonly  called  "black  knot."  There  has  been 
much  discussion  as  to  the  cause  of  this  abnormal  growth,  without 
full  agreement  among  observers.  Some  attribute  the  knots  to 
injuries  to  the  stump  in  cultivation,  others  to  outbursts  of  sap 
which  the  short  pruning  system  does  not  give  top  growth  enough 
to  dispose  of,  and  to  various  other  causes.  This  is  analogous  to 
the  "crown  knot"  of  fruit  trees  which  will  be  mentioned  in  the 
chapter  on  plant  diseases. 

Anaheim  Disease. — There  has  prevailed  for  several  years  in 
California  a  mysterious  disease  of  the  vine  known  as  the  "Ana- 
heim disease,"  because  its  evil  work  first  appeared  in  that  vicinity. 
It  destroyed  many  thousand  acres  of  vines  and  led  to  the  aban- 
donment of  grape  growing  in  some  regions  in  southern  California. 
The  fullest  statements  concerning  its  performance  can  be  found 
in  Bulletin  No.  2,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of 
Vegetable  Pathology,  by  Newton  B.  Pierce,  1892,  and  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  30,  1895.  Fortunately  during  recent  years  the  trouble 
has  been  less  aggressive  but  neither  its  nature  nor  satisfactory 
treatment  has  been  fully  demonstrated.  The  latest  available 
information  concerning  it  and  other  troubles  of  the  vine  can  be 
had  by  application  to  the  University  Experiment  Station  at 
Berkeley. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII 
GRAPE    VARIETIES    IN    CALIFORNIA 

Large  collections  of  grape  varieties  have  been  brought  into 
California  during  the  last  forty-five  years.  They  were  sought 
in  all  grape  countries,  and  from  such  wide  experimental  planting 
a  few  have  survived  in  popular  esteem  and  are  now  chiefly  grown. 
Being  derived  from  different  countries,  they  came  bearing  many 
names.  Some  of  these  have  been  preserved,  some  wholly  lost, 
and  replaced  with  local  appellations.  The  result  is  that  our  grape 
nomenclature  is  full  of  confusion.  Some  varieties  have  been  iden- 
tified by  the  means  of  the  standard  French  grape  literature : 
others  are  apparently  unknown  to  the  compilers  of  that  literature. 
It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to-day  to  determine  a  number  of  our 
most  popular  table  and  shipping  grapes,  as  well  as  some  of  the 
wine  varieties.  The  relative  importance  of  the  most  popular  table 
and  raisin  grapes  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  tabulation  of 
reports  from  growers  secured  as  described  in  Chapter  XVI,  relat- 
ing to  the  relative  standing  of  orchard  fruit  varieties.  These 
growers  were  asked  to  name  the  grapes  which  they  considered 
best  worth  planting  in  1908. 

Grape  varieties  approved  by  California  growers 

Central         Sacramento     San  Joaquin 

GRAPES,  coast  valley  and  valley  and     Southern 

valleys  foot-hills.  foot-hills.  California. 

Muscat *  **  **  ** 

Tokay *  **  **  * 

Cornichon    *  **  *  •* 

Sultanina   (Thompson) *  ♦♦  **  ** 

Emperor   •*  **                    

Malaga , *  **  **  ** 

Rose  of  Peru **  *  ♦ 

Black  Morocco  *  *  • 

Verdal    *  * 

Sultana    *  *                    

Mission    *  *  •  * 

Black  Hamburg *  *  *  * 

Black  Ferrara    *  

Gros   Colman    *                    

Zabalkanski    *                    

Palomino    *  *  

Sweetwater    *  **  *                    

Pierce    *  * 

Concord  *  ** 

Delaware    *  * 

Niagara *  .  ^ 

Campbell's    Early     * 

Agawam   * 

*  Indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designated. 
**  Most  highly  commended. 

368 


GRAPES    GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA 


3^9 


The  last  six  named  are  grapes  of  popular  eastern  types.  They 
are  of  exceedingly  small  commercial  importance  and  are  chiefly 
grown  in  Southern  California :  not  because  eastern  varieties  are 
better  suited  to  local  conditions  there  than  in  other  parts  of  the 
State  but  because  there  are  more  people  who  enjoy  them. 

In  order  to  characterize  our  leading  table  grapes,  descriptions 
will  be  quoted  from  the  best  available  local  authorities,  as  follows : 


Early  Black  July,  syns.  Madeleine,  Madeline  Noir,  ^fc— "Leaves  rather  small, 
light  green  above  and  beneath  ;  bunches  small  and  compact ;  berries  small,  quite 
round ;  skin  thick,  black,  covered  with  a  blue  bloom ;  flavor  moderately  sweet, 
but  not  rich  nor  perfumed.  The  earHest  grape,  and  chiefly  valued  for  dessert  on 
that  account." — Hyatt. 

White  July;  syn.  Luglienga.— "Vine  strong-growing  and  sensitive  to  frost; 
leaves  of  medmm  size,  deeply  five-lobed,  dark  green,  glabrous  on  both  sides, 
sharply  toothed,  the  terminal  tooth  of  each  lobe  very  long  and  acuminate; 
bunches  of  medium  size,  well  filled ;  berries  of  medium  size,  oval,  at  first  green, 
becoming  yellow  with  overripeness,  with  thin  skin,  crisp,  firm  flesh,  and  agreeable 
{{a\or."—Bioletti.  The  Luglienga,  which  means  July  grape,  is  one  of  the  earliest 
grapes  known. 

Early  Madeleine;  syn.  Madeleine  Angevine. — "Moderate,  grower,  with  long- 
jointed,  brown  wood;  leaf  medium,  deeply  lobed,  dark  green  above,  tomentose 
below;  young  points  reddish,  woolly,  slender;  bunch  medium,  compact,  shoul- 
dered; berry  medium,  oblong,  yellowish  green,  transparent,  rather  thick  skin, 
sweet  and  juicy.    Vine  a  shy  bearer  when  frost  is  prevalent." — Husmann. 

Chasselas  Dore;  syn.  Fontainebleau,  Sweetwater. — "A  rather  vigorous  grower, 
with  medium  or  somewhat  slender  canes  of  a  reddish-brown  color;  young  shoots 
of  garnet  color,  nearly  or  quite  glabrous;  leaves  rather  below  average  size,  a 
little  longer  than  wide,  glabrous  above  and  nearly  so  below,  except  for  a  few 
hairs  on  the  main  nerves,  with  well-marked  sinuses,  the  petiolar  one  often  closed, 
the  petiole  long,  rather  slender,  and  rose-colored;  bunches  of  medium  or  over- 
medium  size,  conico-cylindrical,  shouldered,  more  or  less  compact ;  berries  medium 
to  large,  with  firm  but  tender  skin^  small  seeds ;  of  delicate  flavor  and  texture,  at 
first  crisp  but  becoming  soft  with  full  maturity.  The  grapes  are  of  a  clear  green 
color,  tinged  with  a  beautiful  golden  bronze  where  exposed  to  the  sun." — Bioletti. 

Chasselas  Rose. — Fruit  resembling  foregoing,  except  that  both  bunch  and 
berries  are  usually  smaller,  and  flavor  is  more  pronounced. 

Chasselas  Victoria. — "Vine  vigorous,  very  short- jointed  and  brittle,  and  bears 
well  with  short  pruning;  wood  grayish  yellow,  thick  and  strong;  leaf  light  green, 
deeply  lobed  and  shining ;  young  shoots  with  numerous  laterals ;  bunch  very  large 
and  heavy,  often  weighing  five  pounds,  shouldered,  very  compact ;  stem  brown, 
very  thick;  berry  medium,  round,  pale  lilac,  purple,  with  lilac  bloom,  juicy,  vinous, 
refreshing." — Husmann. 

Palomino;  syn.  Golden  Chasselas. — "The  vine  quite  largely  grown  as  "Golden 
Chasselas"  is  undoubtedly  identical  with  the  Listan,  or  Palomino." — Hilgard. 
Vine  a  fair  grower ;  wood  close-jointed ;  leaf  medium,  oblong,  deeply  lobed,  bright 
green  above,  grayish  green  and  tomentose  below ;  stem  short,  young  points  with 
reddish  tint  and  woolly ;  bunch  large,  conical,  rather  loose  and  shouldered ;  berry 
round,  full  medium,  sometimes  flat,  pale  green  with  yellowish  tinge ;  thin  skin, 
juicy  and  sweet,  resembling  Chasselas." — Husmann. 

Black  Malvoise. — "Vine  a  strong  grower ;  wood  long-jqinted,  rather  slender, 
light  brown ;  leaf  medium  size,  oval,  rather  evenly  and  deeply  five-lobed ;  basal 
sinus  moderately  open,  with  parallel  sides,  upper  surface  smooth,  almost  glabrous, 
lower  surface  lightly  tomentose  on  the  veins  and  veinlets  ;  bunches  large,  rather 
loose,  branching ;  berries  large,  oblong,  reddish  black  with  faint  bloom ;  flesh 
juicy,  flavor  neutral." — Hilgard.    Widely  grown  as  an  early  table  grape. 


370 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Mission. — "This  variety,  grown  at  the  old  missions,  has  never  been  determined, 
nor  its  exact  source  ascertained.  It  is  by  some  regarded  as  a  most  deHcious  table 
grape.  It  can  be  found  in  small  areas  in  every  county  of  the  State  adapted  to  the 
grape.  Vine  a  strong  grower;  wood  short- jointed,  dull  dark  brown  to  grayish; 
leaf  above  medium  size,  slightly  oblong,  with  large,  deeply-cut,  compound  teeth, 
basal  sinus  widely  open,  primary  sinuses  shallow  and  narrow,  secondary  sinuses 
ill-defined,  smooth  on  both  sides,  light  green  below  with  light,  scattered  tomen- 
tum." — Hilgard.  "Bunches  slightly  shouldered,  loose,  divided  into  many  small, 
distinct  lateral  clusters ;  berries  medium  size,  round,  purple  black,  heavy  bloom ; 
exceedingly  sweet,  juicy,  and  delicious;  seeds  rather  large;  skin  thin." — Hyatt. 

Muscatel;  syn.  White  Frvntignan. — "Vine  of  mediufti  size,  with  strong,  spread- 
ing canes ;  canes  reddish-brown,  with  short  internodes ;  leaves  of  medium  size, 
thin,  five-lobed,  glabrous,  except  for  a  few  hairs  on  the  lower  side  of  the  well- 
marked  ribs ;  bunches  long,  cylindrical,  regular,  compact ;  berries  round,  golden- 
yellow,  becoming  amber-colored,  very  sweet  and  of  marked  aroma.  Ripens  a 
little  later  than  the  Chasselas." — Bioletti. 

White  Muscat  of  Alexandria.* — "Vine  a  short,  rather  straggling  and  bushy 
grower,  well  adapted  to  short  stool  pruning,  as  it  forms  rather  a  bush  than  a 
vine;  wood  gray,  with  dark  spots,  short-jointed;  leaf  round,  five-lobed,  bright 
green  above,  lighter  green  below;  young  shoots  a  bright  green.  The  laterals 
produce  a  second  and  even  a  third  crop ;  bunch  long  and  loose,  shouldered ; 
berry  oblong,  light  yellow  when  fully  mature,  transparent,  covered  with  white 
bloom,  fleshy,  with  thick  skin,  very  sweet  and  decidedly  musky." — Husmann.  The 
leading  table  grape  of  California.  Rejected  for  irregular  bearing  on  some  mesa 
lands  in  southern  California. 

Muscatel  Gordo  Blanco. — "Muscatel  Gordo  Blanco  has  a  closer  bunch  and 
rounder  berry  than  the  Muscat.  The  skin  is  softer  and  the  pulp  is  not  quite  so 
hard.  The  berry  inclines  to  be  a  little  darker  in  color  and  not  nearly  so  green 
when  it  is  ripe,  and  I  think  not  quite  as  long  as  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria.  If 
the.  Muscat  would  set  as  well  as  the  Muscatel,  the  difficulty  would  be  obviated. 
One  very  important  difference  is  that  when  you  come  to  dry  them,  the  Muscat  of 
Alexandria  loses  the  bloom  very  rapidly.  The  bloom  comes  of¥  when  you  come 
to  dry  and  pack  them.  But  the  Muscatel  does  not  lose  its  bloom.  The  Muscat 
of  Alexandria  has  to  be  dried  a  little  more  than  the  Muscatel  to  bring  it  into  a 
keeping  condition  under  the  same  condition  of  ripeness." — R.  B.  Blowers. 

"The  growth  of  the  Muscatel  or  Gordo  Blanco  vine  is  low  and  spreading,  with 
no  upright  branches  in  the  center;  clusters  heavy,  and,  when  perfect,  close  and 
shouldered;  berries  round  and  large  (the  greatest  circumference  being  at  the 
center),  a  crease  often  being  found  at  the  apex  of  the  berry;  color  green,  or, 
when  fully  ripe,  amber  green  or  yellow.  Distinguished  from  Muscat  of  Alex- 
andria by  low,  depressed  growth  of  vine,  closer  cluster,  rounder  berries,  and  by 
thicker  and  finer  bloom.  The  Muscatel  is  the  choice  raisin  grape  for  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley,  and  for  the  interior  generally." — Dr.  Eisen. 

Huasco  Muscat. — A  variety  brought  from  Chile,  but  after  wide  trial  in  Cal- 
ifornia, seems  not  superior  to  the  other  White  Muscat  varieties  previously  men- 
tioned. Its  dense  cluster  is  not  well  adapted  to  raisin  making.  It  is  held,  how- 
ever, to  be  less  subject  to  coulure. 

Feher  Ssagos. — "Vine  a  strong  grower  and  heavy  bearer ;  branches  erect  but 
slender;  leaves  glossy,  entire;  bunches  medium  to  small,  pointed,  and  solid; 
berries  greenish  amber,  medium  oval,  pointed,  with  thin  skin  and  few  small 
seeds;  flesh  not  firm,  but  dries  well  and  makes  a  good  raisin." — Dr.  Eisen. 

Larga  Bloom;  syn.  Uva  Larga. — A  variety  of  Muscat  said  to  be  named  because 
of  the  length  of  its  berries,  but  held  by  some  growers  to  be  indistinguishable  from 
Muscatel  Gordo  Blanco.  An  excellent  raisin  grape,  but  now  chiefly  grown  as  a 
table  fruit  in  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains. 


*  There  is  much  doubt  about  the  White  Muscats  as  grown  in  California.  Some 
claim  inability  to  distinguish  between  certain  grapes  of  the  Muscat  type  which  are 
being  grown  in  this  State  under  distinctive  names;  others  pronounce  them  clearly 
different  varieties.     The  matter  can  not  be  adjusted  at  present. 


GRAPES    GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA 


371 


White  Malaga. — "Vine  a  strong  grower;  wood  reddish  brown,  short-jointed; 
leaf  medium,  leathery  smooth,  deeply  lobed,  light  shining  green  above ;  bunch  very 
large,  loose,  shouldered,  long;  stem  long  and  flexible;  berry  very  large,  oval, 
yellowish  green,  covered  with  white  bloom ;  thick  skin,  fleshy." — Husmann. 
Grown  in  southern  California  in  situations  where  the  Muscat  does  not  do  well; 
also  elsewhere  as  a  table  grape,  and  to  some  extent  in  San  Joaquin  Valley  for 
raisins. 

Sultana;  syn.  Seedless  Sultana. — "Vine  vigorous,  upright;  leaves  large,  five- 
lobed,  with  rather  large  sinuses,  light  colored,  and  coarsely  toothed ;  bunches 
large,  long-cylindrical,  with  heavy  shoulders  or  wings,  well  filled  when  not  cul- 
tured, but  not  compacted ;  berries  small,  round  firm  and  crisp,  golden-yellow,  and 
without  seeds." — Bioletti.  In  California  the  variety  is  apt  to  have  some  seeds. 
It  has  more  acid,  and  therefore  greater  piquancy  of  flavor,  than  Thompson's 
Seedless,  but  the  latter  has  recently  far  outstripped  it  in  popularity  among 
growers. 

Thompson's  Seedless. — Named  by  Sutter  County  Horticultural  Society,  after 
W.  Thompson,  Sr.,  of  Yuba  City,  who  procured  the  cutting  in  1878,  from  Ellwan- 
ger  &  Barry,  of  Rochester,  New  York.  It  was  by  them  described  as  "a  grape 
from  Constantinople,  named  Lady  Decoverly."  When  it  fruited  in  Sutter  County, 
it  was  seen  to  be  superior  to  the  Sultana,  and  has  been  propagated  largely.  It  was 
first  widely  distributed  by  J.  P.  Onstott  of  Yuba  City,  and  others,  and  is  now  to 
be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  The  variety  is  described  by  Dr.  Eisen  as 
follows :  "Oval ;  greenish-yellow ;  as  large  as  a  Sultana ;  seedless,  with  a  thin 
skin ;  good,  but  not  strong  flavor,  and  without  that  acid  which  characterizes  the 
Sultana  grape  and  raisins ;  bunches  large  or  very  large ;  vine  an  enormous  bearer." 
Mr.  Bioletti  considers  the  variety  identical  with  the  Sultanina  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
gives  this  description :  "Vine  very  vigorous  and  with  large  trunk  and  very  long 
canes ;  leaves  glabrous  on  both  sides,  dark  yellowish-green  above  and  light  below, 
generally  three-lobed,  with  shallow  sinuses,  teeth  short  and  obtuse,  bunch  large, 
conico-cylindrical,  well  filled,  on  herbaceous  peduncles ;  berries  under  medium, 
ellipsoidal,  crisp,  of  neutral  flavor,  with  moderately  thick  skin  of  a  fine  golden- 
yellow  color." 

Flame  Tokay;  syn.  Flame-colored  Tokay,  Flaming  Tokay. — "Vine  a  strong 
grower,  large  in  all  its  proportions,  wood,  joints,  leaves ;  wood  dark  brown, 
straight,  with  long  joints;  leaves  dark  green,  with  a  brownish  tinge;  lightly  lobed; 
bunch  very  large,  sometimes  weighing  eight  to  nine  pounds,  moderately  compact, 
shouldered ;  berry  very  large,  oblong,  red,  covered  with  fine  lilac  bloom ;  fleshy 
and  crackling,  firm ;  ripens  late." — Husmann.  The  leading  shipping  grape  of  the 
State,  quality  low.    Defective  in  color  in  some  localities. 

Black  Hamburg. — "Bunches  very  large,  from  six  to  ten  inches  in  length,  very 
broad  at  the  shoulders,  tapering  to  a  point  gradually ;  berries  very  large,  round, 
slightly  incHning  to  oval ;  skin  rather  thick,  deep  purple,  very  black  at  maturity ; 
very  sugary,  juicy,  and  rich." — Hyatt.    A  very  popular  market  grape. 

Rose  of  Peru;  syn.  Black  Prince  (?). — "Vine  a  strong  grower,  with  dark 
brown,  short-jointed  wood ;  leaf  deep  green  above,  lighter  green  and  tomentose 
below ;  bunch  very  large,  shouldered,  rather  loose ;  berry  round,  large,  black,  with 
firrn  and  crackling  flesh,  ripens  rather  late;  a  very  handsome  and  productive 
variety,  of  good  quality,  but  not  adapted  for  long  shipment." — Husmann. 

Moscatello  Pino;  syns.  Moscatello  Nero,  Black  Muscat. — "Leaves  of  medium 
size,  with  deep  upper  and  shallow  lower  sinuses,  glabrous  above,  slightly  downy 
below,  and  very  hairy  on  the  veins,  teeth  long  and  sharp ;  bunches  large  to  very 
large,  long,  loose,  conico-cylindrical,  and  winged ;  berries  very  large,  on  long, 
thin  pedicels;  skin  well  colored,  thin  but  tough;  flesh  soft  and  juicy,  with  deli- 
cate Muscat  aroma.  An  excellent  table  grape.  It  is  a  heavy  bearer,  and  pro- 
duces very  fine-looking  bunches  of  dark  colored  grapes.     Rather  late." — Bioletti. 

Purple  Damascus;  syn.  Black  Damascus. — "Vine  a  medium  grower;  wood 
light  brown  striped  with  darker  brown,  short-jointed;  leaf  round,  five-lobed, 
smooth,  light  green  above,  tomentose  beneath ;  stem  reddish,  large,  long  and 
woody ;  bunch  large,  loose,  shouldered ;  berry  very  large,  oblong,  dark  blue, 
covered  with  lighter  bloom,  meaty,  skin  thick,  ripens  late." — Husmann. 


372 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Purple  CornicJwn;  syn.  Black  Cornichon. — "Vine  a  heavy  grower,  with 
thick,  light  brown,  short-jointed  wood ;  leaves  large,  longer  than  wide,  deeply 
five-lobed,  dark  green  above,  and  lighter  and  very  hairy  below,  coarsely  toothed, 
and  with  short,  thick  petiole ;  bunches  very  large,  loose,  on  long  peduncles ; 
berries  large,  long,  more  or  less  curved,  darkly  colored  and  spotted,  thick- 
skinned,  and  on  long  pedicels.  Desirable  on  account  of  its  attractive  appear- 
ance,  curious   shape,   excellent   shipping   qualities,   and   late   ripening." — Bioletti. 

White  Cornichon. — Resembles  Purple  Cornichon  in  shape  and  flavor,  but 
has  very  thin  and  tender  skin,  which  makes  it  better  for  the  table,  but  poorer 
for  shipping.     Leaves  not  deeply  cut ;  smooth  on  both  sides. 

Emperor. — "Vine  a  strong,  vigorous  grower;  leaves  very  large,  with  five 
shallow  lobes,  short,  obtuse  teeth,  glabrous  above,  woolly  beneath,  light  green  in 
color;  bunches  very  large,  long,  conical,  loose,  with  large,  dull  purple,  oval, 
firm  berries." — Bioletti.  An  excellent  shipping  grape,  largely  grown  by  R,  B. 
Blowers,  of  Woodland,  Yolo  County,  by  whom  its  merits  were  first  announced. 
Pronounced  unsatisfactory  because  of  irregular  setting  and  non-ripening  in 
localities  near  the  coast  in  northern  California,  and  generally  condemned  in 
southern  California.  Seems  best  adapted  to  interior  situations  and  is  chiefly 
grown  for  shipping  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley. 

Black  Ferrara. — A  large  black  grape;  large  bunches;  berries  cling  well  to 
the  stem,  thick-skinned,  flavor  superior.  An  excellent  local  market  variety 
and  long-distance  shipper. 

Gros  Colman;  syn.  Dodrelabi. — "Vine  strong-growing,  with  dark  brownish 
wood;  leaves  very  large,  round,  thick,  very  slightly  lobed,  shortly  and  bluntly 
toothed,  glabrous  above,  close-woolly  below ;  bunches  large,  short,  well  filled, 
but  not  compact ;  berries  very  large,  round,  dark  blue,  with  thick  but  tender 
skin.  Remarkable  as  having  the  largest  berries  of  any  round  berry  variety 
known,  and  is  probably  the  handsomest  black  table  grape  grown.  The  grapes 
have  good  keeping  qualities,  except  that  they  are  liable  to  crack." — Bioletti. 

Black  Morocco. — "Vine  a  strong  grower,  with  thin,  spreading  canes ;  leaves 
under  medium  size,  very  deeply  five-lobed,  even  when  very  young,  the  younger 
leaves  truncate  at  base,  giving  them  a  semicircular  outline,  with  long,  sharp 
teeth  alternating  with  very  small  ones,  glabrous  on  both  sides ;  bunches  very 
large,  short,  shouldered,  and  compact ;  berries  very  large,  round,  often  angular 
from  compression,  fleshy,  of  neutral  flavor,  dull  purple  color  or  colorless  in 
the  center  of  the  bunch.  Remarkable  for  the  number  of  second-crop  bunches 
which  it  produces  on  the  laterals.  Late  in  ripening  and  of  very  fine  appear- 
ance ;  a  fairly  good  shipping  grape,  but  difficult  to  pack  on  account  of  the  size 
and  rigidity  of  the  bunches.  The  grapes  are  of  an  agreeable  crispness,  but 
lacking  in  flavor." — Bioletti.     Vine  quite  subject  to  root  knot. 

Verdal;  Aspiran  Blanc. — "Vine  of  medium  vigor  and  rather  hardy;  canes 
somewhat  slender  and  half  erect ;  leaves  of  average  size,  glabrous  on  both  sur- 
faces, except  below  near  the  axils  of  the  main  nerves,  sinuses  well  marked 
and  generally  closed,  giving  the  leaf  the  appearance  of  having  five  holes ;  teeth 
long,  unequal,  and  somewhat  acuminate ;  bunches  large  to  very  large,  irregular 
long-conical,  without  any  or  with  small  shoulders,  well-filled  to  compact ;  berries 
yellowish-green,  large  to  very  large,  crisp,  with  thick  but  tender  skin,  agreeable, 
but  without  marked  flavor." — Bioletti.  Largely  grown  as  a  late  table  grape ; 
in  good  condition ;  in  some  regions  as  late  as  November, 

Almeria. — "Vine  vigorous;  leaves  of  medium  size,  round  and  slightly  or  not 
at  all  lobed,  quite  glabrous  on  both  sides,  teeth  obtuse  and  alternately  large  and 
small ;  bunches  large,  loose  or  compact,  irregular  conical ;  berries  from  small  to 
large,  cylindrical,  flattened  on  the  ends,  very  hard  and  tasteless." — Bioletti.^  The 
grape  cultivated  at  the  University  experiment  stations  under  this  name  is  one 
of  the  several  varieties  which  are  shipped  in  such  large  quantities  from  Malaga 
and  Almeria  packed  in  sand  or  cork-dust.  The  grapes  ripen  late  and  attain 
about  20.0  per  cent  of  sugar.  They  have  remarkable  keeping  qualities.  Vine 
needs  long  pruning,  and  is  only  adapted  to  hot,  interior  situations. 


WINK    GRAPES    FOR    CALIFORNIA 


373 


There  are  many  other  vinifcra  varieties  which  are  grown  to  a 
limited  extent  either  for  raisins  or  for  table  use.  Among  these 
are  the  Canon  Hall  Muscat,  the  White  Tokay,  White  Champion, 
Cinsaut,  Zabalskanski,  etc.,  for  table  use;  the  White  and  Black 
Corinth,  for  drying.  With  grapes,  as  with  other  market  fruits, 
the  planter  usually  confines  his  attention  to  a  very  few  popular 
kinds. 

EASTERN    GRAPES 

Though  many  of  the  improved  varieties  of  the  grape  species 
indigenous  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  of  the  hybrids  be- 
tween these  species  and  the  vinifera,  have  been  introduced  in 
California,  their  growth  for  table  fruit  is  almost  of  insignificant 
proportions,  and  does  not  constitute  even  a  respectable  fraction 
of  one  per  cent  of  our  grape  area.  The  popular  taste  decidedly 
prefers  the  vinifcra  varieties.  There  is,  however,  a  variety  believed 
to  be  of  local  origin,  which  is  worthy  Of  mention  as  follows : 

Isabella  Regia. — "A  remarkable,  giant-leaved,  and  very  prolific  sport  of  the 
Isabella,  originating  by  bud-variation  with  Mr.  J.  P.  Pierce,  of  Santa  Clara. 
The  berries,  like  the  leaves,  are  of  extraordinary  size,  and  when  ripe  the  fruit 
is  exceedingly  sweet  and  strongly  aromatic.  It  is,  therefore,  acceptable  as  a 
showy,  perfumed  table  grape,  much  liked  by  some,  but  readily  surfeiting  those 
who  are  accustomed  to  the  vinifera  grapes.  The  berries  are  too  soft  for  ship- 
ment to  any  distance,  but  all  things  considered,  keep  fairly." — Hilgard.  Grown 
as  the  "California  Concord"  in  the  Los  Angeles  region. 


WINE   GRAPES    GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA 

Progress  is  being  continually  made  in  the  propagation  of 
varieties  yielding  wine,  and  in  the  manufacture  thereof.  The 
hosts  of  considerations  involved  in  this  efifort  are  beyond  the 
scope  of  this  work  and  largely  beyond  the  writer's  knowledge. 
It  is  important,  however,  to  have  an  intelligent  discussion  of  the 
suitability  of  varieties  grown  for  this  purpose,  prepared  by  Mr. 
F.  T.  Bioletti,  as  follows : 

1.     Vineyard  for  sweet  wine  in  the  interior  valleys 

Red.  Proportion. 

Grenache    i^ 

Alicante   Bouschet    i/4 

Tinta  Madeira   i/4 

White.  Proportion. 

Palomino    i/^ 

Beba    i/4 

Boal    % 


374 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW     THEM 


The  Grenache  and  Alicante  Bouschet  are  heavy  bearers  with 
short  pruning.  The  former  naturally  takes  a  port  flavor  and  the 
latter  insures  sufficient  color.  The  Tinta  Madeira,  when  pruned 
properly,  bears  well  and  will  increase  the  quality  of  the  port  wine. 

The  Palomino  is  one  of  the  heaviest  and  most  regular  bearers 
grown  in  California  and  is  peculiarly  suited  for  sherry  making. 
It  is  the  principal  grape  of  the  Spanish  sherry  district.  The  Beba 
bears  nearly  or  quite  as  well  as  the  Palomino  and  is  of  rather 
better  quality.  Both  bear  with-  short  pruning.  The  Boal  bears 
good  crops  and  gives  a  sweet  wine  of  high  quality. 

2.     Vineyard   for  dry   wine    in   the   interior  valleys 

White.  Proportion. 

Valdepenyas    ^ 

Lagrain   ,' 14 

St.    Macaire    14 

Red.  Proportion. 

Burger    ^ 

West's   White   Prolific i/4 

Vernaccia    Sarda    % 

The  Valdepejjyas  has  been  growing  for  nearly  twenty  years 
at  the  Tulare  Experiment  Station,  and  has  always  given  regular 
and  good  crops  with  short  pruning.  The  dry  red  wine  made  from 
it  has  been  in  every  way  satisfactory  and  much  superior  to  that 
made  from  Bouschet,  Zinfandel,  or  any  of  the  varieties  usually 
grown  in  the  valley,  and  approaches  more  nearly  than  any  other 
variety  the  wines  of  the  cooler  localities.  This  variety  has  been 
planted  to  some  extent  in  the  cooler  localities,  where  it  is  com- 
pletely out  of  place.  In  Napa  its  bearing  is  unsatisfactory  and 
its  wine  harsh.  The  vine  needs  a  hot  climate  to  bring  out  its 
best  qualities.  The  Lagrain  and  St.  Macaire  are  valuable  on 
account  of  their  intense  color,  which  at  Tulare  is  equal  to  that 
of  the  Bouschets  and  is  more  stable.  The  St.  Macaire  is  partic- 
ularly recommended  on  account  of  its  high  acidity,  which  is 
extremely  useful  for  the  region.  The  Gros  Mansenc  retains  its 
acid  even  better  than  the  St.  Macaire,  and  is  also  deeply  colored, 
but  it  has  not  born  quite  so  well. 

The  Burger  has,  fortunately,  been  planted  extensively  in  the 
hotter  parts  of  the  interior,  and  probably  no  better  choice  could 
be  made  for  the  production  of  a  cheap,  light,  neutral  dry  white 
wine  in  that  region.  Its  acidity,  which  is  excessive  in  the  coast 
counties,  is  normal  or  even  low  in  the  interior.  For  this  reason^ 
and  in  order  to  give  a  little  more  character,  it  should  be  blended 
with  such  grapes  as  the  West's  White  Prolific  and  the  Vernaccia 
Sarda,  which  retain  their  acidity  at  Tulare  better  than  any  other 
white  grapes  tested. 


! 


WINE    GRAPES    FOR    CALIFORNIA  0^5 

3.     Vineyard  for  dry  wine  in  tiie  coast  counties 

Red.  Proportion. 

Petite   Sirali    Vz 

Beclan % 

Cabernet    Sauvignon     % 

White.  Proportion. 

Semillon    Mi 

Colombar     i/4 

Sauvignon    blanc    i/4 


The  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  in  the  hills  and  valleys  of 
the  Coast  Ranges  are  so  varied  that  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  give 
recommendations  that  will  be  of  general  use  than  in  the  case  of 
the  interior  valleys.  In  some  parts  of  some  of  the  valleys  the  soil  is 
so  rich  and  productive  that  it  is  possible  to  grow  grapes  as  cheaply 
as  in  the  interior.  The  grapes  recommended  for  the  interior, 
however,  would  not  in  most  cases  be  suitable  on  the  Coast,  owing 
to  the  difference  in  climate.  As  a  rule  the  grapes  which  are  suit- 
able to  the  hill  slopes  will  do  well  in  the  valley,  making  up  in 
quantity  what  they  lose  in  quality. 

Of  the  many  scores  of  red  varieties  which  have  been  widely 
grown  in  this  region,  the  Petite  Sirah  has  undoubtedly  given  the 
most  generally  satisfactory  results.  Some  growers  are  dissatis- 
fied with  its  bearing,  but  most  report  that  it  produces  as  much 
as  the  Zinfandel.  Ungrafted,  it  requires  long  pruning.  Its  wine 
is  of  excellent  quality  but  apt  to  be  somewhat  harsh.  This  harsh- 
ness can  be  avoided  by  careful  winemaking  and  by  blending 
with  a  smooth  variety  such  as  the  Beclan.  The  finest  red  wines 
which  have  ever  been  made  in  California  are  the  product  of  the 
Cabernet  Sauvignon.  This  variety,  unfortunately,  has  been 
rejected  almost  everywhere  on  account  of  its  light  crops.  Very 
satisfactory  crops,  however,  can  be  obtained  if  care  is  taken  in 
selecting  cuttings  for  planting  and  a  suitable  system  of  pruning 
adopted.  This  variety,  like  most  others,  moreover,  bears  better 
when  grafted  on  a  suitable  resistant  stock.  It  is  very  much  to 
be  desired  that  a  certain  proportion  of  this  variety  should  be 
planted  in  all  the  coast  vineyards  which  are  capable  of  producing 
a  dry  red  wine  of  high  quality. 

No  white  grape  has  given  better  results  in  both  crop  and 
quality  than  the  Semillon.  The  Colombar  (sometimes  called  the 
Sauvignon  vert)  has  also  proved  itself  a  regular  bearer,  and, 
while  not  of  such  high  quality  as  the  Semillon,  it  blends  very  well 
with  that  variety  and  serves  to  modify  its  aroma,  which  is  some- 
times excessive.  The  Sauvignon  blanc  increases  the  quality  of 
the  wine,  but  like  the  Cabernet,  Sauvignon  requires  careful  cut- 
ting, selection  and  pruning  to  give  satisfactory  crops. 


gYg  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

4.     Vineyard  for  dry  wine  in  the  cooler  parts  of  the  coast  counties 

Red.  Proportion. 

Beclan    % 

Blue  Portuguese   Vi 

White.  Proportion, 

Franken    Riesling    % 

Johannisberg    Riesling     14 


In  certain  parts  of  the  coast  counties,  owing  to  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  ocean  fogs,  many  varieties  of  wine  do  not  ripen 
their  fruit  properly.  By  a  careful  selection  of  varieties,  however, 
good  crops  of  well-ripened  grapes  may  be  obtained.  It  is  in 
these  localities  that  the  finest  light  wines,  those  most  nearly 
resembling  the  wines  of  the  Rhine,  can  be  produced. 

The  Beclan  has  shown  itself  especially  suited  to  this  region, 
and  has  the  great  advantage  of  being  very  resistant  to  oidium. 
The  Blue  Portuguese  is  a  good  bearer,  ripens  easily,  and  blended 
with  Beclan  gives  a  good  wine  of  Burgundy  type.  The  best  Ries- 
ling wines  are  grown  near  the  coast  and,  undoubtedly,  profitable 
vineyards  of  the  Rhine  varieties  can  be  grown  in  this  region  if 
proper  methods  of  grape-growing  and  wine-making  are  adopted. 

Undoubtedly  there  are  many  excellent  varieties  of  grapes  that 
could  be  grown  with  profit  which  are  not  mentioned  in  the  fore- 
going lists.  The  varieties  mentioned  are  simply  those  which  have 
given  evidence  of  being  most  generally  adapted  to  the  more  usual 
conditions. 


PART    FIVE:       SEMI-TROPICAL    FRUITS 
CHAPTER    XXIX 


DATE    CULTURE    IN    OUR    DESERT    AREAS 

Ever  since  the  arid,  semitropical  regions  of  the  United  States 
became  known  through  the  narratives  of  explorers,  the  date  palm 
(Phoenix  dactylifera)  has  been  projected  as  a  plant  likely  to 
demonstrate  commercial  value  in  America  like  that  which  it  has 
held  for  centuries  in  the  arid  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa.  This 
idea  was  also  cherished  even  at  an  earlier  date  by  the  Spanish 
missionaries  who  brought  the  palm  to  California,  as  will  be 
described  presently.  During  the  last  decade  the  problem  of  intro- 
ducing and  establishing  a  date-growing  industry  has  been  taken 
up  more  seriously  and  systematically  than  ever  before  and  must 
now  be  looked  upon  as  approaching  successful  solution.  As,  how- 
ever, the  undertaking  is  still  in  an  experimental  stage  and  appeals 
to  relatively  few  people  as  a  line  of  investment,  no  attempt  will 
be  made  to  discuss  the  date  in  detail.  Instead,  citation  will  be 
made  of  sources  whence  the  reader  who  desires  them  can  easily 
secure  information  of  date-growing  methods  in  the  old  countries, 
discussion  of  their  suitability  to  our  conditions  and  suggestions 
of  ways  to  enter  upon  date-growing  in  California.* 

The  date  palm  was  brought  to  California  by  the  padres,  and 
the  oldest  date  trees  in  the  State  are  the  survivors  of  their  early 
plantings.  Such  trees  are  found  at  the  San  Diego  Mission.  They 
are  conjectured  to  be  more  than  a  century  old,  and  they 
have  survived  drought  and  neglect,  making  unsuccessful  eflfort 
at  fruiting,  for,  according  to  common  report,  the  fruit  does 
not  ripen,  but  whether  owing  to  the  unfavorable  conditions  indi- 
cated, or  to  lack  of  fertilization  of  the  bloom,  is  not  known. 
There  are  trees  at  Ventura,,  on  the  site  of  the  garden  of  the  old 
mission  of  San  Buena  Ventura,  about  forty  feet  in  height  and 
ten  feet  in  circumference  at  the  base,  with  long,  graceful,  fern- 
like leaves,  which  put  forth  about  thirty  feet  from  the  ground. 

*  The  Date  Palm  and  its  Utilization  in  the  Southwestern  States,  by  Walter  T. 
Swingle,  Bulletin  53,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Uept.  of  Agr.,  Washington,  1904. 

Date  Varieties  and  Date  Culture  in  Tunis,  by  T.  H.  Kearney,  Bulletin  92,  Ibid, 
1906. 

Date  Growing  in  Southern  California,  by  S.  C.  Mason.  Report  of  Riverside 
Fruit  Growers'  Convention,  State  Horticultural  Commissioner,  Sacramento,  1908. 

377 


378  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

The  ill  success  of  these  old  trees  in  the  direction  of  fruit  bear- 
ing probably  long  prevented  further  attention  to  the  date  as  a 
profitable  growth.  Still  there  were  date  palms  grown  from  seed 
of  the  commercial  date  planted  h^re  and  there  for  ornament  or 
out  of  curiosity,  and  in  due  course  of  time  the  fruit  appeared. 
The  first  public  exhibition  of  California  dates  known  to 
the  writer  was  made  at  the  Mechanic's  Institute  Fair, 
in  San  Francisco,  in  September,  1877.  The  fruit  was  grown  on 
the  south  bank  of  Putah  Creek,  the  northern  boundary  of  Solano 
County,  the  situation  being  slightly  above  the  level  of  the  plain 
of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  which  lies  east  of  it.  The  plants  were 
grown  by  the  late  J.  R.  Wolf  skill,  from  seed  of  commercial  dates 
purchased  in  San  Francisco,  and  planted  in  1858  or  1859.  The 
seed  germinated  readily,  and  the  young  plants  were  set  out  in 
a  row  about  one  hundred  feet  south  of  Putah  Creek,  on  a  rich, 
fine,  sandy  loam,  lying  about  twenty-five  feet  above  the  bed  of 
the  creek.  The  plants  received  good  cultivation  but  no  irriga- 
tion. This  treatment  was  continued  after  the  property  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  late  S.  C.  Wolfskill,  the  plants  being  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  row  as  originally  planted,  and  they  have  attained 
great  size,  considering  their  crowded  condition.  They  are  approx- 
imately six  feet  apart,  have  trunks  about  two  feet  in  diameter, 
and  are  twenty-five  feet  or  more  in  height. 

Another  bearing  date  palm  stands  about  a  mile  eastward  of 
the  situation  just  described,  near  the  residence  of  the  late  J.  R. 
Wolfskill.  It  was  grown  from  seed  of  the  date  of  commerce,  which 
was  planted  in  1863,  and  the  tree  bore  its  first  fruit  in  1880.  Near 
it  stands  a  taller  date  palm,  which  bears  staminate  bloom.  This 
latter  tree  was  originally  one  of  the  row  previously  described, 
and  was  successfully  moved  to  its  present  situation  after  attaining 
considerable  size. 

The  fruit  of  the  two  bearing  palms  diflfers  notably  in  appear- 
ance. That  of  the  first-mentioned  tree  is  of  bright  yellow  color 
and  angular  outline ;  that  of  the  second  tree  is  wine  red,  with 
smooth  surface. 

Daring  recent  years  the  date  has  fruited  at  many  places  in 
California  and  Arizona.  There  is  little  doubt  that  it  will  succeed 
in  any  of  the  interior  regions  which  have  a  sufficiently  high  sum- 
mer temperature,  and  even  the  so-called  Colorado  Desert  may  be 
dotted  with  groves  of  date  palms,  as  portions  of  it  now  are  with 
groves  of  the  majestic  fan  palm  of  California. 

Soils  and  Waters  for  the  Date. — Until  recently  the  date 
palm  has  only  been  planted  on  good  orchard  land,  but,  accord- 
ing to  experience  in  date-growing  countries,  the  tree  does  not 
require  rich  soil,  but  on  the  contrary,  will  thrive  in  a  soil  poor  in 
humus — too  poor  and  too  purely  mineral  for  any  other  fruit  tree ; 


HOW    TO    GROW    DATES  3*79 

and  it  produces  the  finest  and  best-flavored  dates,  nourished  by 
water  too  alkaHne  for  man  and  beast  to  drink.  These  observa- 
tions warrant  the  trials  of  the  tree  which  are  now  being  made  in 
"situations  not  adapted  to  other  fruits. 


PROPAGATION    OF    THE    DATE 

The  date  palm  grows  readily  from  the  seeds  of  the  dried  date 
of  commerce,  and,  as  has  been  intimated,  the  trees  now  fruiting 
in  this  State  have  been  obtained  in  this  way.  By  the  use  of 
seed  one  gets,  however,  only  seedlings,  and  the  chance  of  thus 
securing  a  really  fine  variety  is  probably  not  greater  than  with 
other  fruit-tree  seedlings.  In  date-growing  countries  the  best 
varieties  are  propagated  by  rooting  the  off-sets,  sprouts,  or  suck- 
ers which  appear  at  the  base  of  the  old  palms.  To  secure  the  best 
foreign  varieties  such  plants  must  be  imported.  The  first  suc- 
cessful enterprise  of  this  kind  was  accomplished  in  the  summer 
of  1890  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  under 
the  direction  of  H.  E.  Van  Den>an,  then  chief  of  the  Division  of 
Pomology.  The  plants  were  divided  between  New  Mexico,  Ari- 
zona and  California.  The  plants  for  California  were  sent  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  of  the' University  of  California,  and 
were  planted  at  the  experiment  stations  at  Tulare  and  at  Pomona, 
some  of  them  being  subsequently  transplanted  to  the  United 
States  Date  Garden  at  Mecca  in  the  Colorado  desert  region* 
Upon  fruiting  a  number  of  these  plants,  they  seemed  to  be  only 
seedlings  and  not  the  best  foreign  varieties,  as  represented. 

•A  full  account  of  this  effort  and  its  outcome  is  given  in  Bulle- 
tin 29,  of  the  Arizona  Experiment  Station. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  undertook 
arrangements  in  1899  for  new  importations,  which  were  success- 
fully made,  but  all  that  was  anticipated  in  securing  valuable  vari- 
eties was  not  attained.  Director  R.  H.  Forbes,  of  the  Arizona 
Experiment  Station,  writes  in  Timely  Hints  No.  72  (April,  1908)  : 

"Several  of  the  Old  World  varieties  which  have  thus  far  fruited 
have  failed  to  make  good  for  various,  reasons.  Some  have  required 
a  longer  growing  season  to  mature ;  others  have  soured  in  damp 
or  cool  weather,  and  still  others  do  not  appeal  to  the  American 
consumer.  A  few  varieties  have  proved  acceptable  in  all  respects, 
and  to  such  as  these  we  must  look  for  future  commercial  develop- 
ments." 

Of  the  foreign  varieties  thus  introduced  the  following  have 
been  produced  in  small  commercial  quantities :  Rhars,  Tedalla, 
Birket  el  Haggi  and  Deglet  Noor. 

Growing  Palms  from  Seed. — Seeds  taken  from  the  dried  dates 
of    commerce    germinate    readily;    in    fact,    seedlings    frequently 


380  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

appear  in  the  gutters  of  unpaved  streets  where  the  seeds  have 
been  thrown  during  the  rainy  season.  Director  Forbes,  of  the 
Arizona  Station,  says  that  seeds  will  come  up  more  promptly  if 
first  stratified.  This  may  be  done  by  taking  a  gasoline  can  or 
deep  box  and  placing  three  inches  of  sand  in  the  bottom  after 
making  a  number  of  holes  in  it  for  drainage.  The  seeds  are  placed 
upon  this  layer  and  the  can  or  box  filled  with  sand,  the  whole 
then  being  put  in  a  sheltered  place  and  kept  moist  for  three  to 
six  weeks,  when  the  seeds  will  be  soft  and  ready  for  prompt 
growth  when  planted.  The  seedlings  may  be  started  in  nursery 
rows  for  transplanting  after  one  to  three  years,  or  if  frequent 
irrigations  may  be  relied  on,  in  the  field  where  the  trees  are  to 
remain. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Swingle,  whose  work  on  date  growing  has  already 
been  cited,  gives  the  following  suggestions  on  the  growing  of  seed- 
lings and  their  subsequent  handling  to  determine  sex  and  to  select 
bearing  palms  of  desirable  type : 

The  seed  should  be  planted  rather  thickly  in  well-drained  beds  of  fertile 
soil,  free  from  alkali.  These  beds  should  be  watered  frequently,  as  the  young 
date  seedlings  need  an  abundance  of  moisture.  If  properly  cared  for,  the 
seedlings  will  reach  a  height  of  from  12  to  18  inches  the  first  year  and  can  be 
transplanted  into  the  permanent  orchard  the  second  year. 

These  seedlings  should  be  set  out'  in  rows  about  30  feet  apart  and  placed 
5  or  6  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Ordinarily  field  crops  can  be  grown  between  the 
rows  until  long  after  the  palms  come  into  bearing.  After  three  or  four  years, 
when  the  young  palms  begin  to  flower,  the  male  trees  can  be  dug  up  and 
destroyed,  thus  thinning  out  about  half  of  the  trees.  Then  when  the  female 
trees  come  into  fruit,  those  which  yield  decidedly  inferior  fruit  can  also  be 
removed,  so  that  finally  about  one-fourth  of  the  original  number  of  seedlings 
will  be  left  standing.  The  spaces  between  the  seedlings  will  be  irregular  and 
offshoots  can  be  taken  from  the  best  sorts  and  planted  where  the  largest  gaps 
occur.  By  preventing  offshoots  from  growing  on  the  poorer  sorts  they  will 
yield  more  fruit  and  finally  can  be  destroyed  and  replaced  by  offshoots  from 
some  of  the  better  sorts.  In  this  way,  by  degrees,  the  orchard  can  be  improved 
without   expense    for   offshoots    aside    from   the   labor   of   planting   them. 

Rooting  Suckers. — Suckers  taken  off  in  w^arm  weather  and 
watered  freely  usually  take  root  readily.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  let  the  plants  dry.  Director  Forbes  gives  these  points : 
Suckers  should  not  be  taken  from  the  parent  tree  until  they  have 
attained  a  diameter  of  5  to  6  inches  and  a  weight  of  15  to  20 
pounds.  Suckers  should  be  removed  by  cutting  in  and  down 
along  the  line  of  cleavage  between  them  and  the  main  trunk,  with 
a  strong  chisel  or  a  flat-pointed  bar.  If  possible  the  cut  should 
be  carried  down  so  as  to  bring  away  at  least  one  or  two  sound 
roots.  The  leaves  should  be  closely  pruned  and  for  shipment  the 
cut  bases  had  better  be  protected  against  drying  out  by  layer  of 
wet  moss  or  similar  material.  In  planting,  the  sucker  should  be 
set  in  previously  irrigated  and  well  settled  soil  to  the  depth  of 
its  greatest  diameter,  taking  care  that  the  center  of  the  palm  is 
not  below  the  irrigating  water  level. 


BLOOM  OF  THE  DATE  PALM 


381 


For  convenience  in  irrigating,  a  shallow  basin  of  earth  should 
be  made  about  the  sucker,  in  which,  to  lessen  evaporation  and 
the  rise  of  alkali,  a  mulch  of  fine  barnyard  litter  three  or  four 
inches  deep  should  be  spread.  The  soil  about  the  newly  trans- 
planted suckers  should  be  kept  constantly  wet  by  frequent  irriga- 
tions. Suckecs  should  be  cut  and  transplanted  April  to  August, 
inclusive,  but  not  during  or  approaching  cool  v^eather. 

Bearing  Age  of  the  Date. — There  is  much  difference  in  the 
ages  at  which  the  seedlings  have  come  in  fruit  in  the  hands  of 
different  growers.  Fruit  has  been  reported  on  seedlings  six  years 
old  and  even  on  plants  four  years  from  the  seed.  Such  early 
maturity  must  not,  however,  be  generally  expected. 

Blooming  of  the  Date. — The  date  palm  is  dioecious,  and,  its 
staminate  (male)  and  pistillate  (female)  blooms  appearing  on 
different  trees,  it  requires  the  association  of  the  two  for  perfect 
fruiting.  Growing  plants  from  seed,  as  already  stated,  leaves 
the  grower  in  doubt  as  to  the  sex  of  his  plants  until  they  bloom. 
Usually  one  obtains  a  large  preponderance  of  male  plants.  In 
propagating  from  suckers  the  new  tree  is  of  the  same  sex  as  the 
parent.  It  is  advised  to  have  about  one  male  to  twenty  female 
trees.  The  pollen  can  be  transported  long  distances  and  main- 
tains its  vitality  for  a  long  time. 

Artificial  fertilization  of  the  bloom  of  the  bearing  palm  has 
been  found  of  advantage  in  this  State  and  was  probably  first  prac- 
ticed by  J.  R.  Wolfskin.  Though  the  staminate  tree  was  but  a 
few  feet  away  from  the  pistillate,  the  male  bloom  was  broken  in 
pieces  and  hung  to  the  leaves  of  the  female  tree  near  to  the  pistil- 
late flowers.  It  was  found  that  the  parts  of  the  date  cluster  which 
are  nearest  to  the  suspended  male  blooms  have  more  perfect  fruit 
than  the  more  distant  parts.  Other  California  date  growers  have 
had  similar  experience. 

In  Winters  the  bearing  date  palms  bloom  in  April  and  May, 
and  the  fruit  ripens  in  November. 

Beauty  of  the  Date  Palm. — The  date  palm  in  fruit  is  a  beau- 
tiful sight.  The  glaucous  green  pinnate  leaves  arch  outward. 
Between  two  of  these  emerge  the  bright  orange-yellow  polished 
fruit  stalks,  which  divide  into  a  spray  of  slender  bright  yellow 
stems  a  foot  or  so  in  length ;  and  thickly  set  upon  these  in  clusters 
are  the  various  colored  fruits  covered  with  a  rich  bloom.  It  is  a 
sight  not  easily  forgotten  by  a  lover  of  nature,  and  especially  by 
one  reared  in  a  northern  zone,  the  characteristic  vegetation  of 
which  is  so  different. 


CHAPTER   XXX 
THE   FIG 

The  fig  is,  perhaps,  the  grandest  fruit  tree  of  California.  Its 
majestic  size  and  its  symmetry  make  it  a  crowning  feature  of  the 
landscape,  and  its  dense  foliage  renders  the  wide  space  embowered 
by  it  a  harbor  of  refuge  from  mid-summer  heat,  both  for  idlers 
and  for  the  industrious.  On  adjacent  farms  in  Pleasant's  Valley, 
Solano  County,  there  are  large  fig  groves ;  one  serves  as  a  shelter 
for  the  packers  of  fruit  from  the  contiguous  orchard,  and  the  other 
incloses  and  shades  a  croquet  ground.  Measurements  of  large 
trees  are  abundant,  for  old  trees  are  numerous  in  the  interior  of 
the  State,  both  in  the  valley  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
foot-hills.  At  Knight's  Ferry,  in  Stanislaus  County,  there  is  a 
fig  tree  sixty  feet  in  height,  with  branches  of  such  length  as  to 
shade  a  circle  seventy  feet  in  diameter.  The  trunk  at  the  base 
is  eleven  feet  around,  and  nine  feet  at  a  distance  of  three  feet 
from  the  ground.  A  little  higher  the  trunk  divides  into  seven  or 
eight  large  branches,  each  of  which  is  nearly  five  feet  in  circum- 
ference. At  thirty  feet  from  the  ground  the  limbs  are  seven 
and  eight  inches  through.  The  largest  grove  is  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Knight's  Ferry,  and  consists  of  fifteen  massive  black 
fig  trees,  which,  though  set  sixty  feet  apart,  mingle  their  branches 
overhead  and  form  a  network  through  which,  in  the  summer, 
hardly  a  beam  of  light  can  pass. 

Such  groves  are  frequently  seen  in  the  older  settled  parts  of 
the  State.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  single  fig  tree  is  that  on 
Rancho  Chico,  quite  near  the  residence  of  General  Bidwell.  It 
was  planted  in  1856,  and  has  attained  a  marvelous  growth.  One 
foot  above  the  ground  the  trunk  measures  eleven  feet  in  circum- 
ference; the  widespreading  branches  have  been  trained  toward 
the  ground  and,  taking  root  there,  banyan-like,  they  now  form 
a  wonderful  inclosure  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  diameter,  ^ 
the  tree  is  loaded  every  year.  fl 

The   crop   on  these   large   trees   is   proportionate   to   their   size  ™ 
and,  entering  their  area  in  the  morning  during  the  ripening  season, 
one  can  scarcely  step  without  crushing  figs,  though  the  fruit  may  be 
gathered  up  each  day  and  placed  in  the  sun  for  drying. 

REGIONS    SUITED    FOR   THE    FIG 

Though  there  are  still  many  fine  points  to  be  determined  as 
to  what  situations  and  conditions  favor  the  production  of  the 
very  finest  figs,  and  there  are   indications   that   there   is   possibly 

382 


I 


r 
I 


SOILS    FOR    THE    FIG 


383 


much  difference,  it  may  be  truly  said  that  a  very  small  part  of 
the  State  is  really  unsuited  to  its  growth.  If  one  shuns  the  im- 
mediate coast  of  the  upper  part  of  the  State,  where  the  summer 
temperature  is  too  low  for  successful  ripening,  and  keeps  below 
the  altitude  of  the  mountains  where  winter  killing  of  the  tree  is 
possible,  he  can  grow  figs  almost  anywhere. 

Selections  of  varieties  adapted  to  particular  situations  has 
much  to  do  with  the  success  of  the  fig,  as  with  other  fruits,  and, 
therefore,  a  broad  statement  of  adaptability  must  be  received 
with  such  an  understanding.  The  intrusion  of  the  coast  influ- 
ences borne  eastward  by  the  winds  of  summer,  as  described  in 
Chapter  I,  gives  a  night  temperature  too  low  for  ripening  of  some 
varieties,  which  turn  sour  upon  the  trees.  Present  indications 
are  that  the  finest  dried  figs,  having  the  thinnest  skin  and  the 
nearest  approach  generally  to  the  fig  of  Smyrna,  the  commercial 
standard  for  dried  figs,  will  be  produced  in  the  drier  portions  of 
the  valleys  and  foot-hills.  Even  in  Southern  California  fig-souring 
is  quite  prevalent,  and  selection  of  locations  must  be  circumspectly 
made.  More  time  is  requisite  for  the  final  demonstration  of  these 
matters,  although  years  have  already  been  devoted  to  the  problem. 

SOILS    FOR    THE    FIG 

As  it  must  be  left  with  the  future  to  determine  the  mooted 
point  as  to  the  influence  of  special  situations  upon  the  bearing 
of  the  fig,  and  the  more  minute  characteristics  of  the  fruit,  so 
more  experience  is  needed  to  demonstrate  the  comparative  effects 
of  different  soils.  It  might  seem,  from  the  fact  of  the  age  of  our 
trees  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  that  time  enough  had  elapsed 
to  determine  these  points,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  all 
our  oldest  trees  are  of  the  very  hardy  variety  found  at  the  mis- 
sions, and  conclusions  drawn  from  them  as  to  all  varieties  are 
unsafe. 

The  fig  will  thrive  in  any  soil  that  one  would  think  of  select- 
ing for  any  of  our  common  orchard  trees,  and,  in  fact,  the  fig  suc- 
ceeds on  a  wider  range  of  soils  than  any  one  of  them.  One  is 
safe  in  planting  figs  for  family  use,  or  for  marketing,  wherever 
the  summer  temperature  is  high  enough  to  ripen  the  fruit  well, 
and  the  winter  temperature  high  enough  to  preserve  the  life  of 
the  tree.  This  applies  merely  to  the  successful  growth  of  the 
fig;  to  secure  ripening  at  a  time  when  the  fruit  can  be  profitably 
sold  for  table  use,  is  another  question. 

The  selection  of  soils  especially  suitable  to  the  production  of 
the  best  figs  for  drying  involves  more  considerations  than  rule 
in  the  growth  of  table  fruit.  For  drying,  the  fig  should  attain 
a  good  size,  but  should  not  contain  excess  of  moisture.  In  some 
parts  of  the  State  the  first  crop  of  figs  in  the  season  has  been 


384 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


found  unfit  for  drying.  The  second,  and,  in  some  localities,  the 
third  crop,  appearing  later  in  the  season,  when  the  moisture 
supply  of  the  soil  is  reduced,  dry  well.  This  condition  of  the  first 
crop  is,  however,  affected  by  local  conditions,  for  there  are  places 
in  the  Sierra  foot-hills  where  the  soil  moisture  has  to  be  replen- 
ished early  in  the  season  by  irrigation  to  prevent  even  the  first 
crop  from  falling  prematurely,  and  subsequent  irrigation  brings 
to  perfection  the  second  and  third  crops.  The  fig  tree  needs 
plenty  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  but  not  too  much.  As  with  other 
fruits,  if  the  soil  does  not  retain  the  needed  amount  naturally,  it 
must  be  supplied  by  irrigation  wisely  administered. 

PROPAGATION    OF   THE    FIG 

The  fig  grows  very  rapidly  from  cuttings,  and  this  is  the  chief 
method  of  propagation.  Cuttings  should  be  made  while  the  tree  is 
fully  dormant,  in  the  winter,  of  well-matured  wood  of  the  previous 
season's  growth,  giving  preference  to  the  stocky,  short-jointed 
shoots,  and  making  the  cuttings  about  six  to  eight  inches  in  length. 
The  cut  at  the  lower  end  should  be  made  at  the  joint,  or  where  solid 
wood  is  found.  The  planting  and  care  of  the  cuttings  is  essentially 
the  same  as  of  vine  cuttings,  already  described.  If  well  made  and 
cared  for,  a  very  satisfactory  growth  is  made  the  first  season,  and 
the  trees  are  ready  for  planting  out  in  permanent  place  the  follow- 
ing season. 

Single  Bud  Cuttings. — If  one  desires  to  multiply  a  new  variety 
very  rapidly,  single-eye  cuttings  will  make  plants.  This  is,  also, 
analogous  to  single-eye  grape  cuttings,  as  already  described. 

Budding  the  Fig. — The  foregoing  means  enable  one  to  propa- 
gate a  fig  so  rapidly  that  recourse  is  not  had  to  budding,  as  in 
propagating  other  trees ;  still,  budding  is  feasible,  either  on  small 
plants  or  on  young  shoots  of  old  trees  which  it  is  described  to  bud 
over. 

The  fig  may  be  budded  by  the  common  shield  method,  as  used 
for  ordinary  fruit  trees,  and  described  in  Chapter  IX,  but  owing  to 
the  tendency  of  the  fig  bark  to  shrink  in  drying,  the  bud  should  be 
closely  bound  in  with  a  narrow  waxed  band,  to  exclude  the  air.  As 
the  bark  is  thick,  it  is  often  desirable  to  cut  out  a  little  of  the  edges 
closest  to  the  bud  when  in  place. 

Another  method  of  budding  the  fig  is  by  annular  or  "ring  bud- 
ding," a  method  also  relied  upon  with  the  walnut  and  chestnut. 
Annular  budding  is  done  in  the  fall.  A  circular  ring  of  bark  is 
taken  off  from  the  stock  by  the  aid  of  a  budding  knife,  by  running 
two  circular  cuts  around  the  stock,  and  a  longitudinal  one  between 
the  two  circular  cuts ;  the  ring  of  bark  taken  off  must  be  at  least  one 
inch  wide,  and  from  that  up  to  two  inches.  A  like  ring  of  bark  is 
taken  off  in  the  same  manner  from  a  scion  of  the  variety  to  be  bud- 


.l^i 


BUDDING    AND    GRAFTING    THE    FIG 


385 


ded  in,  and  from  a  branch  of  the  year,  or  preceding  one,  well  in  sap, 
and  having  about  the  same  diameter  as  the  stock.  This  ring  should 
have  on  it  one  or  two  buds.  It  must  fit  exactly  the  space  prepared 
on  the  stock,  and  more  particularly  at  the  lower  circular  cut,  so  that 
both  barks  will  exactly  unite  at  that  point.  When  the  ring  is  too 
long,  a  little  bit  of  it  might  be  cut  off  with  a  very  sharp  knife  till  it 
fits  well ;  if  the  ring  is  too  large  for  the  stock,  a  longitudinal  strip 
would  be  cut  out,  and  if  too  narrow,  such  a  strip,  if  with  a  bud  on 
so  much  the  better,  will  have  to  be  used  to  fill  up  the  empty  space. 
One  must  be  very  careful  while  drawing  the  knife  around  the  stock 
not  to  go  too  deep  into  the  wood  to  injure  the  cambium  layer,  or  to 
weaken  the  stock.  Tie  a  bandage  pretty  firmly  over  the  whole. 
After  two  or  three  weeks  the  bandage  has  to  be  taken  off,  and,  in 
the  ensuing  spring,  the  top  of  the  stock  or  limb  is  cut  down  three 
inches  above  the  budding. 

Another  way  of  working  such  trees  is  by  "whistle  budding," 
which  is  done  /;/  the  spring,  when  the  sap  is  well  up.  The  stock  and 
scion  must  be  both  of  the  same  size  and  well  in  sap.  The  top  of  the 
stock  is  cut  down  to  several  inches  from  the  ground ;  a  circular  ring 
of  bark  is  then  taken  off,  and  a  corresponding  ring  from  the  scion, 
but  without  a  longitudinal  cut,  is  put  in  its  place.  In  inserting  it 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  top  of  the  stock,  which  is  to  receive 
the  ring  from  the  scion,  be  very  smooth,  and  the  latter  is  then  easily 
pushed  down  around  it  and  bandaged.  In  the  case  of  the  fig,  it  is 
especially  desirable  to  use  the  latter  method  when  the  sap  is  up, 
because  if  the  top  of  the  stock  is  not  removed,  the  exudation  from 
above  sours  around  the  bud  and  prevents  the  union  of  stock  and 
bud. 

To  prepare  an  old  tree  for  budding  over,  the  limbs  may  be  cut 
back  in  February  within  two  to  six  feet  of  the  trunk,  covering  the 
ends  with  paint  of  grafting  wax.  Allow  two  shoots  to  start  near 
the  end  of  each  of  these  amputated  limbs,  and  rub  off  all  other 
shoots.  Bud  the  shoots  when  they  attain  the  thickness  of  one's 
finger,  taking  green  buds  from  the  growth  it  is  desired  to  introduce, 
or  let  them  grow  and  bud  in  the  fall,  whichever  is  most  convenient; 
or  bud  in  the  growing  shoot,  and  rebud  in  the  fall  where  buds  have 
failed. 

Grafting  the  Fig. — The  fig  can  be  grafted  by  the  cleft-graft 
method,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX.  but  the  cleft  should  be  made  to 
one  side  of  the  stub  and  not  through  the  central  pith.  Especial 
care  must  be  taken  in  excluding  the  air.  Fill  the  cleft  between  the 
scions  with  warm  wax,  which  will  run  in  and  fill  the  cavity.  Then 
bind  the  stock  with  wax  bands,  taking  the  greatest  care  to  cover 
the  exposed  wood  surface,  the  cut  end  of  the  bark  (which  in  the  fig 
is  very  prone  to  shrink  and  draw  back),  and  as  far  down  the  stock 
as  the  bark  has  been  split. 


3gg  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

Cut  the  shield  from  a  Hmb  of  about  ^  inch  in  diameter,  length  of  shield 
about  11/2  inches,  its  thickness  from  J/^  to  ^4  inch,  and  its  bud  near  the  middle 
of  the  shield.  Do  not  remove  the  wood  from  behind  the  bud.  Make  a  cut 
in  the  stock,  tlirough  the  bark  and  into  the  wood,  its  length  and  width  a  little 
greater  than  those  of  the  shield.  Insert  the  shield  into  the  cut,  so  that  the 
inner  bark  of  the  top  of  the  shield  and  cut  will  coincide,  so  that  one  side  of 
shield  and  cut — and  both  sides,  if  practicable — will  coincide.  Tlace  the  flap 
of  the  cut  over  the  shield  (removing  a  part  of  the  flap  so  the  bud  will  not  be 
covered),  and  fasten  flap,  shield  and  stock  together  very  firmly  with  twine, 
and  protect  them  with  paper  tied  around  them.  They  may  be  grafted  in  that 
mode,  whenever  dormant  buds  are  found,  for  the  shields.  Twenty-four  shields 
were  inserted  at  several  times,  during  one  spring,  and  there  was  only  one 
failure. 

A  method  of  bark  grafting  applied  to  the  fig  by  George  C. 
Roeding  of  Fresno  and  approved  by  him  after  several  years  of 
successful  experience,  affords  an  excellent  way  of  grafting  over 
large  trees.  It  does  away  with  splitting  the  stock  and  therefore 
hastens  the  barking-over  of  an  amputation.  The  branches  to  be 
grafted  are  cut  off  within  18  to  24  inches  from  the  point  of  diverg- 
ence from  the  main  bod}^  of  the  tree,  allowing  at  least  two  branches 
to  remain,  one  of  which  should  be  on  the  southwest,  if  possible,  so 
that  the  grafts  will  be  protected  from  the  afternoon  sun. 

After  having  sawed  off  the  branches,  the  stumps  neatly 
smoothed  over,  with  a  sharp  knife,  so  as  to  have  a  clean,  smooth 
surface,  particularly  along  the  edge,  two,  four  or  six  scions  should 
be  placed  on  each  stock,  the  number,  of  course,  being  regulated  by 
the  size  of  the  stump.  Cut  out  a  V-shaped  piece  of  bark.  The  dis- 
tance from  the  top  of  the  stock  to  the  point  of  the  V  should  be 
about  !%■  inches. 

Another  method  is  to  make  slightly  outward  and  downward 
cuts  into  the  stub  with  a  sharp  knife,  so  as  not  to  cause  a  split, 
but  rather  deep,  clean  cuts,  into  which  the  wedge-shaped  scions 
are  firmly  pushed  and  a  cord  wound  around  the  stub  to  hold  all 
strongly  in  place  before  waxing  thoroughly.  This  form  of  grafting 
will  be  shown  in  the  chapter  on  the  walnut,  for  it  is  very  success- 
fully used  on  that  tree  also. 

The  form  of  side-graft  with  a  saw-cut  as  described  in  the  chapter 
on  the  peach  is  also  available.  A  form  of  bud-graft,  that  is,  bud- 
ding with  a  large  shield  into  old  bark,  is  also  successful.  Judge 
Rhodes  of  San  Jose  describes  his  method,  both  with  the  olive  and 
the  fig,  in  this  way  : 

Select  a  scion  of  the  proper  size,  never  be  smaller  than  an  ordi- 
nary lead  pencil.  As  a  rule  scions  from  two-year-old  wood,  with 
very  little  pith  and  with  a  diameter  of  about  ^2  inch,  will  give  the 
best  results.  The  scions  should  have  a  sloping  cut  at  the  lower 
end,  with  the  bevel  all  on  one  side  and  not  like  a  wedge.  The 
bevel  should  be  as  long  or  a  little  longer  than  the  V-shaped 
opening  in  the  stock  and  should  fit  snugly  into  this  opening,  so 
that  the  bark  on  both  edges  of  the  scion  touches  the  bark  of  the 


PLANTING    AND    PRUNING    THE    FIG  3g7 

stock.  After  the  scions  are  placed,  wrap  tightly  with  five  or  six- 
ply  cotton  twine,  and  cover  the  wounds  as  well  as  the  stub  with 
liquid  grafting  wax.  Wax  the  top  of  the  scion  to  prevent  drying 
out.  If  waxed  cloth  is  used  it  must  be  removed  before  the  warm 
weather  sets  in  or  the  bark  will  be  smothered  and  will  die.  After 
the  scions  have  become  well  united,  which  takes  from  two  to 
three  months,  the  strings  should  be  cut.  This  method  of  grafting 
can  not  be  made  successfully  until  the  sap  begins  to  flow,  say 
from  the  latter  part  of  February  to  the  first  of  April.  The  scions 
should  never  be  more  than  four  inches  long. 

Seedling  Figs. — Figs  are  readily  grown  from  the  imported  fig 
of  commerce.  Dr.  Gustav  Eisen  of  San  Francisco,  our  leading 
writer  on  the  fig,  gives  the  following  explicit  directions  for  growing 
the  fig  from  seed  : 

Cut  open  imported  Symrna  figs ;  wash  out  the  seeds  in  warm  water,  those 
that  float  are  empty  and  worthless ;  those  that  sink  are  generally  fertile.  Sow 
these  in  shallow  boxes  of  sand  and  loam  mixed,  and  place  in  a  frame  under 
glass.  In  three  weeks  they  will  be  up  and  must  be  very  sparingly  watered. 
Set  out  next  season  in  nursery  row.  hi  three  years  from  the  seed  such  plans 
will  be  found  to  bear. 

The  tendency  of  the  plants  grown  from  Smyrna  figs  is  to 
revert  to  the  wild  type,  and  there  is  a  small  chance  of  securing  good 
varieties. 

PLANTING    AND    PRUNING    THE    FIG 

The  chief  point  to  observe  in  planting  the  fig  trees  is  to  get 
them  far  enough  apart,  because  of  the  great  spread  of  branches 
which  they  attain.  Of  course  they  may  be  planted  twenty  feet 
apart  if  the  owner  intends  to  remove  alternate  rows,  but  to  plant 
at  forty  feet,  or  even  farther  apart,  with  other  fruit  trees  or  vines 
between,  on  the  plan  of  alternate  or  double  squares,  described 
in  Chapter  X,  would  be  the  best  way  to  lay  out  a  fig  orchard — 
the  intermediate  growths  to  be  removed  as  the  figs  require  more 
room. 

Very  handsome  effects  are  produced  by  planting  the  figs  along 
avenues  to  inclose  orchards  of  other  fruits.  Fig  trees  are  grand 
for  shade  around  buildings,  and  wild  or  Capri  figs  are  desirable 
to  plant  in  this  way  for  a  purpose  which  will  be  mentioned  later. 

In  transplanting  fig  trees  extra  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the 
roots  from  drying.  After  planting,  the  stem  must  be  diligently 
guarded  from  sunburn,  to  which  it  is  liable  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  State. 

Pruning  the  Fig. — The  fig  requires  very  little  pruning  after 
its  shape  is  outlined.  There  is  difference  of  opinion  and  practice 
as  to  the  height  at  which  the  head  should  be  formed ;  some  head 


338  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

nearly  as  low  as  already  advised  for  common  orchard  trees ;  others, 
having  in  mind  the  immense  thickness  attained  by  the  limbs,  and 
their  disposition  to  droop,  head  as  high  as  four  to  six  feet,  which 
is  the  better  way  to  proceed  when  the  trees  are  wide-spaced  and 
expected  to  attain  large  size. 

In  shaping  the  tree,  branches  should  be  brought  out  at  a 
distance  apart  on  the  stem,  so  that  there  may  be  room  for  their 
expansion  without  crowding  each  other,  and  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  leave  too  many  main  limbs.  Three  limbs,  well  placed 
around  the  stem,  are  enough.  The  branches  putting  out  on  the 
under  side  of  these  limbs  should  be  suppressed,  and  those  grow- 
ing upright,  or  obliquely  upright,  retained.  As  the  fig  has  pithy 
shoots  it  is  very  desirable  to  cover  all  cuts  with  paint  or  wax. 
After  getting  the  general  shape  of  the  tree  fixed,  there  is  little 
need  of  pruning  except  to  remove  defective  branches  or  those 
which  will  cross  and  interfere  with  each  other  and  to  prevent 
the  interior  of  the  tree  from  becoming  too  dense.  It  is  better  to 
remove  branches  entirely  than  to  shorten  them;  or,  in  shortening, 
always  cut  to  a  strong  lateral.  Stubs  left  at  pruning  are  very, 
undesirable  in  the  fig. 

Cultivation. — Young  fig  orchards  are  cultivated  as  are  other 
fruit  areas.  Old  trees  which  completely  shade  the  ground  are 
usually  left  to  themselves,  without  cultivation,  except  cutting  out 
weeds.  Irrigation  is  governed  by  local  conditions,  as  already 
stated.  In  starting  the  orchard  it  is  exceedingly  important  that 
the  young  trees  should  not  be  allowed  to  sufifer  from  drying  out 
of  the  soil. 

Bearing  Age  of  the  Fig. — The  fig  often,  and,  perhaps,  usu- 
ally, begins  its  bearing  very  early,  in  the  most  favorable  situa-. 
tions  in  this  State.  Some  fruit  is  often  had  the  second  year,  and 
a  crop  worth  handling  the  third  year.  Still,  it  is  wiser  not  to 
calculate  definitely  upon  such  returns,  for  four  or  five  years  some- 
times pass  without  a  satisfactory  crop.  We  have,  also,  instances 
of  ''barren  fig  trees,"  which  persist  in  ''dropping  their  untimely 
figs,"  year  after  year,  during  their  youth.  How  much  of  this 
is  due  to  variety,  and  how  much  to  locality,  is  not  definitely  known, 
but  successful  fruiting  has  been  secured  by  grafting  over  barren 
trees,  using  scions  from  bearing  trees  growing  adjacent  to  them. 
This  has  no  relation  to  the  subject  which  will  be  next  discussed. 


THE    SMYRNA    PIG  ggg 

CAPRIFICATION* 

Caprification  consists  in  suspending  the  fruit  of  the  wild  or 
Capri  fig  in  the  branches  of  the  tree  of  improved  variety,  that  the 
pollen  may  be  carried  by  an  insect  from  the  former  to  the  latter. 
Until  the  present  decade  California  has  never  been  able  to  pro- 
duce dried  figs  equal  to  the  fig  of  commerce  or  the  Smyrna  fig. 
This  was.  at  first,  thought  to  be  due  to  lack  of  the  Smyrna  variety. 
After  painstaking  efifort  this  variety  was  introduced.  Trees  grew 
readily  from  the  cuttings ;  fruit  appeared  upon  them  and  dropped 
before  maturity.  Doubt  then  arose  as  to  whether  importers  had 
not  been  deceived,  and  other  efforts  w^ere  made  which  resulted 
in  other  importations.  These  also  cast  to  the  ground  immature 
figs.  Discussion  turned  then  upon  the  fact  of  caprification — the 
necessity  of  having  the  fruit  of  the  Capri  or  wild  fig  adjacent  to 
the  fruit  of  the  Smyrna  fig  so  that  insects  from  the  Capri  might 
visit  the  fruit  of  the  improved  variety  and  pollinate  its  inclosed 
flowers,  which,  appearing  upon  the  inner  wall  of  an  almost  closed 
cavity,  could  not  be  reached  by  ordinary  visiting  insects.  The  wild 
trees  had  already  been  introduced  and  were  freely  growing  near  the 
others,  but  this  fact  availed  nothing — the  figs  fell  just  the  same 
from  the  Smyrna  trees.  In  1890  Mr.  George  C.  Roeding,  of  Fresno, 
essayed  to  demonstrate  the  fact  that  the  lack  of  the  pollination 
was  the  secret  of  failure,  and  he  succeeded  in  introducing  the 
Capri  pollen  into  the  eye  of  the  Smyrna  fig,  and  secured  thereby 
the  retention  of  such  pollinated  figs  upon  the  trees,  and  when 
ripened  and  dried  these  had  the  Smyrna  character.  The  demon- 
stration was  complete  that  California  could  not  grow  Smyrna  figs 
without  the  pollinating  agency  found  to  be  essential  to  success 
in  Smyrna.  This  agent  is  a  minute  wasp  called  the  blastophaga 
— an  insect  so  minute  that  it  can  make  its  way  through  the  mesh 
of  ordinary  cheese-cloth  and  can  enter  the  almost  closed  eye  of 
the  young  fig — so  minute  that  a  magnifying  glass  is  necessary 
to  give  one  any  clear  idea  of  its  outline.  For  years  constant 
effort  has  been  made  by  various  parties  to  secure  the  introduction 
of  this  insect.  Urgent  appeals  were  made  to  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  after  private  undertakings  failed,  to 
secure  the  insect  alive  or  otherwise  in  form  for  permanent  resi- 
dence.     In    April,    1899,    the    feat    was    accomplished,    the    blas- 


*In  a  general  treatise  like  this  only  a  passing  reference  can  be  made  to  this 
subject,  which  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  in  the  whole  realm  of  entomo-horti- 
culture.  The  fig  grower  should  secure  the  following  monographs:  "Smyrna  Fig 
Culture  in  the  United  States,"  by  L.  O.  Howard.  Year  Book  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 
for  1900;  "The  Fig — its  History,  Culture  and  Curing,"  by  Gustav  Eisen,  Bulletin  No. 
9,  Div.  of  Pomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1901;  "The  Smyrna  Fig  at  Home  and 
Abroad,"  by  George  C.  Roeding,  Fresno,  Cal.,  1903;  "Some  Points  in  the  History  of 
Caprification  in  the  Life  History  of  the  Fig,"  by  W.  T.  Swingle;  Report  of  River- 
side Fruit  Growers'  Convention,  1908;  "The  Latest  Development  in  Fig  Culture," 
by  G.  P.  Rixford,  Pacific  Rural  Press,  December  18  and  25,  1009, 


390  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

tophagas  being  received  from  Algiers  as  collected  and  forwarded 
by  W.  T.  Swingle  to  Mr.  Roeding.  Their  offspring  appeared  in 
large  numbers  during  the  summer  and  fall  of  the  same  year.  On 
the  basis  of  this  achievement  the  commercial  production  of  a 
true  Smyrna  fig  in  California  began  and  has  rapidly  developed. 
Mr.  Roeding  gave  his  product  the  musical  patronymic  "Cali- 
myrna,"  which  now  adheres  also  to  the  variety  from  which  it  is 
produced. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  after  this  strenuous  work  was 
successfully  accomplished  it  was  ascertained  that  the  fig  wasp 
had  really  reached  California  without  assistance  before  1880  and 
has  been  established  in  San  Joaquin  county  since  that  remote  date. 

To  avail  himself  of  the  benefits  of  caprification,  every  grower 
of  varieties  which  require  it  must  also  grow  suitable  Capri  figs 
and  establish  the  insect  in  them.  California  nurserymen  supply 
these  and  the  insects  also  when  the  trees  are  of  suitable  age  to 
receive  them. 

FOES    OF    THE    FIG 

The  fig  is  freer  from  insect  pests  than  other  fruit  trees,  and 
yet  it  is  a  mistake  to  consider  it  wholly  free.  The  writer  has 
seen  the  leaves  well  covered  with  a  lecanium  scale  and  has  found 
a  moth  larva  boring  in  the  pith  of  the  young  shoots ;  still,  prac- 
tically, the  fig  tree  in  California  has  not  yet  suffered  from  insects. 

The  gophers  have  a  pronounced  appetite  for  fig  roots,  and  their 
presence  should  be  carefully  watched  for.  Swine  have  a  liking 
for  fig  bark.  The  trees  of  the  grand  grove  planted  at  Hock  Farm, 
on  the  Feather  River,  by  General  Sutter,  were  completely  girdled 
from  the  ground  as  high  as  a  pig  could  reach  by  standing  on  its 
hind  legs.  Figs  make  good  food  for  hogs,  and  plantations  have 
been  made  with  this  in  view,  but  if  the  hogs  are  to  be  harvesters, 
it  will  be  well  to  protect  the  stems  of  the  trees  from  them. 

VARIETIES    OF    THE    FIG 

The  fig  presents  what  may  be  termed  an  aggravated  example 
of  the  confused  nomenclature  which  pervades  California  fruits. 
Dr.  Eisen  has  made  a  commendable  effort  to  bring  order  out  of 
chaos  by  a  study  of  foreign  records  and  locally-grown  fruit,  and 
has  published  a  catalogue  of  varieties  chiefly  grown  in  California, 
with  descriptions  of  each  in  Bulletin  5  of  the  Division  of  Pomology 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.*  The  following  enumera- 
tion is  largely  restricted  to  varieties  which  have  been  commercially 
propagated : 

*  A  much  fuller  discussion  of  fig  varieties  is  to  be  found  in  Dr.  Eisen's  Bulletin  P, 
already  cited.  Many  notes  are  made  of  the  fruiting  in  the  late  John  Rock's  collection 
on  the  grounds  of  the  California  Nursery  Co.,  at  Niles,  Alameda  County,  of  many 
introduced  varieties  which  have  not  been  commercially  propagated  in  California. 


FIGS    GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA  39]^ 

"^ Adriatic. — Size,  medium,  roundish;  neck  medium;  stalk  short;  ribs  obscure; 
eye  open,  with  red  iris ;  skin  very  thin,  greenish  in  the  shade,  yellowish  in 
the  sun;  pulp  bright  strawberry  red  or  white,  with  violet  streaks  in  the  meat; 
varies  in  quality  according  to  location.  This  has  been  found  very  useful  in 
California,  but  is  not  of  fine  flavor  when  dried.  It  requires  rich  soil,  with  con- 
siderable moisture  and  a  very  large  percentage  of  lime.  This  variety  is  not 
identical  with  that  known  in  Italy  as  Adriatic. 

Agen. — Medium  size,  roundish ;  skin  bright  green,  cracking  longitudinally 
when  ripe,  showing  white  bands ;  flesh  deep  red,  very  rich ;  a  good  bearer,  but 
very  late,  requiring  a  long  hot  season. 

Angclique ;  syn.  Angelica. — Medium,  pyriform ;  ribs  prominent;  yellowish 
white ;  pulp  white,  with  rose-colored  center ;  leaves  five-lobed.  A  very  good 
variety  in   some  of  the  coast  valleys. 

Bardajic. — "Very  large,  obovate,  pyriform,  long  neck  and  stalk,  skin  very 
thin,  grayish  green ;  pulp  rich  crimson,  fine  table  fig  and  largest  of  Smyrna 
class." — Rocding. 

Bcllona. — Large,  pyriform,  dark  purple,  red  flesh,  fine  flavor  when  dried. 

Black  Bulletin  Smyrna. — Large,  .obtuse,  pyriform,  short  neck,  long  stalk, 
light  purple,  flesh  pink,  luscious. 

Black  Smyrna. — Small,  globular,  short  stem,  pulp  dark  amber,  good  for 
home  use. 

Bourjassotte,  White;  syn.  Barnissotte,  White. — Medium,  round  and  some- 
what flattened,  eye  large,  sunk ;  skin  waxy,  green ;  pulp  bright  red.  A  very  fine 
fig.     Tree  very  large. 

Brozvn  Turkey. — Large,  turbinate,  pyriform,  with  hardly  distinct  neck;  stalk 
short ;  apex  flattened ;  ribs  few ;  slightly  elevated ;  eye  medium,  slightly  open, 
scales  large ;  skin  smooth,  greenish  to  violet-brown  in  sun,  with  darker  ribs ; 
pulp  dark  rosy  red,  quality  good,  and  tree  a  good  bearer.  Brunswick  is  fre- 
quently confounded  with  this  fig.  A  distinct  variety  is  grown  in  Vacaville  as 
Brown  Turkey,  which  is  named  by  Dr.  Eisen  "Warren." 

Brunsivick. — Very  large,  pyriform,  with  swollen  cheeks,  one  of  which  is 
larger  than  the  other ;  apex  very  obtuse  ;  neck  and  stalk  very  short ;  ribs  dis- 
tinct, but  not  much  elevated ;  eye  medium,  open  ;  skin  pale  amber,  with  violet 
tint ;  pulp  amber.  An  early,  large  fig,  but  lacking  flavor.  Very  common ;  re- 
quires  rich,  moist  soil. 

Celeste,  White. — Very  small,  amber;  suitable  for  preserves. 

Celeste,  Blue;  syn.  Violette. — Small,  ovate,  turbinate;  ribs  few,  but  distinct, 
especially  near  apex ;  eye  raised,  rough ;  color  dark  violet  amber,  without  red- 
dish blush ;  bloom  confined  to  the  neck ;  skin  thin ;  pulp  deep  rose ;  meat  amber, 
sweet,  but  lacking  in  flavor. 

Checker  Injur. — "Roundish,  oblate,  short  neck,  flesh  reddish,  skin  greenish 
yellow,  very  thin,  dries  well." — Roeding. 

Col.  de  Signora  Bianco. — Medium  sized,  pyriform;  long  ribbed  neck;  skin 
green,  changing  to  yellow ;  flesh  deep  red,  very  rich  and  luscious  a  strong 
grower ;  late,  suited  for  a  warm  region. 

Dauphine. — Large,  round  turbinate,  purple  with  blue  bloom ;  flesh  amber. 

Doree. — Medium,  oblong,  bright  yellow,  flesh  rose-color. 

Dottato. — Medium  ovate,  pyriform;  neck  well  set;  stalk  very  short  or  none; 
ribs  low;  skin  smooth;  eye  medium;  skin  thin,  yellowish  green,  meat  white; 
pulp  yellowish  amber,  sometimes  with  violet  flush.  One  of  the  best  figs  for 
drying;  tree  a  strong  grower,  requiring  moist,  rich  soil.  Lately  introduced  into 
California. 


392  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW     THEM 

Drap  d'Or. — Large,  pyriform,  with  very  low  neck  and  stalk ;  ribs  elevated  ; 
apex  obtuse  and  concave ;  color  light  violet-reddish  amber,  not  dark ;  pulp 
rosy  red.  A  fig  of  very  fine  quality ;  especially  useful  for  confections  and 
crystallizing ;  not  identical  with  Brunswick. 

Du  Roi. — Above  medium ;  round,  pyriform ;  stalk  very  short ;  eye  large  or 
variable,  with  scales  standing  out ;  skin  smooth,  pale  bluish  green  ;  pulp  amber, 
with  rosy  streaks  and  exceedingly  minute  seeds.  Related  to  Marseillaise  and 
Athens,  and  one  of  the  very  best  figs  in  California  for  drying. 

Early  Violet. — Small  to  very  small,  round  turbinate ;  neck  distinct  but 
short ;  stalk  medium  to  long ;  ribs  distinct,  elevated  ;  skin  rough  ;  violet-brown, 
with  thin  pearl-colored  bloom ;  pulp  red.  This  variety  bears  almost  contmuously 
and  is  preferable  to  the  Ischias  and  Celeste. 

Genoa,  White. — Above  medium,  pyriform  ;  neck  small ;  stalk  short ;  ribs  in- 
distinct ;  skin  downy ;  eye  very  small ;  skin  pale  olive-green ;  pulp  pale  rose. 
One  of  the  better  figs,  quite  distinct  from  Marseillaise. 

Gentile. — Very  large ;  ovate  pyriform ;  neck  short  but  distinct ;  stalk  very 
short;  skin  uneven,  with  ridges;  eye  very  large,  open,  with  projecting  scales; 
color  greenish  yellow,  spotted  with  white ;  pulp  amber,  streaked  with  rose ; 
seeds  few  but  very  large.  Only  the  first  crop  of  this  variety  ripens.  It  is  of 
the   San   Pedro  tribe.     One  of  the  best  early   figs. 

Grosse  Grise  Bifere. — Medium  ovate  pyriform ;  neck  very  short ;  stalk  short ; 
ribs  distinct;  eye  small;  skin  downy,  dark  violet  amber,  pale  olive  in  shade; 
the  bloom  is  separated  by  a  distinct  line  from  the  apex ;  pulp  deep  red.  A 
tender,  good  fig. 

Hirtu  du  Japan. — Medium  size,  roundish  with  long  stalks ;  skin  very  dark ; 
flesh  opaline ;  quality  best ;  very  prolific. 

Ischia,  Black. — Small ;  neck  short ;  stalk  medium ;  skin  smooth  ;  color  dark 
violet  black,  greenish  around  the  apex ;  neck  dark ;  eye  medium,  open ;  bloom 
thin,  dark  blue ;   pulp  red.     Of  fair  quality  but  small  size. 

Ischia,  White. — Size  below  medium,  round,  with  small  neck ;  stalk  very 
short ;  eye  open ;  skin  smooth,  bluish  green,  with  brown  flush ;  pulp  rosy  red. 
Common  in  California. 

Kassaba. — "Medium  to  large,  globular,  flattened,  short  neck  and  stalk,  pale 
green,  pulp  reddish,  very  sweet,  dries  well.  Tree  handsomest  of  Smyrna  vari- 
eties."— Roeding. 

Ladaro. — Very  large,  oblong,  pale  yellow,  brown  cheek,  flesh  deep,  red,  rich 
and    sugary. 

Magdalen  (Madeleine). — Below  medium,  round;  ribs  distmct,  rough,  dis- 
appearing around  the  eye ;  stalk  longer  than  the  fig,  eye  open,  large ;  skin 
greenish  yellow ;  pulp  amber  white.  A  very  delicious  fig,  superior  to  the  Ischias 
and  Celeste.     Not  synonymous  with  Angelique. 

Marseillaise,  Long. — Large,  longer  than  wide;  skin  thick,  with  brownish 
shade;  pulp  dull  red.  Requires  moist  soils.  A  fair  fig,  which  dries  well.  Not 
related  to  either  Black  or  White  Marseillaise. 

Marseillaise,  White. — Medium  ovate,  pyriform;  neck  short;  stalk  medium; 
ribs  numerous  and  distinct;  apex  flattened;  eye  large,  open;  skin  downy,  pale 
yellowish  green,  mottled  with  white;  pulp  amber,  with  a  few  large  seeds.  One 
of  the  best  figs  for  drying.     Requires  sandy,  rich  soil. 

'^Mission,  Black. — Medium  to  large,  turbinate;  neck  long;  stalk  short;  ribs 
distinct;  eye  prominent,  open;  skin  rough,  deep  mahogany  violet,  with  red 
flush;  pulp  not  fine,  red  but  not  bright  or  brownish  amber;  sweet,  but  not  high- 
flavored;  common  in  the  Southern  States,  California  and  Mexico.  The  oldest 
fig  in  this  country. 


PIGS    GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA 


393 


Monaco  Bianco;  syn.  White  Monaco. — Large,  rounded,  turl)inate;  flattened, 
neck  small  but  very  distinct;  ribs  numerous;  eye  very  open;  skin  dark  bluish 
green,  with  thin  bloom;  pulp  dark-red  rose.  A  most  excellent  tig  for  table, 
one  of  the  best  in  California. 

Mouissouna. — Globular,  turbinate,  flattened,  dark  violet,  blue  bloom,  pulp 
red,  soft  and  sweet. 

Pacific  White. — An  unknown  variety  found  growing  on  a  farm  in  Placer 
County.  Medium,  size,  fine  grained,  very  sweet,  dries  well,  but  the  skin  is 
thicker  and  more  tough  than  the  imported  fig.  That  and  its  small  size  are 
the  only  objections  to  it.     It  is  quite  widely  distributed  in  southern  California. 

Pastiliere. — Large,  3  inches  by  i^^;  elongated,  pyriform,  with  long  neck; 
stalk  short;  eye  closed,  surrounded  by  an  elevated  iris;  skin  rough,  hairy,  with 
blue  bloom;  pulp  red.     Fine  for  preserves. 

Ronde  Noire. — Large,  round,  but  irregular;  neck  distinct,  short;  eye  small; 
skin  smooth,  waxy,  dark  violet  brown;  pulp  amber.  Greatly  to  be  recommended 
as  a  table  fig.     Is  not  related  to  Black  Ischia  or  Osborn  Prolific. 

Ronde  Violette  Native. — Large,  globular,  with  no  neck;  glossy  green,  shaded 
violet  brown;  eye  large;  flesh  amber,  surrounding  rose  center. 

Rose  Blanche. — Large,  roundish,  flattened;  long  stalk;  brown  or  white 
ground;  flesh  bright  red.     Suitable  for  table  and  drying. 

Royal  Vineyard. — Medium,  pyriform,  long,  slender  neck;  reddish  brown,  blue 
bloom;  eye  large,  open;  flesh  bright  red. 

San  Pedro,  White;  syn.  Brebas. — Very  large,  round,  flattened  at  apex;  stalk 
and  neck  short;  eye  open;  skin  thick,  tender,  of  a  bright  yellow  color  or 
greenish  in  the  shade,  without  bloom;  pulp  amber.  A  remarkable  and  hand- 
some fig.  Only  the  first  crop  matures  without  caprification.  Suited  only  for 
table  use.     Requires  moist,   rich   soil. 

San  Pedro,  Black. — Very  large,  elongated  ovate,  with  no  stalk,  but  with 
well-set  neck;  skin  smooth,  violet  black  with  green  neck;  pulp  red,  coppery, 
tinted  violet.     For  table  use.     The  largest  fig  known. 

'Smyrna  (Fig  of  Commerce,  Drying  fig  of  Smyrna,  Calimyrna). — Of  sev- 
eral attempts  to  secure  the  true  Smyrna  fig,  or  the  variety  which  produces 
the  well-known  Smyrna  fig  of  commerce,  that  made  by  the  San  Francisco 
Bulletin,  and  managed  by  G.  P.  Rixford,  has  achieved  most  prominence,  and 
is  now  generally  conceded  to  have  proved  successful.  Fourteen  thousand  cut- 
tings were  obtained  through  United  States  Consul  E.  J.  Smithers,  in  1882,  and 
a  large  part  of  these  were  distributed  throughout  the  State.  A  later  direct 
importation  of  fig  cuttings  from  Smyrna  was  made  by  the  Fancher  Creek  Nur- 
sery, of  Fresno.  These  trees  have  already  borne  fruit,  as  has  been  described 
in  a  preceding  paragraph  on  caprification.  In  the  summer  of  1890  cuttings 
imported  from  Smyrna  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  were 
sent  to  several  parties  in  this  State.  As  the  fig  insect  has  fully  established 
itself,  as  described  on  a  previous  page,  this  variety  will  establish  itself  as  the 
leading  drying  fig  here  as  a  Smyrna,  and  a  very  important  industry  will  be 
established  upon  it.  Other  figs  previously  called  Smyrna  in  this  State  are 
misnamed. 

The  Rixford  Fig. — There  are,  however,  new  varieties  of  direct  Smyrna 
parentage  attracting  attention  in  this  State.  The  planting  of  Smyrna  fig  seed 
by  Mr.  E.  W.  Maslin,  at  Loomis,  in  1886,  has  yielded  several  varieties  which 
Mr.  W.  T.  Swingle  described  in  the  Pacific  Rural  Press  of  February  27,  1909, 
as  of  decided  promise,  and  at  least  two  of  them  represent  a  new  type  of  drying 
figs,  decidedly  different  from  any  of  the  varieties  of  the  Smyrna  fig  as  yet  im- 
ported from  the  Old  World.  These  new  varieties,  which  might  be  called 
self-sealed  figs,  show  a  drop  of  pellucid  gum  completely  filling  the  very  narrow 


394  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Rixford  Fig  Showing  the  Gum  Drop. 


Original  Rixford  Fig  Tree  at  Loomis. 


THE    GUM    DROP    FIG  395 

mouth  of  the  fruit  when  it  matures.  As  the  figs  dry  and  shrivel  on  the  tree 
and  fall  to  the  ground,  the  drop  of  gum  hardens  and  hermetically  seals  the 
mouth,  effectually  preventing  the  entrance  of  filth  beetles,  pomace  flies  and 
other  insects.  Such  figs  do  not  sour,  since  the  germs  causing  fermentation 
are  unable  to  effect  an  entrance  to  the  pulp  within.  One  of  the  self-sealing 
varieties  was  discovered  late  in  October,  1908,  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Brydges  of 
Looniis,  through  the  circumstance  that  the  fruit  had  withstood  uninjured  two 
soaking  rains  that  had  ruined  the  figs  on  the  adjoining  trees,  which,  being 
seedlings,  were  all  different  varieties,  and  not  self-sealed.  The  best  studied 
of  the  self-sealed  figs  Mr.  Swingle  has  named  "Rixford,"  in  honor  of  Mr. 
G.  P.  Rixford,  whose  early  service  in  the  introduction  of  the  Smyrna  fig  has 
been  mentioned  above.  The  figs  are  of  medium  size  (about  i^4  to  2  by  i^  to 
2  inches)  with  a  short  stalk.  The  skin  is  pale  in  color,  very  thin  and  tender, 
often  translucent  and  amber  colored  in  the  figs  that  have  cured  on  the  ground. 
The  pulp  is  light  amber  colored,  full  of  fertile  seeds,  sweet  and  of  excellent 
flavor.  The  drop  of  hardened  gum  that  closes  the  mouth  is  usually  from  one- 
sixteenth  to  one-eighth  inch  in  diameter,  sometimes  concealed  just  within  the 
mouth,  but  usually  partly  protruding  outside.  The  Rixford  tree  is  of  free 
growth,  having  a  spread  of  perhaps  50  feet,  though  grown  from  seed  planted 
in   1886  and  set  out  in   1887. 

Verdal,  Round. — Below  medium,  round  pyriform  without  stalk  or  neck; 
skin  smooth,  waxy,  bluish  green;  eye  closed;  pulp  dark,  blood  red.  A  small 
fig,  but  valuable  for  canning  and  preserves ;  better  than  the  Ischias  or  Celeste. 
It  does  well  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  but  is  inferior  in  the  interior  of  the 
State. 

White  Endich. — A  re-named  variety.  Medium,  golden  yellow,  pulp  white 
tinged   with   pink;    tree   prolific   and   long   ripening  season. 

Verdal  Longue. — Medium,  oblong,  turbinate;  stalk  and  neck  short;  eye 
closed;  yellow,  ribs  brownish;  flesh  red;  sweet  aromatic. 

Ziiititca. — Large,  pyriform,  greenish  yellow  amber  flesh;  good  grower  and 
bearer. 

There  are  many  uncletermincd  varieties  of  the  fig  grown'  here 
and  there  in  the  State.  Some  may  be  finally  identified,  others 
may  be  new.  Some  of  them  yield  an  excellent  dried  fruit  and 
shonld  be  more  carefully  experimented  with.  During  the  last 
decade  there  has  been  a  marked  decline  in  interest  in  the  fig 
because  of  the  failure  to  secure  the  Sniyrna  type  in  the  dried  fruit 
and  because  so  many  varieties  soured  before  drying.  The  out- 
look seems  to  rest  upon  successful  caprification,  although  recently 
there  has  been  increased  success  in  profitable  drying  of  other 
varieties. 


CHAPTER    XXXI 

THE    OLIVE   AND    ITS    GROWTH    IN    CALIFORNIA 

The  olive  is  another  of  the  old  mission  fruits  and  though  the 
tree  and  its  products  have  been  constantly  under  discussion  since 
the  American  occupation,  and  though  experimentation  has  been 
constant,  it  was  not  until  1885  that  the  tide  of  popular  favor  turned 
strongly  toward  the  olive.  For  twelve  years  thereafter  planting 
proceeded  with  enthusiasm  amounting  almost  to  infatuation,  until 
the  acreage  in  olives  ten  years  ago  reached  such  a  figure  that  even 
the  most  enthusiastic  ceased  from  further  planting,  because  the 
future  of  the  products  of  the  olive  was  by  no  means  clear.  The 
competition  of  olive  oil  with  cheaper  salad  oils  worked  greatly  to 
the  disadvantage  of  the  higher-priced  article,  but  as  deception  is 
now  ruled  out  by  recent  pure-food  legislation,  cheaper  oils  can 
no  longer  be  sold  under  the  name  of  the  olive,  and  legitimate  pro- 
ducers will  henceforth  be  protected. 

The  difficulty  of  producing  pickled  ripe  olives  with  good  keep- 
ing qualities  is  also  vastly  greater  than  anticipated.  In  addition 
to  these  troubles  the  sterility  of  the  trees  in  some  situations, 
through  frost  or  other  agencies,  discouraged  many  growers.  It 
is  probable  that  during  the  last  decade  the  uprooting  of  trees  far 
exceeded  the  planting  and  the  olive  acreage  decreased  consider- 
ably. At  the  same  time  there  has  been  much  progress  attained 
in  the  building  and  equipment  of  oil  mills  and  pickling  estab- 
lishments, and  in  mastery  of  processes  which  yield  acceptable 
products — all  of  which  have  favorably  influenced  the  demand  and 
price  of  the  fresh  fruit.  The  fact  is,  the  olive  was  boomed  in  Cali- 
fornia along  spectacular  and  speculative  lines,  and  the  industry 
must  outlive  the  mistakes  which  were  made.  California  will  pro- 
duce profitably,  good  olives  and  olive  products  in  suitable  places 
and  through  the  efiforts  of  masterful  men  and  women  who  can  rise 
to  the  requirements  of  production  and  of  protection  against  imi- 
tation articles  in  the  trade. 

The  olive  tree  has  survived  a  temperature  of  14  degrees  Fah- 
renheit in  California,  but  the  fruit  is  injured  by  a  slight  fall  below 
the  freezing  point.  This  may  render  unprofitable  the  late  varieties 
which  carry  their  fruit-ripening  into  the  winter  months. 

The  olive  tree  will  thrive  throughout  the  larger  part  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  it  has  been  shown  that  it  will  grow  in  a  soil  too  dry 
even  for  the  grape-vine,  and  too  rocky  for  any  other  fruit  tree, 

396 


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397 


39§  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

but  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  the  bearing  of  fruit  will  be  pro- 
portional to  the  amounts  of  plant  food  and  moisture,  and  it  is 
idle  to  expect  fruit  without  irrigation  if  the  soil  can  not  hold 
water  enough  for  the  tree.  On  foot-hill  slopes  the  trees  bear  fruit 
earlier  than  in  the  rich  valleys,  although  in  the  latter  the  trees 
attain  larger  growth.  Trees  in  the  interior  bear  sooner  than 
on  the  coast,  and  ripen  their  fruit  earlier  in  the  season. 

The  olive  tree  is  now  thriving  in  California  in  a  great  variety 
of  soils.  It  is  productive,  if  frosts  are  not  too  severe,  on  moist 
valley  lands,  while  on  hillsides,  even  where  excavations  had  to 
be  made  between  boulders,  or  into  disintegrating  rock,  the  tree  has 
exhibited  thrift  and  content  with  the  situation.  But  the  conclusion 
should  not  be  drawn  that  the  olive  relishes  poor  soil.  It  may 
thrive  with  loose  rocks  or  boulders,  but  it  finds  among  them  the 
elements  it  needs  including  an  adequate  supply  of  moisture.  It 
is  not  to  be  inferred  that  the  olive  will  succeed  on  sterile  soil. 

Although  the  relations  of  soils  to  the  qualities  of  oil  have  been 
investigated  by  the  University  of  California  Experiment  Station 
and  some  interesting  results  published,  we  have  not  had  experience 
enough  in  this  State  to  demonstrate  the  influence  of  soils  on  the 
quality  of  the  oil,  but  trade  results  have  shown  that  good  oil  has 
been  made  from  fruit  grown  on  some  of  our  best  valley  fruit  so'ls, 
deep  and  naturally  well  drained,  as  well  as  from  fruit  grown  upon 
drier  uplands,  and  the  production  on  deeper,  richer  lands  is  much 
larger. 

PROPAGATION    OF  THE   OLIVE 

Olives  are  propagated  from  seed,  and  from  cuttini^s  of  various 
kinds  and  sizes.  The  growth  from  seed  is  seldom  ]:)ractiscd  in 
this  State,  because  growth  from  cuttings  is  easy,  and  furnishes 
the  variety  desired  without  grafting. 

Growing  Olives  from  Seed. — The  olives  should  not  be  planted 
with  the  pulp,  but  cleaned  of  this  either  by  letting  them  rot  in  a 
pile  or  by  putting  them  into  an  alkaline  solution  to  cut  the  oil. 
A  simple  way  to  hasten  germination  is  to  break  the  pits,  taking 
care  not  to  hurt  the  germ.  An  instrument  similar  to  the  nut 
cracker  has  been  invented  in  France  which  is  said  to  work  well. 
When  the  kernels  are  deprived  of  their  shell,  they  are  kept  moist 
in  a  compost,  or  mixture  of  cow-dung  and  sandy  soil,  and  are 
sown  thickly  in  the  month  of  April.  If  it  is  thought  to  be  too 
much  work  to  take  the  kernels  out  of  the  pits,  they  must  be  soaked 
for  twenty-four  hours  in  a  solution  of  one-half  pound  of  concen- 
trated lye  to  the  gallon  of  water.  Most  of  the  seeds  sprout  the 
first  year.  Planting  the  naked  kernels  gives  the  quickest  result. 
Without  using  this  artificial  means  the  seeds  may  remain  dormant 
at  least  for  two  years. 


GROWING-  OLIVES    FROM    CUTTINGS 


399 


Large  Cuttings. — There  are  two  chief  methods  of  propagating 
the  oHve  from  cuttings  now  practiced  in  California.  One  uses 
well-matured  wood,  and  the  other  young  wood  which  has  just 
passed  out  of  the  herbaceous  state.  Practice  with  hard  wood 
proceeds  by  taking  cuttings  of  sound  wood  about  a  foot  long  and 
one-half  to  one  inch  in  diameter,  and  rooting  them  as  already 
described  for  vine  cuttings,  in  Chapter  XXVI.  These  large  cut- 
tings sometimes  remain  dormant  for  a  year  or  more,  and  recent 
propagation  has  been  almost  exclusively  by  the  small-cutting 
method. 


Manner  of  Rooting  of  small  olive  cuttings. 


Small  Cuttings. — Propagating  by  small  cuttings  has  increased 
rapidly  during  the  last  few  years.  It  serves  an  excellent  purpose 
in  rapid  multiplication  of  the  new  varieties  which  are  being  secured 


400  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

from  abroad;  it  enables  the  grower  to  handle  a  large  number  of 
plants  in  a  small  space,  and  the  plants  from  small  cuttings  have 
a  symmetrical  root  system  quite  resembling  that  from  a  seed. 
These  cuttings  are  made  from  very  small  shoots  and  both  the 
tips  and  the  lower  cuts  are  used.  In  the  engraving  the  figure  on 
the  lower  left  is  a  tip  cutting;  the  next,  a  cutting  lower  down  the 
shoot.  These  figures  are  about  natural  size,  and  show  clearly 
how   the   cuttings   are   made.     They   are   placed   closely   in   boxes 


ti 


Propagating  the  Olive  by  small  cuttings. 

of  sand  about  four  inches  deep,  and  after  a  few  months  are  potted 
in  small  pots,  or  may  be  reset  farther  apart  in  boxes  of  soil  or 
in  the  open  ground.  In  January  or  February,  the  wood  seems 
to  be  in  the  best  condition  in  Berkeley,  but  such  condition  may 
come  at  other  times  in  other  parts  of  the  State.  From  such  cut- 
tings the  trees  will  be  of  good  size  for  planting  in  permanent  place 
the  next  year.  It  is  very  important  to  take  the  small  cuttings 
just  when  the  wood  is  in  the  right  condition,  not  too  soft  nor 
too  hard.  How  to  determine  this  point  can  not  be  described ;  it 
must  be  learned  by  experience. 

Growing  Trees  from  Truncheons. — New  varieties  secured 
from  the  south  of  Europe  generally  come  in  the  shape  of  trun- 
cheons, which  are  long  sticks  of  hard  wood.  They  may  be  planted 
entire,  or  be  sawn  and  split  into  large  cuttings  (for  olive  cuttings, 
even  in  firewood    shape,  will    grow  if    properly  treated),    though 


BUDDING     AND     GRAFTING     OLIVES 


401 


better  trees  come  from  small  cuttings.  If  the  truncheons  are 
bedded  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  in  moist,  warm  soil,  shoots 
will  appear  which  can  be  worked  up  into  small  cuttings  wdien  they 
reach  the  proper  condition. 

BUDDING   THE   OLIVE 

Since  the  planting  of  a  large  area  of  Redding  Picholines  and 
the  fruit  found  to  be  that  of  a  wild  or  poor  seedling  olive  and  not 
a  superior  named  variety,  there  has  been  a  demand  for  working; 
over  the  trees  into  better  varieties.  More  recently  many  of  the 
imported  varieties  have  proved   disappointing  and   a   change  to  a 


Olive:    Twig-Bud  as  cut. 

variety  profitable  in  the  region  is  imperative.  The  method  of 
budding  commonly  employed  with  fruit  trees  does  not  usually 
yield  a  high  percentage  of  success  with  the  olive,  and  other  ways 
have  been  adopted  with  much  better  results. 

Budding  may  be  performed  at  any  time  of  the  year  when  the 
sap  flows  freely.  If  done  late  in  the  summer,  the  buds  lie  dormant 
through  the  winter.  Best  results  are  obtained  when  the  buds  are 
inserted  early  in  the  spring,  as  the  operation  can  be  performed 
to  a  much  better  advantage,  and  the  buds  will  grow  to  some  height 
before  winter.  When  inserted  in  large  orchard  trees,  or  in  limbs 
of  large  trees,  the  shoots  from  the  inserted  buds  are  allowed  to 
grow  until  they  have  attained  such  a  size  as.  will  justify  in  the 
removal  of  the  entire  top. 

Twig  Budding. — Twig  budding  is  very  successful.  The  bud 
is  cut  deep  into  the  wood,  in  order  to  give  the  bud  as  much  bark 
as  possible.  The  leaves  are  partly  cut  ofif;  then,  with  the  sharp 
point  of  the  budding  knife,  the  greater  part  of  the  wood  inside 
of  the  bud  is  removed,  as  shown  in  the  picture.    If  part  of  the  wood 


402  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

IS  not  removed,  then  the  bud  can  not  take,  as  the  wood  in  it  pre- 
vents the  two  barks  (the  inner  bark  of  the  bnd  and  the  inner 
bark  of  the  stock)  from  nnitin.e^.  When  the  wood  has  been  partly 
removed  from  the  bnd,  the  bnd  is  inserted  into  the  stock,  as  bud- 
ding is  done  in  the  regular,  ordinary  way,  and  tied  tight.  A  small 
tip-twig  may  be  used  or  a  longer  twig,  cut  back  to  the  lowest 
bud  and  part  of  the  foliage  cut  away,  as  shown  in  the  engraving. 
At  the  end  of  three  or  four  weeks  the  string  is  removed,  and  part 


Olive:    Twig-Bud  inserted. 

of  the  top  of  the  stock  is  cut  back  to  force  the  bud  to  start.  As 
the  bud  grows,  the  foliage  of  the  stock  is  gradually  removed, 
until  the  bud  is  able  to  take  up  the  entire  flow  of  sap ;  it  is  then 
left  to  grow,  and  it  may  be  protected  by  tying  to  a  long  stub  of 
the  branch  which  may  be  left  for  that  purpose  above  the  point 
of  insertion.  When  the  bud  has  grown  out  strongly,  what  remains 
of  the  stock  above  the  bud  is  cut  smooth,  close  to  the  bud,  to  allow 
it  to  heal  over. 

GRAFTING   THE    OLIVE 

Grafting  is  also  used  in  working  over  both  large  and  small 
olive  trees.  Good  success  can  sometimes  be  had  with  the  ordinary 
method  of  top  grafting,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX,  using  scions 
not  larger  than  a  lead  pencil  and  inserting  them  in  April.  The 
olive  can  also  be  successfully  grafted  in  the  bark  according  to 
the  method  shown  in  Chapter  IX.  This  graft  is  used  for  work- 
ing in  the  top  of  the  tree,  but  it  may  also  be  used  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  covering  the  cut  surfaces  with  earth  when  the 
scions  are  in  place.  The  shield  grafting  to  which  allusion  is  made 
has  already  been  described  in  the  preceding  chapter,  as  it  works 
well  with  the  fig.  Judge  A.  L.  Rhodes,  of  San  Jose,  gives  the 
following  explicit  account  of  his  success  with  this  graft : 


Distress  of  the  unpruned  Olive  tree  on  moist  land  in  California. 
403 


404 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


The  stock,  where  cut  off,  may  be  from  half  to  two  and  one-half  inches  in 
diameter;  the  scion  about  one-quarter  inch  in  diameter,  the  lower  end  to  be 
formed  by  an  oblique  cut  of  about  one  and  one-half  inches.  Split  the  bark  of 
the  top  of  the  stock  about  one  inch,  raise  the  bark  at  the  sides  of  the  split 
slightly,  insert  the  point  of  the  scion  between  the  bark  and  wood  of  the  stock, 
at  the  split,  and  press  it  down  the  length  of  its  oblique  cut.  Fasten  it  by  bind- 
ing twine  around  both  stock  and  scion,  about  ten  times,  very  firmly.  Apply 
grafting  wax  to  top  of  stock  and  scion. 

If  the  bark  of  the  stock  be  three  or  more  years  old,  make  two  slits 
in  it,  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  the  width  between  them  equaling 
the  width  of  the  oblique  cut  of  the  scion,  raise  the  bark  between  the  slits,  cut 
off  about  half  of  it  by  a  sloping  cut,  then  insert  the  scion  and  press  it  down, 
and  bind  with  twine  and  apply  grafting  wax,  as  above  directed.  Cotton  wrap- 
ping twine  is  of  sufficient  strength. 

Stocks  the  diameter  of  one  inch  or  more  should  receive  two  or  more  scions. 
Scions  gathered  a  short  time  before  their  insertion  are  the  most  successful. 
The  twine  around  the  stock  and  scion  should  not  be  loosened  until  it  indents 
the  bark  of  the  stock.  Protect  the  graft  from  sun  and  wind.  Wrap  paper 
around  stock  and  scion,  the  paper  to  extend  a  few  inches  above  the  scion — 
or  place  the  paper,  in  the  form  of  a  bag,  over  scion  and  stock — and  secure  the 
paper  with  twine,  tied  around  the  stock  in  a  slip-knot. 

Bark  grafting  may  be  performed  at  any  time  when  the  bark  of  the  stock 
can  be  readily  raised — whenever  the  bark  will  "slip."  I  grafted  in  that  mode  in 
each  week  of  April  and  May  and  the  first  of  June,  and  in  September.  Failures 
not  5  per  cent.  Twelve  scions  inserted  about  the  middle  of  last  September 
are  all  growing.  Shield  grafting  is  the  most  successful  in  the  spring.  I  prefer 
the  bark  grafting,  as  the  shield  buds  may  not  start  for  months,  or  even  for 
a.  year. 

Side  Graft  on  Small  Wood. — A  satisfactory  graft  can  be 
made  with  an  oblique  cut,  as  shown  in  Chapter  IX,  which  is 
superior  to  a  split  of  the  stock,  because  on  a  small  stock  the  split 
is  apt  to  continue  farther  than  desirable  when  the  scion  is  pushed 
in.  With  the  slanting*  cut  in  the  stock  the  scion  can  be  firmly 
pushed  into  place  without  splitting.  The  union  of  inner  barks 
of  scion  and  stock  must  be  made  on  one  side  when  the  stock  is 
larger  than  the  scion.  This  graft  is  tied  in  and  waxed,  or  a  waxed 
band  may  be  used.'  In  working  small  wood  at  the  ground  surface, 
the  earth  should  be  drawn  up  around  the  graft. 

PLANTING   THE    OLIVE 

There  is  nothing  gained  by  planting  out  the  olive  too  early 
in  tHe  spring.  Both  cuttings  and  rooted  plants  will  do  better 
if  planted  af'^er  the  soil  becomes  well  warmed,  and  after  the  heavy 
rains  of  the  winter  are  well  over.  Of  course  the  time  when  this 
condition  comes  is  different  from  year  to  year,  and  varies,  also, 
according  to  locality  and  situation.  During  the  first  summer  the 
young  plants  will  need  occasional  watering  in  some  situations ; 
in  others,  merely  mulching,  or  keeping  the  surface  finely  stirred, 
will  suffice. 

Olive  trees  are  planted  at  different  distances,  but  the  ruling 
intervals  are  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet.  This  will  allow  the  trees 
to  bear  a  number  of  years  before  they  crowd  each  other;  and  then 
removing  alternate  trees  gives  ample  distance  for  future  growth. 


PRUNING     THE     OLIVE 


405 


But  it  clearly  the  part  of  wisdom  to  hold  the  olive  to  a  low  growth 
in  order  that  the  fruit  may  be  cheaply  gathered,  and  this  may  be 
done  by  proper  pruning. 

PRUNIxNG   THE   OLIVE 

Pruning  policies  as  insisted  upon  in  Chapter  XII,  have  direct 
bearing  upon  the  commercial  growth  of  the  olive.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  tree  according  to  principles  there  laid  down  is  prac- 


Bearing  Olive  tree  before  pruning. 


ticable  and  desirable.  After  proper  low  form  is  secured,  satis- 
factory bearing  will  depend  upon  regular  pruning  to  secure  new 
bearing  shoots  and  thinning  to  prevent  the  tree  from  becoming 
too  dense  and  bushy.  The  olive  bears  upon  wood  which  grew  the 
preceding  year,  and  upon  no  other.  It  is  just  as  important,  then, 
to  secure  a  good  supply  of  such  shoots  as  it  is  to  secure  new  bear- 
ing wood  for  the  peach,  and  the  ways  to  do  it,  by  cutting  back 
and  thinning  out,  are  much  the  same.  Keep  the  tree  from  running 
out  of  reach  of  a  step-ladder:  prevent  it  from  becoming  a  brush- 
heap,  for  both  these    acts    are    essential    to    the  growth  of  good 


406 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO    GROW     THEM 


bearing  wood,  low  down.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  too  severe  cutting-back  forces  the  growth  of  branches 
which  form  only  wood  buds  ?.nd  fruiting  is  postponed.  The  secret 
is  to  prune  enough  to  induce  plenty  of  new  growth  but  not  so 
much  excessive,  non-bearing,  new  growth  results.  This  result 
is  secured  by  regular  and  moderate  pruning. 


Bearing  Olive  tree  after  pruning.     The  amount  of  thinning 
can  be  estimated  by  the  litter  on  the  ground. 


Trees  which  have  been  allowed  to  form  umbrella -like  tops  may 
be  brought  down  to  business  again  by  cutting  back  the  main  limbs 
and  making  selection  from  the  many  new  shoots  which  appear, 
but  by  proper,  regular  pruning  a  tree  can  be  so  trained  that  the 
removal  of  large  limbs  is  seldom  necessary.  The  times  to  prune 
the  olive  are  just  after  the  gathering  of  the  fruit  or  just  before 
new  growth  starts  in  the  Spring. 

Developing  the  Vase  Form. — Explicit  suggestions  as  to  the 
development  of  a  low,  vase-form  tree  may  be  helpful  to  inexperi- 
enced growers.  The  following  is  from  a  foreign  writer,  whose 
illustrations  are  presented  herewith : 


DEVELOPING    THE    VASE    FORM 


407 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


408 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


When  the  young  tree  has  attained  some  height,  it  is  the  practice  to  cut  off 
the  top,  so  that  the  main  stem  shall  be  about  four  and  a  half  feet  in  rich 
soil,  or  three  feet  in  poor  soil  or  in  locations  exposed  to  strong  winds.  Six 
or  eight  branches  are  left  to  form  the  head.  The  process  of  shaping  the 
tree  then  proceeds,  as  shown  in  the  engravings.  Fig.  i  shows  the  young 
tree  to  be  cut  off  at  the  point  marked  by  the  dotted  line  C.  Six  branches, 
three  on  each  side,  are  left,  and  the  lower  twigs  shortened.  Each  of  the 
branches  left  develops,  during  the  year,  as  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  2,  which  is 
then  cut  at  C  again,  and  the  shoots  B  and  D  are  shortened.  This  process  starts 
out  the  upper  shoot,  and  it  appears  the  following  year  as  A  in  Fig.  3,  and  it  is 
again  cut  at  C.  This  causes  the  two  upper  shoots  to  develop,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  year  they  appear  as  shown  at  BB  in  Fig.  4.  Thus  they  stand  at  the 
fourth  year's  pruning,  and  each  of  them  is  cut  at  C,  and  A  is  shortened  and  D 
.allowed  to  develop.  By  this  time  the  tree  has  a  spherical  or  vase  form,  and 
exposes  much  surface  to  the  sun,  which  is  desirable. 

The  young  branches  that  spring  in  the  form  of  a  cross  on  the  more  vigorous 
branches,  bear  only  wood  buds;  the  others,  which  are  weaker,  bear  fruit  buds 
on  their  whole  length  and  burst  into  blossom  at  the  spring  of  the  second  year. 
The  latter  never  blossom  again  in  the  same  place,  but  the  shoot  extends  itself 
and  forces  two  lateral  ones.  These  new  shoots  bear  the  following  spring,  and 
so  on.  It  must  therefore  be  always  borne  in  mind  that  the  olive  bears  only  on 
the  two-year-old  wood.  If  the  new  shoots  are  formed  every  year,  the  olive 
will  bear  annually;  but  in  years  of  good  crops,  the  sap  employed  to  nourish 
the  fruit  only  produces  a  number  of  very  diminutive  shoots,  and  the  next  crop 
is  a  short  one.  The  pruning  ought  to  favor  the  growth  of  young  lateral  shoots, 
either  by  shortening  the  terminal  ones,  suppressing  the  "gormand,"  or  fruitless 
shoots,  or  by  reducing  in  a  certain  proportion,  each  year,  the  fruit-bearing 
shoots,  if  we  wish  for  a  crop  every  year.  The  shortening  of  a  branch  is  made 
immediately  above  an  outside  bud  in  an  oblique  direction,  the  interior  one 
being  suppressed.  The  suckers  at  the  root  of  the  tree  should  be  continually 
cut  off. 

Concerning  the  time  for  pruning,  the  best  season  is  said  to  be  when  the 
winter  frosts  are  well  over  and  just  before  the  sap  starts  in  the  spring.  By 
early  pruning  the  sap  is  made  to  act  upon  the  buds  unfavorably  situated  on  the 
tree,  brings  them  out,  and  also  develops  latent  buds  on  the  old  wood.  Thus 
one  is  enabled  to  prevent  the  tree  from  becoming  covered  with  naked  limbs. 


THE    FRUIT   AND    ITS    PRODUCTS 

The  agricultural  experiment  station  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia was  occupied  for  many  years  in  the  growth  of  olives  and 
close  examination  of  olive  products  both  by  laboratory  and  prac- 
tical test.  The  publications  of  the  station  discuss  the  operations 
of  oil  making  and  pickling  and  the  suitability  of  varieties  and  for 
the  purpose  of  this  treatise  outlines  will  be  drawn  from  these 
sources. 

Gathering  the  Fruit. — Olives  should  be  picked  carefully  and 
at  the  right  time.  For  green  pickles  they  should  be  picked  very 
soon  after  they  obtain  full  size,  but  before  they  have  begun 
to  color  or  soften.  For  ripe  pickles  and  for  oil  makin 
the  fruit  should  be  gathered  when  it  contains  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  oil.  This  is  soon  after  the  olives  are  well 
colored,  but  before  they  have  attained  the  deep  black  which  sig- 
nifies overripeness.  If  the  olives  are  gathered  too  green  the  oil 
will  be  bitter;  if  too  ripe,  it  will  be  rancid.     When  they  can  be 


& 


MANUFACTURE     OF     OLIVE     OIL  4Q9 

easily  shaken  from  the  tree  they  are  ripe  enough.  If  they  com- 
mence to  fall  without  vigorous  shaking  they  are  overripe.  For 
whatever  purposes  the  olives  are  to  be  used  they  should  be  care- 
fully gathered  by  hand,  and  imperfect,  immature,  or  bruised  fruit 
rejected.  Sound  fruit  is  required  for  high-grade  oil  or  for  hand- 
some pickles  with  good  keeping  quality. 

THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    OLIVE    OIL 

Olive  oil  is  made  in  this  State  with  apparatus  of  both  Cali- 
fornian  and  European  design,  and,  as  a  rule,  there  is  made  only 
one,  and  at  most  but  two,  pressings  of  the  pomace,  which  s  then  used 
for  fattening  swine.  In  the  frequent  working  over  of  the  pomace, 
and  the  close  extraction  of  the  oil,  as  practiced  in  Europe,  we 
have  done  little  as  yet. 

Olive  oil  is  made  on  a  small  scale  by  a  number  of  parties  who 
use  home-made  contrivances,  or  small,  portable  cider  machinery 
for  the  crushing  and  pressing.  During  the  last  few  years  quite  a 
number  of  mills  have  been  erected  at  several  points  in  California 
and  they  have  made  a  market  for  the  olives  produced  by  growers 
who  do  not  care  to  undertake  manufacture.  A  detailed  account 
of  oil  making,  including  descriptions  of  buildings  and  machinery, 
has  been  published  by  the  University  Experiment  Station.*  As 
this  is  available  to  those  who  desire  such  specific  information, 
only  an  outline  will  be  undertaken  for  the  information  of  the  gen- 
eral reader. 

Drying. — Extraction  of  oil  from  fresh  olives  gives  the  best 
oil,  but  it  is  somewhat  troublesome,  and  it  is  customary  to  partially 
dry  them.  This  partial  drying  is  also  useful  to  keep  the  fruit  for 
some  time  or  for  shipment  before  crushing.  Place  the  olives  in 
layers  not  more  than  three  inches  deep,  on  trays  that  are  stacked 
in  a  dry,  well-aired  room,  protected  from  the  wind  and  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun.  Turn  daily  until  the  fruit  bec'omes  well  wrinkled. 
This  requires  about  eight  or  ten  days,  according  to  the  degree  of 
temperature.  The  partially  dried  fruit  may  be  stored  in  a  dark 
room  where  the  temperature  does  not  rise  above  sixty  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  for  three  or  four  weeks  without  any  serious  deteri- 
oration of  oil.  To  hasten  the  drying  process,  artificial  driers,  con- 
structed on  the  same  principle  as  the  fruit  or  hop  driers,  are 
sometimes  used.  The  olives  are  placed  in  a  single  layer  upon 
trays,  and  the  drier  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty  degrees  Fahrenheit ;  at  over  one  hundred  and  thirty 
degrees  Fahrenheit  the  quality  of  the  oil  may  be  impaired.  The 
drying  takes  about  forty-eight  hours — more  or  less — according  to 
the  nature  of  the  fruit. 


*  "California  Olive  Oil:    its  Manufacture,"   by  G.   W.   Shaw,   Bulletin   159,   Uni- 
versity Experiment  Station,   Berkeley,   Cal, 


410 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


Crushing. — The  oHves  are  usually  crushed  by  heavy  stone  roll- 
ers revolving  in  a  circular  depression  in  a  bed  of  masonry  into 
which  the  fruit  is  placed.  Crushers  with  corrugated  bronze  or 
bronzed  metal  rollers  are  now  made  that  perform  their  work  in  a 
very  satisfactory  manner,  breaking  up  the  flesh  and  pits  very 
thoroughly.  As  they  are  all  of  metal  they  absorb  no  oil  and  are 
easily  cleaned.  It  is  very  essential  that  the  flesh  should  be  crushed 
thoroughly  in  order  to  break  up  the  cells  and  permit  the  oil  to  be 
pressed  out. 

Pressing. — When  the  revolving  crusher  has  reduced  the  olives 
to  a  mass,  the  pomace  is  shoveled  up  from  the  bed  of  the  mill 
and  prepared  for  pressing.  Instead  of  the  fabric  of  woven  esparto 
grass  which  is  used  abroad,  coarse  linen  cloth  is  used.  A  certain 
amount  of  the  pulp  is  put  in  each  cloth,  so  that  when  the  cloth  is 
folded  back  it  makes  a  cheese  about  three  feet  square  and  three 
inches  thick.  Ten  or  mOre  of  these  cheeses  are  placed  one  above 
the  other,  with  slats  between,  and  the  pressure  applied  gently  at 
first.  From  the  liquid  which  runs  out  first  is  made  the  very  finest 
oil,  known  as  "virgin  oil."  The  pressure  is  then  increased  very 
gradually  until  the  full  power  of  the  machine  is  reached.  This 
presses  out  the  second  quality  of  oil,  which  is  generally  mixed 
with  the  first.  After  obtaining  all  the  oil  possible  by  the  first 
pressure  the  "cheese"  is  taken  out,  thoroughly  broken  up  in  hot 
water,  and  again  pressed.  This  yields  the  third  quality,  which 
is  very  much  inferior  to  the  first  and  second.  Sometimes  the 
"cheese"  from  the  first  pressing  is  thoroughly  broken  up  with 
cold  water  and  pressed  .again  before  being  treated  with  hot  water. 
In  this  way  a  little  oil  is  obtained  that  differs  little  from  the  sec- 
ond quality,  and  may  be  mixed  with  it.  After  this  a  certain  amount 
of  oil  still  remains  in  the  "cheese,"  but  it  can  be  extracted  only 
by  very  powerful  hydraulic  presses,  or  by  chemical  means,  and 
then  is  of  very  inferior  quality,  and  suitable  only  for  burning 
or  for  soap  making. 

Settling  and  Clarifying. — The  liquid  from  the  press  is  dark 
colored,  and  it  is  conducted  into  a  receptacle  for  settling.  Much 
of  the  foreign  matter  quickly  separates,  the  oil  appearing  on  the 
top.  The  oil  is  removed  to  other  receptacles  in  which  it  can  stand, 
from  two  to  five  months  for  perfect  separation  of  undesirable 
sediment.  These  settling  tanks  may  be  of  well-tinned  metal,  or 
of  cement  lined  with  glass  or  other  impervious  substance.  The 
first  settling  is  conveniently  made  by  means  of  a  funnel-shaped 
apparatus,  which  by  its  conical  shape  facilitates  the  rapid  deposi- 
tion of  sediment.  After  standing  for  twenty-four  hours  in  this 
apparatus  the  major  part  of  the  sediment  is  deposited  and  can 
be  drawn  off  at  the  bottom.  It  is  well,  before  running  the  oil 
into  the  settling  tanks,  to  pass  it  through  two  or  three  inches  of 


PICKLING     AND     CANNING     OLIVES  ^-j^-j^ 

cotton  wool.  This  is  accomplished  l^y  means  of  a  funnel  with  a 
perforated,  horizontal  cross  partition,  upon  which  the  cotton  is 
placed.  It  takes,  generally,  about  one  month  for  the  oil  to  settle 
sufficiently  in  the  first  tank,  after  which  it  should  be  drawn  off 
carefully  into  the  second,  and  so  on  until  it  is  sufficiently  bright. 
Three  rackings  are  usually  sufficient. 

Olives  are  sometimes  ground  and  pressed  in  portable  cider  mills 
or  ground  in  barley  crushers  for  oil  manufacture  on  a  small  scale. 
As  the  above  description  shows,  oil  making  is  a  simple  process, 
and  may  be  carried  on  at  home  with  rude  devices.  It  is,  however, 
a  process  requiring  care  and  cleanliness,  and  intelligent  personal 
attention. 

PICKLING   THE   OLIVE 

Olives  are  pickled  in  a  green  state,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
imported  olives;  or  in  a  ripe  state,  as  largely  undertaken  in  Cal- 
ifornia. No  one  had  any  conception  at  first  of  the  difficulties 
attending  the  production  of  pickled  ripe  olives  which  would  have  the 
keeping  quality  demanded  in  an  article  of  commerce.  It  is  now 
clearly  seen  that  treating  olives  to  extract  the  bitterness  and  to 
secure  firmness,  good  flavor  and  keeping  quality  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  propositions  in  our  horticultural  manufacturing,  and  we 
can  but  admire  the  wisdom  of  the  Spaniard  in  teaching  Anglo- 
Saxons  to  enjoy  green  olives.  To  succeed  with  the  ripe  olive 
requires  the  utmost  patience,  experience,  and  intelligence,  and 
one  who  undertakes  it  must  not  get  weary  of  the  most  exhaustive 
study  of  difficulties  that  may  arise  and  how  to  meet  them.  When 
the  most  careful  picklers  with  the  best  appliances  sometimes  lose 
hundreds  of  dollars  worth  in  spite  of  all  they  know  about  it,  the 
difficulty  of  the  matter  may  be  appreciated. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  pickling  of  ripe  olives  as 
drawn  from  the  Lhiiversity  publications : 

The  Lye  Process. — The  vats  or  other  receptacles  used  for  pickling  should 
be  perfectly  clean,  odorless,  and  tastless.  Earthenware  is  the  best  material, 
but  it  is  cheaper  to  use  wooden  receptacles  thoroughly  treated  with  boiling 
water  and  soda  until  they  are  sterilized  and  all  taste  of  the  wood  removed. 
Metal  receptacles  must  not  be  used.  The  vats  should  have  a  plug  below  to 
draw  off  the  liquids  and  should  be  covered  to  exclude  air.  They  should  be 
shallow,  so  that  the  layer  of  olives  should  not  be  much  over  a  foot  in  thickness. 

1.  Place  the  olives  in  a  solution,  composed  of  two  ounces  of  potash  lye 
to  each  gallon  of  very  pure  water,  for  four  hours.  Repeat  this  once,  or  twice 
if  necessary,  to  sufficiently  remove  the  bitterness.  If  the  olives  are  soft  at  first, 
or  if  they  are  of  a  kind  that  softens  rapidly  in  the  lye,  use  brine  from  the 
beginning,  adding  two  ounces  of  lye  and  four  ounces  of  salt  to  each  gallon 
of  water.  As  the  lye  acts  much  more  slowly  when  used  in  combination  with 
salt,  it  may  be  allowed  to  stay  on  the  olives  for  a  longer  time  without  injury, 
eight  to  twelve  hours  or  even  more. 

2.  Rinse  the  olives  thoroughly  and  replace  the  lye  solution  with  fresh 
water.  Change  the  water  twice  a  day,  until  the  lye  has  been  removed  from 
the  olive,  as  judged  by  the  taste.  Use  weak  brine  if  the  olives  are  too  soft, 
changing  once  in  two  days. 


412 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


3.  Replace  the  water  with  brine  composed  of  four  ounces  of  salt  to  a  gallon 
of  water  and  allow  to  stand  two  days. 

4.  Put  in  brine  of  six  ounces  of  salt  to  a  gallon  for  seven  days. 

5.  Put  in  brine  of  ten  ounces  per  gallon  for  two  weeks. 

6.  Put  finally  into  a  brine  containing  fourteen  ounces  of  salt  to  the  gallon 
of  water. 

Much  depends  upon  having  pure  water.  Ditch  or  stream  water  should  be 
boiled  before  using. 

Pure-Water  Process. — The  best  pickled  olives  are  made  without  the  use 
of  lye,  but  this  process  is  only  practicable  with  olives  whose  bitterness  is  easily 
extracted,  and  where  the  water  is  extremely  pure  and  plentiful,  and  even  then 
it  is  very  slow  and  tedious.  It  differs  from  the  last  process  only  in  omitting 
the  preliminary  lye  treatment.  The  olives  are  placed  from  the  beginning  in 
pure  water,  which  is  changed  twice  a  day  until  the  bitterness  is  sufficiently 
extracted.  This  requires  from  forty  to  sixty  days  or  more.  The  extraction 
is  sometimes  hastened  by  making  two  or  three  shallow,  longitudinal  slits  in  each 
olive,  but  this  modification,  besides  requiring  a  large  amount  of  expensive  hand- 
ling, renders  the  fruit  peculiarly  susceptible  to  bacterial  decay  and  softening. 
Altogether,  the  pure-water  process  can  not  be  recommended  for  California, 
as  it  is  too  expensive  and  uncertain. 

Green  Pickles. — Green  pickled  olives  are  made  by  essentially  the  same 
processes  as  are  used  for  ripe  olives.  The  contraction  of  the  bitterness  requires 
the  same  care.  The  olives  are  pickled  soon  after  they  have  attained  full  size, 
and  before  they  have  shown  any  signs  of  coloring  or  softening.  They  contain 
at  this  time  comparatively  little  oil,  and  are  in  every  way  much  inferior  to  the 
ripe  pickles  in  nutritive  value.  They  are  not  a  food  but  a  relish.  They  are 
rather  more  easily  made  than  the  ripe  pickles,  as  there  is  less  danger  of  spoiling. 

CANNING  THE   RIPE   OLIVE 

The  use  of  heat  and  hermetical  sealing  is  a  recourse  to  avoid 
the  difficulties  of  ripe  pickling  and  canned  olives,  put  upon  the 
market  in  the  same  form  as  other  canned  fruits,  have  recently 
become  popular.  There  are  special  canneries  for  their  prepara- 
tion at  several  points  in  the  state  and  the  general  canneries  are 
also  h^dling  olives  in  considerable  quantities.  The  process  is 
in  the  n^n  like  that  of  canning  other  fruits  but  special  points 
have  to  be  learned  through  experience.  The  University  investi- 
gation of  the  effect  of  heat  on  the  olive*  shows  that  ripe  pickled 
olives,  heated  to  175  degrees  F.,  kept  perfectly  for  thirty-two 
months.  By  heating  them  still  higher  in  sealed  cans  or  bottles 
they  can  be  kept  indefinitely  with  as  great  facility  as  any  other 
food  product.  The  heating  does  not  injure  the  flavor  and  the 
texture,  but,  on  the  contrary,  improves  them.  Olives,  preserved 
by  heating  do  not  require  such  strong  brine,  and  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  add  as  much  salt  as  the  palate  requires.  The  heating  causes 
some  of  the  coloring  matter  to  diffuse  into  the  brine,  so  that  the 
olives  are  made  a  little  lighter  colored.  With  time,  however, 
the  colored  matter  diffuses  out  in  the  same  way  from  unheated 
olives,  so  that  at  the  end  of  a  year  the  heated  olives  are  actually 
darker  in  color  than  the  unheated. 


*  "Olive  Pickling,   etc.,"   by  F.   T.    Bioletti.     Circular  24,   Univei-sity  Experiment 
Station,   Berkeley,  Gal. 


VARIETIES    OF    THE    OLIVE  ^-^o 

VARIETIES    OF    THE    OLIVE    GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA 

Many  varieties  of  the  olive  have  been  brought  to  California 
from  southern  Europe  during  the  last  thirty  years.  Fifty-seven 
varieties  have  been  analyzed  and  elaborately  reported  upon  by 
the  University  experts,  and  of  these  about  fifteen  varieties  rose  to 
commercial  account  but  several  have  been  dropped,  as  show^n 
by  the  statements  of  their  operations  wdiich  leading  propagators 
have  kindly  furnished  for  this  work.  It  is  an  interesting  fact, 
however,  that  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  put  forth  to  secure  a  better 
olive  than  the  old  Mission  variety,  this  old  sort  comprises  three- 
fifths  of  all  the  planting  which  has  been  done  during  the  last 
few  years — that  is,  the  Mission  has  received  fifty  per  cent  more 
orders  from  planters  than  all  other  sorts  combined.  Several 
varieties  at  first  popular  have  been  abandoned  because  of  an  inte- 
rior decay  of  the  pulp.  The  following  is  the  list  of  the  varieties 
now  favored  in  California  on  a  commercial  scale,  arranged  approx- 
imately in  the  order  of  their  present  popularity : 


Mission,     '^ 

Manzanillo,  ' 

Oblonga, 

Ascolano, 

Columbella, 

Uvaria, 

Sevillano, 

or  Columella, 

Peiidulina 

Nevadillo, 

Oblitza, 

Lucques, 

Rubra, 

Picholine  d'Aix. 

These  may  be  taken,  then,  as  the  varieties  to  which  attenti,on 
should  be  given.  C)f  course  the  next  few  years'  experience  may 
produce  marked  changes  in  this  list. 

The  Mission  Olive. — By  this  name  is  signified  the  variety  found  growing 
at  the  old  missions  in  California.  Samples  of  the  fruit  and  leaves  sent  by  F. 
Pohndorff  to  Don  Jose  de  Hidalgo  Toblada,  a  noted  Spanish  authority  on  the 
olive,  led  to  the  classing  of  our  mission  varieties  with  the  Cornicabra-  Corni- 
zuelo  varieties  of  Spain,  and  its  value  was  confirmed.  It  has  long  been  known 
that  the  so-called  Mission  olive  embraced  several  varieties,  or  sub-varieties 
at  least. 

Common  or  Broad-Leaved  Mission  Olive. — The  variety  of  olive  most  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Mission;  ovate,  oblique — sometimes  very  much  so — the  pit 
straight  or  slightly  curved,  fruit  very  variable  in  size,  growing  singly  or  in 
clusters  of  two  or  three,  or  even  five;  time  of  ripening,  late,  in  the  coast  region 
sometimes  not  before  February,  but  generally  in  December;  in  warm  localities, 
in  November. 

Redding  Picholine.— Imported  by  the  late  B.  B.  Redding.  A  perfect  oval 
in  shape,  ripens  early,  several  weeks  earlier  than  the  common  Mission;  dark 
purple  or  black  when  ripe;  in  pickling  the  pulp  loses  the  bitterness  quickly,  the 
fruit  being  very  pleasant.  This  variety  was  propagated  extensively  in  the 
State,  and,  until  fruiting,  was  supposed  to  be  a  large  pickling  variety,  but  ii 
proved  to  be  a  srnall  seedling— a  shoot  coming  from  the  root  below  the  graft. 
It  has  produced  oil  of  good  quality.  The  smallness  of  the  fruit  is  its  irreme- 
diable defect. 

Picholine  d'Aix. — Fruit  medium,  elongated,  tapering  toward  apex  which 
is  pointed;  reddish  black  when  ripe. 


Picholine  de  St.  Chamas. — Oblong,  reddish  black 
for  quality  when  pickled. 


highly  esteemed  in  France 


414 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Polymorpha. 


Nevadillo. 


Oblonga. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  An  olive  of  a  peculiar, 
club-like  shape,  being  narrow  at  the  stem  end,  broad  at  the  point,  rounded  and 
strongly  oblique;  generally  pointed  at  both  ends.  The  pulp  loses  its  bitter- 
ness comparatively  quickly  in  pickling.  This  olive  ripens  quite  early — at  least 
two  or  three  weeks  earlier  than  the  Broad-leaved  Mission;  color,  dark  purple. 

Pendoulicr. — Large,  oval,  slightly  curved  at  apex  end;  desirable  for  pick- 
ling; early  ripening  in  October  in  the  interior  valley  and  in  November  in  coast 
valleys. 


VARIETIES     OF    THE     OLIVK 


415 


Sevillano. 


Mission. 


Man::anillo  No.  i.— Imported  by  F.  Pohndorff  from  Spain,  large  regular 
rounded  oval;  pit  straight,  strongly  pointed  at  the  apex,  nine-sixteenths  of  an 
inch  long,  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick.  Ripens  early,  several  weeks  earlier 
than  the  Broad-leav.ed  Mission.  The  fruit  grows  on  long  stems.  The  pulp 
parts  readily  with  its  bitterness,  and  is  exceedingly  rich  when  pickled.  Excel- 
lent in  the   San  Joaquin  Valley  both   for  oil   and   pickles. 

Monzanillo  No.  2. — Imported  by  F.  Pohndojff  from  Spain.  As  the  name 
("small  apple")  indicates,  this  variety  is  nearly  round,  with  a  pit  of  rounded 
oval  shape,  rather  squarely  cut  off  at  the  base.  This  variety  ripens  early — 
several  weeks  earlier  than  the  Broad-leaved  Mission  olive;  the  fruit  grows 
generally  singly  on  long  stems. 


416 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Gordal. — A  popular  pickling  olive  in   Spain,  medium  size,  early. 

Rubra. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France ;  ovate,  slightly  oblique,  looks 
a  good  deal  like  a  small  Mission  olive;  pit  straight,  pointed;  ripens  three  to 
four  weeks  earlier  than  the  common  Mission  variety;  is  of  a  jet  black  when 
ripe.  This  tree  begins  to  fruit  quite  young,  and  is  a  prolific  bearer.  Very  hardy 
and  prolific  even  in  dry  situations. 

Atroviolacea. — Medium  size,  black,  chiefly  valuable  for  oil. 

Uvaria. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  Oval,  regular,  and  rounded 
on  both  ends;  pit  straight,  heavy,  late;  later  than  the  common  Mission  olive; 
color  dark  purple  or  black  when  ripe.  The  name,  "grape-like,"  is  well  chosen, 
the  fruit  growing  in  clusters,  as  many  as  seven  together,  and  in  shape  them- 
selves resembling  the  grape.     Very  prolific. 


Mission  Olive  of  California  (single  Olive  natural  size). 


Pcndulina. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  An  even,  oval  shape, 
rounded  at  both  ends,  quite  variable  in  size,  many  fruits  remaining  small  and 
undeveloped;  pit  has  small,  sharp  points  often  at  both  ends.  Fruit  grows  in 
clusters  of  from  two  to  five;  the  pulp  parts  very  readily  with  its  bitterness. 
Larger  and  more  ovate  than  Pendoulier.  Tree  a  strong  grower;  fruit  desirable 
both  for  oil  and  pickles. 

Columbella. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  General  form,  broadly 
oval;  very  even  in  size,  remarkable  for  the  peculiar  pale  yellow  color  which  all 
the  fruit  assumes  before  turning  fully  ripe  and  becoming  dark  purple;  pit 
small,  straight  and  sharp  pointed ;  the  pulp  contains  little  bitterness ;  flavor 
very  rich;  ripens  late,  later  than  the  Broad-leaved  Mission.  Tree  hardy  in  dry 
places  and  a  prolific  bearer.     Also  called  "Columella." 

Polymorpha. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  Very  large,  ovate, 
oblique,  and  pointed;  light  colored;   pit  square  at  the  base,  strongly  pointed  at 


VARIETIES    OF    THE    OLIVE 


417 


The  Picholine,  reduced. 


the  apex;  flesh  firm;  ripens  very  early;  fruit  grows  on  strong  stems  in  clusters 
of  two  or  three.     Tree  not  a  strong  grower,  but  productive. 

Lucques. — A  variety  specially  adapted  for  pickling,  though  producing  oil  of 
good  quality;  strong-growing  tree  and  hardy;  sometimes  shy  bearer  when 
young;   fruit  shiny  black,  curved;  product  called  "Crescent  Olive," 


418 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


Nevadillo  Blanco. — Imported  by  F.  Pohndorff  from  Spain.  Oval,  slightly 
oblique,  pointed,  resembling  somewhat  a  Mission,  but  is  generally  more  elon- 
gated in  proportion  to  its  diameter  than  the  latter ;  pit  small,  curved,  and  gen- 
erally pointed  at  both  ends;  the  fruit  is  borne  in  clusters  of  three  to  five; 
ripening  not  much  earlier  than  the  Mission;  a  fine  oil  olive,  largely  planted,  but 
disappointing  in  some  regions  as  a  shy  bearer  and  subject  to  frost  injury. 


Ascolano  Olive. 


Manzanillo  Olive. 


Sevillano,  or  Queen  Olive. 


Ohlitza. — Imported  by  the  late  G.  N.  Milco  from  Dalmatia;  resembles  the 
Pendulier,  and  may  be  identical ;  fine  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley ;  very  large 
oval,  but  broad  and  rounded  at  both  ends;  grows  in  clusters;  tree  a  good 
grower,  hardy  and  productive;  fruit  excellent  for  pickles;  ripens  in  November 
in  the  interior — about  the  same  as  the  Mission. 


VARIETIES    OF    THE    OLIVE 


419 


Sc7'illano. — Recently  largely  planted  as  the  variety  exported  from  Spain 
as  the  "Queen  olive."  The  largest  of  all  olives;  only  useful  for  pickhng  ;  when 
ripe,  hluish  black;  clingstone.  Tree  a  strong  grower,  leaves  deep  green,  green- 
ish white  underneath.  Described  by  Mr.  Roeding  as  a  regular  bearer,  but 
requires  deep,  rich,  well-drained  soil  and  will  not  stand  much  cold. 

Ascolano. — "White  olive  of  Ascoli."  Very  large,  "large  as  a  French  prune 
and  much  like  one  in  shape"  (Biolctti).  Excellent  for  pickles,  but  not  desirable 
in  color  of  either  green  or  ripe  pickles. 

The  foregoing  enumeration  and  description  of  varieties  is  only 
partial  and  mainly  restricted  to  varieties  which  have  been  more 
or  less  largely  planted.  Many  more  have  been  experimentally 
fruited,  but  the  tendency  is  to  concentrate  on  very  few  which  have 
made  good  in  California  and  there  is  far  less  interest  in  varieties 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  The  following  are  the  leading 
facts^  as  to  size,  pit,  and  oil  contents  of  the  varieties  which  have 
been  most  largely  planted  and  a  few  others : 

Averages  of  Olive  varieties,  determined  at  tine  University  of  California 


VARIETY. 

Mission     

Nevadillo    Blanco 

Manzanlllo 

Redding  Picholine 

Uvaria 

Rubra 

Oblonga 

Columbella 

Pendulina 

Polymorpha 

Macrocarpa 

Regalis    

Correoiolo 

Razzo 

Frantoio    

Cucco 

Leccino    

Grossaio    

Palazzuolo 

Infrantoio 

Lucques 

Picholine 

Ascolano     

Oblitza 

Empeltre 

Sevillano 


Number  of 

Oil,  per  cent. 

Olives 

Pit,  per  cent.       in 

per  pound. 

whole  fruit. 

111.6 

17.2 

17.56 

157.3 

17.3 

19.21 

106.6 

14.7 

16.94 

398.2 

23.0 

16.18 

205.1 

25.5 

13.71 

196.1 

17.9 

18.58 

179.4 

18.7 

13.34 

114.6 

16.6 

15.59 

157.1 

13.7 

18.63 

71.9 

17.1 

15.85 

72.8 

17.5 

14.70 

112.5 

16.3 

16.37 

262.7 

2  .8 

21.15 

216.5 

24.3 

21.10 

298.9 

25.9 

24.10 

IS  2. 9 

21.1 

27.22 

245.5 

21.7 

22.45 

242.3 

25.7 

23.96 

272.1 

22.2 

29.34 

375.0 

30.0 

19.3 

192.9 

23.0 

14.81 

77.0 

17.5 

17.83 

60.6 

12.0 

16.26 

105.2 

14.6 

11.23 

111.4 

15.7 

19.86 

36.2 

14.5 

17.23 

It  should  be  remembered  that  olives  vary  in  size  according 
to  growing  conditions  which  environ  the  tree,  just  as  other  fruits 
do.  For  this  reason  the  foregoing  table  may  not  do  full  justice 
to  some  varieties,  but  relatively  it  should  be  accurate  enough  for 
most  comparative  uses. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  ORANGE 

The  orange  leads  all  the  fruits  of  California.  Near  the  close 
of  Chapter  VI  will  be  found  the  numbers  of  trees  and  value 
of  product  shipped  out  of  the  State,  upon  the  latter  of  which  the 
supremacy  of  the  orange  rests.  In  view  of  this  leadership  it 
seems  fitting  to  take  a  little  wider  range  in  the  discussion  of  the 
significance  of  the  orange  in  the  development  of  California  than 
has  been  indulged  in  the  consideration  of  other  fruits,  and  this 
is  justified  by  the  fact  that  the  orange  is  the  exponent  of  the  horti- 
cultural resources  of  the  State  and  its  attributes  in  this  direction 
are  shared  in  varying  degrees  by  the  other  fruits.  The  great- 
ness of  orange  grov/ing  in  California  becomes,  then,  in  various 
ways  the  token  of  our  advancement  in  one  of  the  highest  of  the 
agricultural  arts,  and  in  the  mastery  of  long-distance  commercial 
distribution  of  fresh  fruits.  These  achievements  are  also  a  demon- 
stration of  the  quality  of  our  agricultural  citizenship.* 

THE  ORANGE  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  WORLD 

From  the  beginning  the  orange  has  reigned  as  king  in  the  inter- 
national fruit  trade  of  the  world.  The  grape  has  always  been  and 
is  still,  greater  in  the  value  of  its  contribution  to  commerce  and 
in  the  distance  it  safely  traverses,  but  the  grape  rules  not  as  fruit, 
but  through  its  manufactured  products,  while  the  orange  carries 
its  natural  beauty,  fragrance  and  flavor  unchanged  around  the 
world.  From  the  earliest  times  the  orange  has  not  only  been 
accepted  in  northern  climes  as  a  symbol  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
salubrity  and  sumptuousness,  but  by  its  own  distinctive  charac- 
teristics as  a  fruit  it  has  won  recognition  as  befitting  the  highest 
uses  of  mankind.  By  its  nature  too  the  orange  ministers  to  its 
own  commercial  popularity.  It  endures  long  shipment ;  it  ripens 
slowly  and  through  a  season  of  several  months  which  constitute 
the  winter  in  northern  latitudes  when  local  fruits  are  scant  or 
absent  and  the  refreshment  in  the  citric  juices  most  welcome. 
The  production  of  such  a  commercial  commodity  has  from  the 
earliest  times  constituted  an  important  industry. 


*  The  Orange  Industry  "Encyclopedia  Americana,"  Scientific  American,  New 
York,  1904.  "The  Orange  in  Northern  and  Central  California,"  California  State 
Board  of  Trade,  San  Francisco,   1903,  etc.,  by  the  author. 

420 


I 


THE     ORANGE    IN     COMMERCE  421 


It  is  a  significant  fact  that  though  the  orange  thrives  in  the 
tropics  it  does  not  resent  the  sHght  touch  of  frost  which  charac- 
terizes semi-tropical  situations.  It  is  also  significant  that  the 
fruit  grown  in  semi-tropical  countries,  especially  those  which 
have  a  more  or  less  distinctly  marked  two-season  climate,  differs 
in  character  from  the  strictly  tropical  orange  and  is  firmer,  heavier, 
more  sprightly  in  flavor  and  with  much  better  keeping  and  carry- 
ing qualities.  The  tropical  orange  has  but  small  commercial  im- 
portance ;  the  semi-tropical  orange  rules  in  the  markets  of  the 
world.  That  the  semi-tropical  orange  should  have  this  distinctive 
character  is  most  fortunate,  for  it  ministers  directly  to  the  will 
for  industry  which  is  superior  in  semi-tropical  countries.  By  the 
seven  degrees  of  frost  which  the  orange  tree  will  endure  without 
injury,  it  has  gained  the  seventy  degrees  of  north  latitude  through 
which  its  fruit  freely  seeks  a  market.  Because,  though  the  tropical 
orange  would  reach  most  distant  markets  in  small  quantities,  it 
could  never  attain  the  commercial  supremacy  which  the  fruit  now 
enjoys. 

The  sweet  orange  is  a  native  of  eastern  Asia  and  was  carried 
thence  to  India  and  to  Asia  Minor.  It  possibly  reached  Portugal 
from  India  through  the  early  Portuguese  navigators.  Thus  the  dis 
tribution  of  the  fruit  was  westward.  The  history  of  modern  com- 
mercial orange  growing  consists  of  a  series  of  progressive  move-, 
ments  always  trending  westward  and  gaining  in  volume — the 
newer  centers  of  production  outstripping  the  older  and  ultimately 
largely  displacing  their  product  from  the  greatest  markets  of  the 
upper  divisions  of  the  temperate  zone.  When  the  Moors  intro- 
duced orange  growing  into  Algeria  and  Spain  they  displaced  the 
traflic  from  Asia  Minor  and  gave  the  Mediterranean  region  for 
several  hundred  years  undisputed  possession  of  the  markets  of 
the  north  of  Europe  and  possession  also  of  the  American  demand 
when  that  arose.  When  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  carried 
the  orange  to  the  West  Indies  and  to  Florida  they  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  an  industry  which  American  enterprise  developed  in 
Florida  until  that  district  not  only  contended  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean region  for  American  markets,  but  was  planning  to  invade 
northern  Europe  by  direct  shiploads  wdien  the  demonstration 
came  that  the  climate  of  northern  Florida  and  of  the  Gulf  coast 
westward  was  too  treacherous  for  commercial  ventures  in  orange 
growing — at  least  with  the  then  popular  varieties  and  methods  of 
propagation.  But  as  the  Florida  supply  failed  through  the  severe 
freezing  of  1895,  California  came  forward  and  is  now  not  onlv 
supplying  four-fifths  of  the  oranges  consumed  in  the  United  States, 
but  is  selling  the  highest  priced  oranges  in  the  London  market 
against  a  world  of  competitors. 


422 


California   fruits:    how   to   grow   them 


RELATION     OF     SOUTHERxNF     CALIFORNIA     TO     THE 
WORLD'S    ORANGE    PRODUCT 

Competition  with  the  product  of  California  is  working  hard- 
ship in  the  Mediterranean  region  because  this  region  can  more 
than  supply  Europe,  and  needs  American  markets  as  an  outlet. 
Italy  has  exported  six  million  dollars  worth  of  oranges  and  lemons 
in  a  year,  but  recently  prices  have  declined  and  the  interest  is 
depressed.  Every  efifort  is  being  made  to  secure  relief  from  local 
taxation  and  from  duties  imposed  by  north  European  countries. 
The  Spanish  product  of  oranges  and  lemons  which  ranks  next  to 
the  Italian,  has  to  meet  heavy  tariffs  in  all  countries  except  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  belief  at  Valencia  is  (U.  S.  Commercial 
Relations,  Vol.  2,  1902,  page  686)  that  the  limit  of  British  consump- 
tion of  Valencia  oranges  at  paying  rates  has  been  reached ;  in  fact, 
the  British  markets  collapsed  under  the  heavy  shipments  of  1901. 
When  it  is  stated  that  the  value  of  oranges  imported  into  the 
United  Kingdom  in  1900  was  $10,603,950,  and  such  a  free  buyer 
has  more  than  enough,  it  can  be  realized  how  important  it  is  to 
the  Mediterranean  producers  that  the  populous  countries  of  central 
Europe  should  hold  less  strictly  to  agrarian  interests  which  aim 
to  hamper  the  entrance  of  food  supplies  even  if  they  can  not 
themselves  produce  them.  Manifestly  the  American  product  can 
only  enter  such  markets  with  a  fancy  product  which  will  win  an 
extra  price,  except  as  a  little  difference  in  the  ripening  season 
may  afford  an  opportunity. 

The  commercial  position  of  the  orange  in  the  United  States 
is  also  such  as  to  awaken  apprehension.  The  present  strength 
of  the  situation  lies  in  the  protective  tariff  and  the  bcfc  noir  of 
growers  is  the  possibility  of  making  gaps  in  it  by  reciprocity  treat- 
ies. The  product  of  the  West  Indies  is  a  direct  menace  to  the 
Florida  product,  which  meets  it  in  point  of  market  season,  and  the 
Mexican  product,  which  is  undergoing  expansion  at  the  hands 
of  American  capitalists,  is  constantly  feared  by  the  California 
growers  because  the  Mexican  railway  will  give  it  quick  entrance 
to  the  great  central  States  and  consequent  advantage  in  distri- 
bution to  the  East  and  the  Northwest.  The  orange  from  the  West 
Indies  and  South  Florida  is  different  from  the  California  orange 
in  main  ripening  season  and  in  character  of  the  fruit,  but  the  dif- 
ferences do  not  give  full  relief.  With  the  late  ripening  varieties, 
the  California  grower  extends  his  shipments  into  the  autumn  and 
thus  laps  upon  the  early  fruit  from  Florida  and  Jamaica,  while  the 
parts  of  California  which  bring  earliest  maturity  to  the  fruit  are 
shipping  before  the  southern  fruit  is  cleared  away.  In  fact,  Cali- 
fornia can  keep  the  markets  supplied  with  oranges  fresh  from  the 
trees  and  in  prime  condition  the  year  around. 


WHY     CALIFORNIA     LEADS     IN     ORANGES  423 

As  to  the  difference  in  oranges  grown  under  humid  and  arid 
conditions,  the  moisture  being  supplied  by  rainfall  in  one  case 
and  by  irrigation  in  the  other,  there  has  been  shown  in  the  arid 
region*  orange  a  superior  density,  thinness  and  texture  of  rind, 
higher  sugar  and  higher  acid  percentages  and  a  more  sprightly 
or  vinous  flavor.  The  popular  conception  of  the  superior  sweet- 
ness of  the  orange  grown  in  humid  countries  is  due  not  to  a  greater 
amount  of  sugar  in  the  juice,  but  to  less  amount  of  acid.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  determinations  of  sugar  and  acid  of  fully  ripe 
Southern  California  and  Florida  navel  oranges: 


California    Navel 
Florida   Navel    . , 


Total  sugar, 

Citric  acid 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

9.99 

1.45 

7.46 

0.95 

Of  course,  the  quality  of  an  orange  is  largely  inherent  in  the 
variety,  but  all  varieties  are  similarly  changed  by  growth  under 
humid  or  arid  conditions  of  climate  and  soil,  and  this  modifica- 
tion becomes  a  factor  of  much  industrial  importance.  This  fact 
is  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  standing  of  the  Navel  orange  in 
California.  This  variety  has  been  grown  for  a  century  or  more 
as  the  chief  orange  in  Bahia,  Brazil,  whence  it  was  taken  to  Cali- 
fornia. In  Brazil  it  demonstrated  no  shipping  qualities,  and 
according  to  Burke  (  U.  S.  Special  Consular  Reports,  Vol  1,  page 
411)  would  need  to  be  picked  before  maturity  if  to  be  shipped, 
while  as  grown  in  California  and  Arizona  it  is  picked  at  full 
maturity  and  is  successfully  shipped  all  over  the  United  States 
and  to  Europe. 

Orange  growing  in  Florida  is  recovering  from  serious  reverses. 
The  product  of  1894  was  about  6,000,000  boxes.  Then  came  the 
disastrous  freezing  in  December  of  1894  and  February,  1895,  with 
a  temperature  of  14  degrees  Fahrenheit  at  Jacksonville,  and  in  the 
latter  year  only  75,000  boxes  were  shipped.  In  1907  the  product 
was  about  3,000,000  boxes,  produced  in  the  central  and  southern 
parts  of  the  State.  In  Louisiana  the  freezing  of  1895  nearly  anni- 
hilated the  citrus  fruit  interest  and  there  is  thus  far  no  disposition 
to  resume  production  on  a  commercial  scale.  In  the  southwestern 
corner  of  Arizona  there  is  a  small  orange  industry  which  is  suc- 
cessfully shipping  Navel  oranges  to  distant  markets.  Conditions 
favor  early  ripening  and  an  advantage  is  secured  by  sale  in  advance 
of  the  main  California  product.  From  California  the  shipments 
of  oranges  beyond  State  lines  in  1907  were  about  30,000  carloads 
or  12,000,000  boxes.  The  orange  industry  of  the  United  States  is 
now  largely  supplying  the  home  demand  for  the  fruit.  Imports  of 
oranges  reached  their  highest  value  in  1883  at  $3,010,662,  and  have 


^24  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

since  then  declined.     The  value  in   1907  was  $354,495 — but  little 
more  than  one-tenth  of  the  imports  of  twenty-five  years  ago. 

The  orange  industry  of  the  United  States  is  unique  in  the  high 
social  and  financial  standing  of  those  who  have  engaged  in  it,  and 
in  the  striking  features  of  its  development.  Both  in  Florida  and 
in  California  large  scale  production  was  first  undertaken  by  north- 
ern men  who  had  gained  wealth  and  had  lost  health  in  the  pursuit 
of  it.  They  brought  capital  and  commercial  ability  to  the  ventures 
which  they  exploited.  The  professional  classes  of  the  north  also 
participated  largely  in  the  work,  bringing  scholarship,  insight  and 
experience  in  organization.  There  were  a  few  also  who  possessed 
horticultural  experience,  but  the  other  classes  largely  predom- 
inated. The  result  has  been  the  development  of  an  industry  char- 
acteristically American  in  spirit  and  new  in  methods.  It  has  bor- 
rowed very  little  from  the  practices  of  old  world  orange  growers. 
Free  from  tradition  and  prejudice  it  proceeded  rapidly  upon  the 
results  of  original  investigation  and  experiment,  establishing  a 
system  of  culture  and  of  commercial  handling  of  the  product  which 
are  without  precedent  in  the  older  orange  regions  of  the  world. 

THE   ORANGE   A   STATE   AFFAIR   IN    CALIFORNIA 

Thus  far  the  discussion  has  been  based  upon  the  achievements 
of  Southern  California  and  the  effort  made  to  assign  them  due 
credit  for  greatness  and  uniqueness.  The  relation  of  Southern 
California  to  other  parts  of  the  State  in  orange  growing  is  not  less 
important  and  significant. 

Citrus  fruit  trees  have  been  successfully  grown  in  suitable  situ- 
ations in  northern  California  for  nearly  half  a  century.  There  is  a 
famous  orange  tree  at  Bidwells  Bar,  in  Butte  county,  which  was 
started  from  an  Acapulco  seed  in  Sacramento  in  1855,  and  planted 
out  in  Butte  county  in  1859,  which  has  been  generally  made  to 
stand  sponsor  for  the  demonstration  of  citrus  conditions  north  of 
the  Tehachipi  mountains  (  but  it  is  not  entitled  to  all  the  distinction 
which  has  been  heaped  upon  it.  In  the  fifties  there  were  other 
orange  and  lemon  trees  growing  in  widely  separated  northern 
localities — in  the  valleys  of  the  San  Francisco  Bay  region,  also  near 
the  rivers  and  among  the  low  foot-hills  on  both  sides  of  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley.  It  was,  even  in  early  days,  the  proper  thing  to  include 
citrus  trees  among  ornamental  dooryard  plantings  and  one  reason 
why  ^he  demonstration  at  Bidwells  Bar  was  so  widely  accepted  as 
complete,  when  it  was  brought  forward  as  a  guaranty  for  com- 
mercial planting  in  the  later  eighties,  was  because  similar  instances 
of  successful  old  trees  existed  in  many  and  widely  separated  places. 

This  question  naturally  suggests  itself:  Why,  if  such  early 
demonstration  was  had,  was  large  commercial  planting  of  the 
orange  delayed  at  the  north  until  after  southern  California  became 


I 


THE    ORANGE     IN    CENTRAL    CALIFORNIA  425 

famous  for  its  orange  product?  Several  good  reasons  can  be  ad- 
duced. In  the  first  place  a  disposition  toward  wider  planting  did 
at  one  time  arise  and  quickly  subsided.  In  the  later  seventies  when 
the  general  rush  to  fruit  growing,  which  has  resulted  in  the  present 
vast  extension  of  the  interest,  began,  citrus  fruits  were  not  over- 
looked. There  was  a  sharp  demand  for  orange  trees.  Southern 
California  nurseries  had  a  large  overstock  of  trees  budded  on  China 
lemon  roots  which  southern  California  planters  had  learned  to 
despise  as  forcing  excessive  growth  of  tree  and  large,  coarse  fruit. 
The  natural  tendency  of  such  a  root,  exaggerated  by  excessive  irri- 
gation in  the  nursery,  gave  a  stem  as  thick  as  a  broom  stick  and 
higher  than  a  man  in  a  few  months'  time,  and  these  soft  mon- 
strosities were  sent  north  by  carloads,  by  astute  tree  speculators, 
and  sold  to  unwary  planters,  who  thought  they  were  getting  a 
great  deal  for  their  money.  Such  trees  were  planted  in  all  sorts 
of  situations  and  their  broad  leaves  made  a  fine  display  as  soon  as 
planted.  There  were  fond  anticipations  of  evergreen  orchards 
everywhere  from  the  swamps  to  the  hillsides.  Then  came  the  cold 
winter  of  1878-9.  The  temperature  in  places  reasonably  situated 
was  not  very  low — not  lower  than  is  frequently  encountered  in 
southern  California  and  not  low  enough  to  injure  well  placed  old 
trees,  though  it  did  destroy  some  ill-placed  ones  and  helped  to 
define  suitable  situations  for  citrus  culture  in  the  north  as  such 
temperatures  have  also  defined  them  at  the  south.  But  the  degree 
reached  was  fatal  to  those  soft  trees  on  a  lemon  foundation  almost, 
everywhere,  and  the  disappointment  of  the  new  planters  who  based 
calculations  upon  them,  discouraged  them  from  farther  efforts  to- 
ward citrus  culture  for  some  time.  It  was  not  a  logical  conclusion 
because  a  careful  inquiry  made  after  the  frosts  in  1879  elicited 
careful  written  statements  from  sixty-nine  orange  growers,  living 
in  thirty  counties  and  fully  justified  this  conclusion,  which  was  at 
that  time  published :  "this  mass  of  testimony  shows  that  orange 
growing  is  no  longer  an  experiment  in  the  north,  and  that,  not- 
withstanding the  severe  frosts  of  such  winters  as  this,  orange  and 
lemon  trees  can  be  profitably  cultivated'  in  nearly  every  county  in 
the  State,  and  by  selecting  favorable  localities,  no  district,  except 
it  be.  situated  in  the  high  Sierra,  need  be  without  these  most  beau- 
tiful and  useful  fruits." 

But  there  was  another  and  more  logical  reason  why  the  well 
suited  lands  in  the  central  part  of  the  State  were  not  at  that  time 
given  to  citrus  fruit  culture.  Citrus  fruits  require  irrigation  every- 
where ;  deciduous  fruits,  including  the  grape,  do  not  require  irri- 
gation except  in  places  of  shallow  soil  or  light  rainfall.  Without 
waiting  for  irrigation  facilities  then,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres 
of  deep  valley  loams  were  immediately  available  for  the  planting 
of  deciduous  fruits.     The  growers  understood  these  fruits,  while 


420  CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:     tlOW     TO     GROW     THEM 

the  orange  to  an  English-speaking  people  was  an  unsolved  problem. 
The  long  list  of  deciduous  fruits  had  varieties  to  suit  the  tastes 
and  ambitions  of  all  planters  and  the  opportunity  for  selling  many 
different  fruits  and  their  different  products  seemed  illimitable. 
''The  world  for  a  market"  seemed  a  reasonable  proposition,  for  de- 
ciduous fruits  and  their  products  had  been  shipped  to  eastern 
markets  since  the  first  overland  railway  was  opened  in  1868,  and 
very  large  prices  were  attained,  just  often  enough  to  be  alluring. 
No  citrus  fruits  had  been  shipped  out  of  the  State  on  a  commercial 
scale,  and  no  one  knew  that  they  could  be,  profitably.  The  central 
and  northern  districts  threw  their  full  strength  into  the  deciduous 
fruit  interest  and  the  result  has  justified  the  effort,  for,  at  the  pres- 


Cover   Crop   in   Orange   Orchard   of  Mr.  W.   M.   Bristol,   East   Highlands. 

ent  time,  the  annual  shipments  of  deciduous  orchard  fruits  fresh 
dried  and  canned;  the  grape,  both  fresh,  as  raisins  and  as  wine  and 
brandy,  has  reached  a  total  value  of  about  forty  millions  of  dol- 
lars— almost  all  of  it  from  the  regions  of  California  north  of  the 
Tehachipi  mountains.  The  engrossing  requirements  of  this  grandly 
successful  undertaking  gave  northern  growers,  packers  and  capi 
talists  no  leisure  to  think  seriously  of  citrus  fruit  planting — that 
was  left  for  a  decade  and  a  half  to  the  special  attention  of  the 
southern   California   people,   and   they   developed   it   splendidly   for 


PRECOCITY    OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE 


427 


the  settlement  and  upbuilding  of  their  portion  of  the  State — reach- 
ing a  total  value  of  product  sold  beyond  State  lines,  of  about 
eighteen  millions  of  dollars.  The  chief  reason,  then,  why,  although 
citrus  adaptations  were  demonstrated  very  early  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  State,  the  commercial  planting  was  largely  postponed  to  the 


Early  Bearing  of  Budded  Orange  Tree  in  California. 

present  decade,  was  that  the  people  were  too  busy  developing  a 
greater  fruit  industry  to  which  their  conditions  were  superlatively 
suited.  -_-_ _„ 


During  the  last  few  years  new  interest  has  arisen  in  citrus  fruit 
growing  in  northern  California  and  all  the  scattered  experiences 
of  the  last  half  century  are  becoming  of  inestimable  value  in  guid- 
ing this  planting  aright.  There  are  several  important  reasons  why 
the  north  has  now  turned  to  the  orange. 


428 


THE    ORANGE    IN    CENTRAL    CALIFORNIA 


429 


First :  Deciduous  fruit  production  has  reached  large  volumes, 
margins  have  become  reduced  to  those  which  assert  themselves  in 
any  well  established  and  extensive  industry,  and  some  of  the  early 
glamour  has  gone  out  of  it  It  will  henceforth  proceed  soberly, 
and  consequently  safely,  to  grand  aggregates  which  no  one  can 
foresee,  but  it  is  readily  demonstrable  that  with  the  present  rush 
of  population  to  the  more  wintry  districts  of  the  Pacific  slope,  the 
opening  of  Asiatic  connections  and  the  victories  being  attained 
each  year  in  the  distant  East  and  in  Europe,  our  production  of 
deciduous  fruits  and  their  products  will  go  steadily  forward.  In- 
creased interest  in  citrus  fruit  planting  in  northern  California  is  in 
no  sense  a  menace  to  the  deciduous  fruit  industry.  It  is  merely  a 
new  graft  upon  a  very  vigorous  industrial  stock. 

Second :  Owing  to  natural  conditions  which  will  be  briefly 
explained  presently,  orange  growing  can  be  pursued  at  the  north 
without  competition  with  the  main  crop  in  southern  California. 
The  northern  California  crop  will  be  consumed  before  the  bulk 
of  the  southern  crop  moves  from  the  trees. 

Third :  All  California  oranges  have  characteristics  and  quali- 
ties which  are  recognized  as  of  distinctive  excellence,  and  therefore 
have  a  commercial  advantage,  which,  under  a  wise  system  of  pro- 
tection against  free  entry  of  cheap  tropical  fruit,  enables  them  to 
compensate  the  high  grade  American  labor  which  is  employed  in 
their  growth,  packing  and  marketing,  and  leave  a  reasonable  return 
to  require  the  grower's  efifort  and  investment.  This  being  so,  the 
production,  so  long  as  protection  is  continued,  justifies  extension 
of  the  efifort  to  produce  an  American  orange  for  Americans. 

Fourth  :  Semi-tropical  fruits  are  nature's  demonstration  of  the 
existence  in  a  place  of  a  climate  which  promotes  health,  comfort 
and  a  maximum  of  physical  and  intellectual  attainment  in  mankind. 
Probably  all  that  is  urged  against  tropical  climates  as  enervating 
and  depressing  of  human  standards  is  true,  but  not  a  word  of  it 
applies  to  an  arid  semi-tropical  climate,  in  which  the  blessing  of 
dry  air  and  freedom  from  the  debilitating  effect  of  temperature 
extremes  rejuvenate  the  old  and  weary  and  bring  the  young  to 
stature  and  stalwartness  which  all  newcomers  notice  in  the  rising 
generation  of  Californians.  Of  the  existence  of  such  conditions 
a  well-grown  orange  of  the  California  type  is  unimpeachable  evi- 
dence. It  has  brought  a  hundred  thousand  people  and  a  hundred 
millions  of  capital  to  southern  California  which  would  not  have 
come  otherwise.  In  the  conscious  strength  with  which  northern 
California  has  recently  awakened  to  make  systematic  effort  for 
settlement  and  development,  the  orange  is  accepted  as  an  exponent 
of  the  possession  of  those  natural  characters  of  sky  and  air  and 
soil,  constituting  the  most  desirable  environments  of  human  life — 
the  highest  desirability  in  the  location  of  a  home. 


430  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Fifth :  It  is  but  a  corollary  of  the  foregoing  that  the  successful 
and  profitable  production  of  citrus  fruits  is  par  excellence  the 
motive  force  in  promoting  colony  efforts  and  in  drawing  into  hor- 
ticulture the  class  of  people  which  constitutes  the  most  desirable 
element  in  the  upbuilding  of  a  great  State — people  who  know  what 
is  noble  and  desirable  in  human  life  and  desire  it  for  their  children  ; 
people  who  know  how  to  secure  what  their  aspirations  and  tastes 
approve;  people  who  by  intellectual  force  and  training  and  by  suc- 
cessful professional  and  industrial  experience  are  prepared  for  at- 
tainment in  the  higher  horticultural  arts  and  in  the  new  commer- 
cial efforts  which  make  those  arts  profitable.  The  splendid  devel- 
opment of  southern  California  communities  upon  a  horticultural 
basis  points  the  way  to  achievements  in  other  suitable  parts  of  the 
State,  and  the  citrus  fruits  become  then  the  token,  not  alone  of 
superior  natural  endowments,  but  of  the  type  of  manhood  which 
can  use  them  to  the  best  advantage.  None  know  this  better  than 
the  southern  California  people  themselves,  and  it  is  a  demonstra- 
tion of  the  desirability  both  of  the  natural  resources  of  northerr 
California  in  citrus  lines  and  of  citrus  fruit  culture  itself,  that  in 
all  the  newer  citrus  regions  at  the  north,  there  are  to  be  found 
among  the  leading  planters  and  promoters,  southern  Californians 
who  have  sold  their  early  plantings  at  the  south  at  high  prices  to 
newer  comers  and  have  started  anew  in  the  northern  districts, 
where  they  find  cheaper  land,  more  abundant  water  supply  and 
fruit  which  is  marketed  at  an  earlier  date. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  CITRUS  CONDITIONS  IN 
CALIFORNIA 

The  claim  has  been  made  above  that  citrus  culture  conditions 
.exist  in  suitable  situations  in  central  and  northern  California  from 
Shasta  to  San  Diego  county,  and  historical  evidence  has  been  cited 
to  prove  it.  It  is  so  surprising  that  practically  the  same  climate 
should  be  found  through  a  distance  of  between  seven  and  eighr 
degrees  of  latitude  that  many,  even  of  those  who  have  lived  in 
California,  do  not  appreciate  the  fact,  nor  know  the  explanation  of 
it.  An  effort  is  made  toward  such  explanation  in  Chapter  I  of  this 
work.  Even  at  the  risk  of  repetition  the  subject  will  be  reviewed 
with  special  reference  to  the  occurrence  of  conditions  affecting  the 
growth  of  citrus  fruits. 

First:  California  is  not  only  blessed  with  benign  ocean  influ- 
ences, but  northern  California  is  additionally  protected  from  low 
winter  temperatures  by  the  mountain  barrier  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
extending  southward  from  the  multiplied  masses  of  protecting 
elevations  in  the  Shasta  region,  while  southern  California  enjoys 
the  protection  of  the  Sierra  Madre  and  other  uplifts  on  the  north 


CALIFORNIA    CITRUS    CONDITIONS  43;[ 

and  east  of  her  citrus  region.  Northern  blizzards  are,  therefore, 
held  back  from  entrance  to  California  and  are  forced  to  confine 
themselves  to  southerly  and  easterly  directions  over  the  interior 
parts  of  the  Pacific  slope,  while  the  great  blizzards  of  the  north- 
west traverse  the  Mississippi  valley  and,  if  they  have  sufficient 
impetus,  extend  to  the  gulf  and  carry  destruction  to  semi-tropical 
growths  even  in  northern  Florida.  The  ocean  then  bringing 
warmth  and  the  high  mountains  defending  against  cold,  combine 
their  influences  to  give  nearly  the  whole  length  of  California  semi- 
tropical  winter  temperatures. 

I  Second:  Although  this  striking  similarity  does  exist,  in  citrus 
idistricts  north  and  south,  there  is  another  even  more  startling 
jproposition  involved  and  that  is  the  influence  exerted  by  the 
presence  of  the  coast  range  as  the  western  boundary  of  the  great 
interior  valley  of  the  State,  and  intervening  between  that  great 
valley  and  the  ocean.  The  several  ridges  of  the  coast  range  with 
their  enclosed  small  valleys  serve  as  a  colossal  wind-break  against 
northwest  winds,  which  might  otherwise,  now  and  again,  bring 
a  temperature  too  low  for  citrus  fruits,  where  now  they  are  safe 
from  injury.  The  chief  effect  of  these  mountains  is  to  protect  the 
northern  interior  valleys  and  foot-hills  from  the  raw  winds  of  early 
springtime  and  to  allow  the  sun  as  he  crosses  each  day  higher 
in  his  course,  to  expend  the  increasing  heat  directly  in  promot- 
ing vernal  verdure.  The  result  is  a  protected  interior  region  in 
central  and  northern  California,  of  quick  growth  in  all  lines — early 
pasturage,  early  grain  harvest  and  early  fruit  ripening.  The  valleys 
of  southern  California,  which  have  thus  far  been  largely  developed,, 
have  no  high  range  between  them  and  the  ocean.  They  are  open 
on  the  west  because  the  coast  range  of  mountains  takes  a  sharp 
turn  eastward  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State  and  afterward 
curves  southward,  passing  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  chief 
productive  region.  The  influence  of  this  opening  of  the  valleys  of 
southern  California  is  not  so  unfavorable  as  such  opening  would 
be  at  the  north,  because  ocean  winds  are  gentler  and  warmer  there, 
and  there  is  winter  service  rendered  by  this  eastward  trend  of  the 
southern  California  mountains,  as  has  been  said,  but  the  fact 
remains  that  the  absence  of  high  barriers  against  ocean  influences 
retards  the  springtime  and  causes  a  slow  development  of  summer 
conditions  and  late  ripening  of  fruits,  while  the  presence  of  high 
barriers  at  the  north  so  hastens  springtime  and  summer  heat,  that 
early  summer  fruits  in  California  are  shipped  from  the  north  to  the 
south — a  thing  v/hich  does  not  occur  anywhere  else  in  the  northern 
hemisphere.  It  is  due  to  this  same  early  start  which  the  local 
topography  gives  to  the  orange,  followed  by  the  high  summer 
heat  which  is  essential  to  the  development  of  a  good  orange,  that 
the  orange  reaches  an  acceptable  commercial  condition  at  an  earlier 


432  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

date  in  suitable  interior  places  at  the  north  and  is  at  present  being 
almost  wholly  shipped  to  eastern  markets  before  free  movement 
begins  at  the  south.  This  early  marketing  also  relieves  the  growers 
of  much  anxiety  and  costly  frost  fighting,  because  the  fruit,  which 
is  always  more  susceptible  to  injury  than  the  tree,  is  out  of  the 
way  before  the  frost  period,  which  usually  begins  about  Christmas, 
is  reached. 

There  is  in  southern  California,  east  of  the  mountains,  a  district 
which  has  thus  far  been  but  scantily  developed  where  protection 
from  ocean  influences  tends  to  early  ripening  of  fruits.  The  same 
is  true  of  some  parts  of  Arizona  adjacent,  and  small  quantities 
of  early  fruits  move  westward  and  northward  from  that  region. 
That  region  is  not  in  view  in  this  discussion,  for  too  little  has 
been  accomplished  in  citrus  lines  to  warrant  conclusions  which 
the  present  confident  planting  in  that  part  of  the  State  will  soon 
supply. 

Third :  Still  another  feature  of  local  topography  must  bd 
mentioned  as  influencing  citrus  conditions  north  and  south  and 
explaining  why  winter  temperature  has  fallen  no  lower  at  the 
north  than  at  the  south.  At  the  north  the  snow  fields  of  the  high 
mountains  are  farther  from  the  valleys  and  mesas,  where  citrus 
fruits  are  grown,  than  they  are  at  the  south.  The  benches  and  low 
foot-hills  of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  for  instance,  are  forty  to  fifty 
miles  from  the  high  range  to  the  east  of  them  and  there  intervene 
countless  ridges  of  high  foot-hills  and  small  valleys,  and  before 
the  citrus  plantations  can  be  reached  by  the  descending  air  currents 
they  are  considerably  warmed  by  rustling  over  so  much  land  which 
has  been  warmed  by  the  ample  winter  sunshine.  From  many  of 
the  southern  citrus  regions  one  looks  almost  directly  upward  and 
outward  upon  the  grand  snow-clad  mountains,  whose  crests  are 
but  fifteen  to  twenty-five  miles  away.  It  is  a  splendid  scenic 
effect — ripening  oranges  and  dazzling  snow  fields  in  the  same 
glance  of  the  eye,  but  it  is  sometimes  not  so  grand  as  a  pomo- 
logical  proposition. 

Fourth :  Another  protective  influence  for  citrus  fruit  trees  dur- 
ing the  frosty  period  of  December  and  January,  is  the  low  canopy 
of  land  fog  which  covers  the  interior  valley  of  central  and  northern 
California  much  of  the  time  at  that  season  of  the  year  and  checks 
the  radiation  of  ground  heat,  which  is  apt  to  take  place  rapidly 
under  a  clear  sky.  Though  the  nights  are  thus  often  protected 
from  frosts,  the  day  temperature  is  held  low,  which  is  also  oi 
account,  because  the  citrus  trees  are  held  dormant,  which  is  desii 
able,  as  there  is  no  fruit  to  ripen.  On  the  other  hand,  the  highei 
day  temperature  in  southern  California  is  valuable  in  that  districi 
because  the  later  fruit  is  still  maturing.     The  winter  aspects  of  th( 


THE    ORANGE    OUTLOOK 


433 


I 


trees  in  northern  and  southern  California  are  therefore  quite  dif- 
feren-t :  in  the  north,  the  dark  green  of  dormancy ;  in  the  south,  the 
gold  of  the  fruit  and  the  oft-protuding  light  green  of  the  winter 
wood  growth.  In  both  regions  all  growth  conditions  seem  good  : 
each  after  its  own  kind,  and  the  two,  in  a  sense,  complementary. 

In  1910  the  outlook  is  for  rapid  extension  of  the  orange  product, 
particularly  in  the  suitable  lands  on  the  eastern  rims  of  the  San 
Joaquin  and  Sacramento  valleys.  The  orange  product  of  the  north- 
ern district  is  about  one-eighth  of  the  southern  and  will  increase 
rapidly,  for  of  about  two  million  trees  now  growing,  only  half 
have  attained  bearing  age  and  planting  is  still  being  freely  under- 
taken. Three-quarters  of  all  the  trees  north  of  the  Tehachipi 
mountains  are  in  the  citrus  districts  of  eastern  Tulare  county. 


THE  GENERAL  OUTLOOK  FOR  THE  ORANGE 

At  the  present  time  orange  growing  has  a  very  promising  out- 
look. The  prospect  for  much  larger  consumption,  at  the  east  and 
abroad,  is  very  encouraging.  The  orange  is  passing  from  its  old 
status  as  a  luxury  to  its  proper  recognition  as  a  staple  winter  fruit 
for  dwellers  in  cold  climates.  For  such  use  the  agreeable  acid 
and  sprightly  flavor  of  the  California  fruit  especially  commend  it. 
The  consumption  of  the  fruit  per  capita,  away  from  California, 
is  still  small  and  will  be  greatly  increased  when  people  know 
better  its  desirability  and  the  reasonable  prices  at  which  it  can 
be  secured.  This  wider  distribution  is  to  be  confidently  expected 
and  the  rapid  increase  in  population  through  the  great  west  and 
north  is  each  year  giving  California  growers  nearer  markets  of 
growing  consumptive  capacity.  It  will  be  of  great  advantage  tc 
the  whole  country,  as  well  as  to  California,  to  have  production 
steadily  increased. 

The  development  of  the  orange  industry  in  California  to  utilize 
the  splendid  natural  adaptations  which  have  been  discussed,  to 
make  good  the  large  investments  which  have  been  made,  and  to 
afiford  a  field  for  the  profitable  employment  of  the  high  quality  of 
American  citizenship  which  has  entered  the  list  of  producers,  sev- 
eral things  are  essential.  First,  the  advancement  of  horticultural 
art  and  science.  Second,  the  maintenance  of  the  protective  tariff, 
as  has  already  been  suggested.  Third,  the  extension  of  co-opera- 
tive handling  and  distribution  of  the  product  as  now  embodied 
in  the  successful  operation  of  the  California  Fruit  Growers'  Ex- 
change and  its  auxiliaries  in  all  the  producing  districts.  Fourth, 
the  pursuit  of  systematic  and  intelligent  inquiry  and  experiments 
into  the  durability  of  the  fruit  in  transit  as  affected  by  cultural 
and  commercial  practices,  and  the  reformation  of  policies  and 
methods   in  accordance  with  the  results  of  such   investigation  as 


434  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

conducted  by  Mr.  ,G.  Harold  Powell  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  his  associates.  Every  j^rower  of  oranges 
should    familiarize    himself    with    this    work.''' 


SOILS    AND    SITUATIONS     FOR    THE     ORANGE 

While  citrus  conditions  do  exist  through  large  areas  of  Cali- 
fornia, there  is  still  danger  of  loss  and  disappointment  through 
unwary  individual  investments  and  unwise  locations  of  citrus 
colony  enterprises.  The  tracts  of  land  for  orange  planting  even  in 
a  favorable  citrus  climate  are  limited  in  area  and  every  citrus 
climate  has  numerous  places  where  local  meteorological  conditions 
will  prove  destructive  to  the  profit  of  the  enterprise,  if  not  to  the 
life  of  the  trees.  The  orange  is  a  hardy  tree,  judged  within  its 
temperature  limits,  but  there  is  no  money  in  a  tree  which  is  sub- 
jected to  any  kind  of  hardship.  For  this  reason  the  selection  of 
a  good  depth  of  strong,  free  loam  should  be  made,  for  such  is 
essential  not  only  to  good  growth  of  the  young  tree,  but  to  its 
support  through  the  long  productive  life  which  the  orange  enjoys. 
Depth  of  good  soil  is  not  only  a  storehouse  of  plant  food,  which 
will  postpone  the  use  of  purchased  fertilizers,  but  it  is  a  reservoir 
of  water  so  that  irrigation  can  be  applied  in  larger  amounts  at 
longer  intervals.  While  it  is  quite  possible  to  grow  an  orange 
tree  and  to  secure  good  fruit  on  shallower  soils,  if  conditions  are 
kept  just  right  by  frequent  use  of  water  and  fertilizers  in  just  the 
right  amounts,  such  conditions  impose  heavy  burdens  in  their 
constant  requirements  of  extra  care  and  expenditure,  and  these 
are  handicaps  of  no  small  economic  importance.  The  tree  can  not 
live  upon  climate  as  a  man  may,  because  a  tree  can  not  speculate ; 
it  must  have  a  good  foundation  in  the  earth  as  well  as  a  good 
outlook  in  the  sky. 

Growing  orange  trees  on  defective  soils  has  brought  disap- 
pointment and  loss  in  all  parts  of  California.  Ample  supplies  of 
irrigation  water  available  have  encouraged  over-irrigation  where 
trees  have  been  planted  above  hardpan,  and  drainage  is  absent. 
Dying-back  and  yellow  leaf  have  appeared  in  some  groves  and 
have  been  accounted  for  by  digging  to  find  the  roots  bedded  ii 
mud  and  slush.  All  plantings  over  clay  sub-soils  should  be  guarded 
against  this  danger.  Digging  deep  holes  and  filling  them  with  good 
soil  is  setting  a  trap  for  the  future  failure  of  the  tree  unless  the 
deep  hole  is  properly  drained  by  the  nature  of  the  su1)-soil  or  by 
artificial  provision.  On  the  other  hand,  planting  over  a  gravelly 
sub-soil  is  often  disappointing,  because  the  water  passes  through 
the  sub-soil  as  through  a  sieve  and  the  tree  shows  distress  although 

*  "The  Decay  of  Oranges  While  in  Transit  from  California,"  by  G.  Harold 
Powell,  Pomologist  in  charge  of  Fruit  Transportation  and  Storage.  Bulletin  12.S, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.   S.  Dept.   of  Agr.,  Washington,   D.   C,   1908. 


I 


SITUATIONS    FOR    THE    ORANGE 


435 


generous  amounts  are  applied  to  the  surface.  Wide  observation 
through  the  State  teaches  that  such  warnings  are  needed  by  the 
unwary.  There  has  also  been  injury  to  trees  from  planting  over 
sub-soils  carrying  excess  of  lime.* 

Local  temperature  conditions  even  in  sections  generally  suited  to 
orange  culture  should  be  carefully  ascertained.  Frosty  places  must 
be  avoided.  A  few  feet  difference  in  elevation  may  change  profit 
to  loss,  but  one  must  not  therefore  draw  the  hasty  conclusion  that 
all  small  elevations  are  favorable.  The  experience  of  the  last  few 
years  shows  that  nothing  is.  on  the  whole,  more  dangerous  than 
the  warm  bottom  land  in  a  small  elevated  valley  which  seems  natur- 
ally protected  on  all  sides.  There  are  many  such  places  which  are 
far  more  treacherous  than  the  uplands  of  the  broad  valleys,  which 
may  be  considerably  lower.  The  benches  around  the  sides  of  the 
small  valley  may  be  safe  and  the  bottom  of  the  same  valley  dan- 
gerous because  there  is  no  adequate  outflow  for  cold  air  to  the 
large  valley  below.  Look  out  for  small  valleys  which  have  divides 
of  crumpled  hills  where  they  debouch  into  the  main  valley.  Cold 
•air  can  be  dammed  and  held  back;  consequently  the  low  land  of 
a  small  valley  may  be  worse  than  lower  land  in  the  main  valley, 
because  in  the  latter  there  are  air  currents  which  prevent  accumu- 
lation of  cold  air  in  particular  places.  These  air  movements  make 
some  plantings  on  the  upper  plains  of  the  main  valley  safe,  though 
the  whole  region  may  seem  to  the  eye  rather  flat  and  low,  but,  of 
course,  broad  sinks  of  the  main  valley  may  also  be  dangerous.  Too 
great  elevations  are  to  be  guarded  against.  Where  one  approaches 
the  reach-down  of  mountain  temperatures  and  loses  the  warming 
influences  of  the  valley  mesas,  the  danger  line  is  at  hand. 

An  ample  water  supply  is  essential.  Small  waterings  which  may 
bring  satisfactory  growth  to  a  young  tree  are  no  measure  of  the 
needs  of  a  bearing  tree.  The  orange  is  using  water  all  the  year, 
as  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  Irrigation.  Its  crop  requires  nearly 
a  year  to  reach  maturity.  Both  in  leaf  growth  and  fruit  growth  it 
nearly  doubles  the  activity  of  the  decidous  tree  and  all  the  time  it 
is  pumping  water  with  its  roots  and  pouring  forth  water  into  the 
air  through  its  exposed  surfaces.  No  investment  in  orange  planting 
can  be  profitable  without  assurance  of  adequate  water  supply. 

PROPAGATION    OF    THE    ORANGE 

The  orange  is  grown  from  cuttings,  layers,  and  seeds.  Growth 
from  the  seed  is  the  method  almost  exclusively  followed,  and  by 
far  the  best,  but  the  others  will  be  mentioned  briefly. 

Growth  from  Cuttings. — This  method  of  propagation  is  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  on  Propagation. 

*  "Marly  Subsoils  and  Chlorosis  of  Citrus  Trees,"  by  E.  W.  Hllgard.  Circular  27, 
University   Experiment   Station,    Berlteley. 


436 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


Growth  from  Layers. — The  orange  roots  readily  by  layering,  the 
drooping  branches  being  partly  cut  through,  buried  in  the  soil  with 
the  terminal  shoot  above  the  ground.  Layers  must  be  kept  moist. 
Layering  may  be  employed  to  obtain  a  few  plants  easily,  but,  other- 
wise, it  cuts  no  figure  in  propagation.  Layers  and  cuttings,  of 
course,  reproduce  the  original  variety  without  recourse  to  budding. 

Growth  from  Seed. — The  orange  is  grown  upon  seedlings  of 
the  common  or  sweet  orange;  the  bitter  orange  or  orange  of  Seville, 
generally  called  ''Florida  sour  stock,"  and  of  the  Pomelo  or  Grape 
Fruit.  Good  plump  seed  should  be  selected  in  growing  orange 
seedlings  either  for  their  own  fruitage  or  to  use  as  stocks  for 
budding. 

When  seedlings  for  fruiting  are  grown,  select  seed  from  a  choice 
variety  in  a  situation  where  other  citrus  species  are  not  grown ; 
but  the  orange  can  not  be  trusted  to  come  true  from  seed,  and, 
more  than  this,  the  seedling  class  for  fruiting  purposes  has  been 
practically  abandoned  as  unprofitable  to  plant,  though  fruit  from 
old  seedling  trees  is  occasionally  sold  at  a  profit. 

In  securing  seed  the  fruit  is  allowed  to  rot  and  when  thoroughly 
decayed,  it  is  pulped  by  mashing  in  a  barrel,  and  the  mass  is 
washed,  a  little  at  a  time,  on  a  coarse  sieve,  the  pulp  passing 
through,  and  the  seed  being  caught  on  the  wires,  and  pieces  of  skin 
thrown  out.  The  plump  seed  will  sink  if  thrown  into  water,  and 
the  imperfect  can  be  skimmed  from  the  top.  The  seed  should  never 
be  allowed  to  dry,  and  unless  it  is  to  be  sown  at  once,  should  be 
stored  by  mixing  with  moist  sand,  from  which  it  can  be  afterwards 
removed  by  sifting;  or  it  can  be  kept  for  a  time  in  water,  changing 
the  water  from  time  to  time  to  prevent  souring.  The  best  time 
for  sowing  orange  seed  is  after  the  ground  has  become  warm  in 
the  spring. 

Orange  seedlings  are  grown  either  in  boxes  or  in  the  open 
ground.  In  either  case  a  rich  sandy  loam  which  will  not  bake 
should  be  secured  or  artificially  made  by  mixing  sand  with  rich 
garden  loam.  Boxes  of  about  two  square  feet  area  and  six  inches 
deep  are  convenient  to  handle.  The  bottom  should  have  holes,  or 
sufficient  crevices  for  good  drainage.  Fill  the  boxes  about  four 
inches  with  the  prepared  soil,  place  the  seeds  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  apart  each  way,  and  sift  over  them  about  an  inch  of  the  soil., 
or  a  little  less  of  the  soil,  and  a  layer  of  clear  sand  if  it  is  at  hand. 
It  is  essential  that  the  soil  should  be  kept  moist,  and  light  sprinkling 
daily  or  every  other  day  with  water  that  has  been  warmed  by 
standing  in  the  sun,  is  desirable.  Seed  can  be  sown  in  boxes  in  the 
house  at  any  time,  if  plenty  of  light  and  heat  are  given.  If  the 
boxes  are  to  be  out-of-doors,  it  is  best  to  sow  in  the  spring,  and 
to  rip  up  a  cover  of  cheap  cotton  cloth,  suspended  about  a  foot 
above  the  surface,  to  prevent  effect  of  frost  at  night,  and  of  burning 


I 


THE    ORANGE    NURSERY 


437 


by  sun  heat  by  clay.  The  seedlings  usually  appear  in  about  six 
weeks,  and  with  good  care  in  weeding  and  keeping  sufficiently,  but 
not  excessively,  moist,  they  will  make  a  growth  of  about  a  foot 
the  first  season.  Some  growers  collect  the  boxes  in  a  sheltered 
place,  and  build  over  them  a  lath  house,  tacking  on  old  sacks  or 
other  cloth,  to  shield  from  sun  and  frost.  The  lath  house  keeps 
^nimals  from  running  over  the  boxes,  etc. 

Growing  seedlings  in  an  open  bed  involves  about  the  same  oper- 
ations. To  guard  against  intrusion,  it  is  advisable  to  make  board 
sides  to  the  bed  about  a  foot  high,  and  to  make  lath  frames  which 
will  reach  across,  resting  on  the  edge  boards.  A  cloth  sun-and-frost 
shade  is  also  desirable,  to  be  laid  over  the  lath  frames  when  it 
seems  needed.  Beds  should  be  made  narrow  enough  so  that  one 
can  easily  reach  half  way  across  from  each  of  the  long  sides  for 
weeding,  etc.  In  open  seed  beds  it  is  usual  to  sow  the  seed  broad- 
cast. 

The  Orange  Nursery. — Planting  out  in  nursery  is  usually  done 
after  the  ground  is  thoroughly  warmed  in  the  spring,  and  the  seed- 
lings are  then  about  a  year  old.  The  preparation  of  nursery  ground 
and  the  planting  out  of  the  seedlings  can  be  done  as  described  in 


a  b  c 

Root  systems  of  seedlings, 
a  Florida  sour.  b  Pomelo.  c  Sweei  seedling. 


438 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Chapter  VIII.  Orange  seedlings  should,  however,  be  given  greater 
distance  apart  than  is  usual  for  deciduous  trees,  because  the  orange 
remains  longer  in  nursery,  and  because  it  is  often  desirable,  when 
taking  up,  to  sack  the  ball  of  earth  embracing  the  roots.  If  the 
roots  are  not  to  be  sacked,  about  nine  inches  will  do  between  the 
plants ;  if  to  be  sacked,  the  distance  should  be  twice  as  great.  The 
rows  should  not  be  too  close  in  the  orange  nursery.  If  horse  cul- 
tivation is  to  be  used,  at  least  four  feet  between  the  rows  should  be 
allowed,  and  even  greater  distance  is  desirable.  In  taking  the  seed- 
lings from  the  seed  beds,  a  few  should  be  lifted  at  a  time,  and  their 
roots  kept  shaded  and  moist  until  the  ground  closes  on  them  in 
the  nursery  row.  To  get  an  even  stand  in  the  nursery,  small  and 
weak  plants  should  be  placed  by  themselves,  or  set  in  boxes  to  take 
another  year  before  going  into  nursery. 

Young  trees  in  nursery  are  very  liable  to  frost  injury,  and  it 
is  wise  to  protect  them  by  some  sort  of  a  cover  during  the  winter. 
A  framework  covered  with  cypress  brush  is  often  used,  the  wliole 
being  cleared  away  in  the  spring,  to  allow  of  summer  cultivation. 
Cultivation  of  trees  in  nursery  is  about  the  same  as  with  deciduous 
fruit  trees.  The  horse  should  be  used,  and  the  surface  kept  per- 
fectly pulverized.     The  cultivator  should  follow  irrigation  as  soon 


Bearing  Pomelo  budded  to  orange:    leaving  side  branch 
to  keep  up  circulation. 

as  the  soil  will  admit  of  it.  Frequency  of  irrigation  of  nursery 
depends,  of  course,  upon  local  conditions.  Some  give  two  or  three 
irrigations,  by  running  the  water  in  a  little  trench  alongside  the 
rows,  at  intervals  of  two  weeks,  for  a  time  after  planting,  and  then 
irrigate  once  a  month  during  the  summer.  It  is  important  that 
irrigation  should  not  be  continued  too  late  into  the  fall,  because 


BUDDING    AND    GRAFTING    ORANGES 


439 


the  young  tree  should  harden  its  wood  before  cold  weather.  Nor 
is  it  desirable  that  the  growth  be  too  rapid.  A  good  growth  o£ 
sound  wood  is  better  than  extra  size.  • 

Length  of  Time  in  Nursery. — Seedlings  are  usually  budded  after 
being  one  or  two  years  in  the  nursery,  or  at  two  to  three  years 
from  the  planting  of  the  seed.  At  a  convenient  time  in  the  winter 
the  lower  shoots  and  thorns  are  removed  from  the  seedlings,  so 
as  to  leave  a  clear  stem  of  about  six  inches  for  the  convenience  of 
the  budder. 

BUDDING   THE    ORANGE 

The  orange  root  is  the  best  foundation  for  an  orange  tree,  and 
the  seedling  sweet  orange  has  been  the  main  reliance.  The  seed- 
ling of  the  Florida  sour  orange  has  been  used  to  some  extent  to 
escape  gum  disease.  It  has  not  been  entirely  free,  though  conceded 
to  be  less  subject  to  the  trouble.  Oranges  have  also  been  worked 
upon  pomelo  seedlings,  which  force  a  strong  growth,  root  deeply 
and  are  satisfactory.  Qf  course  many  lemon,  and  recently  many 
pomelo  trees,  have  been  worked  over  to  the  orange,  but  in  these 
cases  the  orange  root  was  below  the  other  wood.  All  lemon  roots 
are  not  suitable  for  the  orange.  The  Japanese  practice  of  dwarfing 
with  the  citrus  trifoliata  has  never  prevailed  in  this  State.  Recently 
the  trifoliata  stock  has  been  used  considerably  to  secure  earlier 
ripening  of  fruit,  and  the  tree  claimed  to  be  sufficiently  free  growing, 
but  experience  favors  the  other  roots  for  standard  trees. 


Orange  top  on  lemon  trees  eighteen  months  after  budding. 


440 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Budding  is  almost  exclusively  adopted  for  working  in  desirable 
varieties.  The  best  time  to  bud  is  about  the  time  the  new  growth 
starts  on  the  seedling  in  the  spring,  though  some  practice  budding 
in  midsummer  and  fall.  Good,  well-matured  buds  only  should  be 
used;  those  from  both  base  and  tip  of  the  shoots  are  frequently 
defective.  The  method  of  budding  described  in  Chapter  IX  is  that 
usually  employed  in  budding  citrus  trees,  and  the  rules  for  loosen- 
ing the  ligature,  etc.,  are  similar.  Midsummer  buds  are  apt  to  have 
soft  growth  at  the  coming  of  cold  weather;  fall  buds  remain  dor- 
mant until  spring;  spring  buds  start  to  grow  almost  immediately, 
and  have  the  benefit  of  the  whole  summer  season  for  growth  and 
maturing  of  wood. 

After  the  bud  has  started  out  well,  the  top  of  the  stock  should 
be  removed  at  a  short  distance  above  the  bud,  and  suckers  on  the 
old  stock  should  be  continually  looked  for  and  removed.  The  tender 
shoot  of  the  bud  may  be  protected  by  tying  to  the  stub,  and  when 
the  growth  of  the  bud  has  become  strong  enough  to  support  itself, 
the  old  stock  is  smoothly  sawn  away  above  the  bud  and  the  wound 
covered  with  liquid  grafting  wax,  or  paint. 

The  care  of  budded  trees  in  nursery  is  similar  to  that  of  the  seed- 
lings of  the  previous  year.  If  too  great  a  tendency  to  branch  low 
down  is  observed,  the  tips  of  the  lower  shoots  should  be  pinched, 
but  it  is  not  desirable  to  underprune  much;  the  retention  of  the 
lower  branches  thickens  the  stem.  Sometimes  a  very  rank  growth 
on  the  bud  will  need  a  stake  to  strengthen  it  or  to  protect  it  from 
blowing  out.  The  intrusion  of  gophers  and  other  vermin  should  be 
resolutely  and  persistently  guarded  against. 

Working  over  Old  Trees. — Old  orange  trees  can  be  transformed 
into  improved  varieties  either  by  budding  or  by  grafting,  as  de- 
scribed at  the  close  of  Chapter  IX,  though  re-working  by  grafting 
has  been  almost  entirely  superseded  by  budding.  The  common  way 
to  bud  over  an  old  tree  is  to  cut  back  part  of  the  branches  and 
force  out  new  shoots,  the  best  of  which  are  selected  for  budding 
and  the  others  removed.  Sometimes  only  a  part  of  the  tree  is 
removed  at  first,  and  when  the  new  buds  have  grown  out  on  that, 
the  other  part  is  similarly  treated.  Others  remove  the  whole  top 
except  a  single  low  branch  to  maintain  sap  circulation  until  after 
the. new  buds  start. 

Recently  the  practice  of  budding  into  old  bark  has  been  widely 
adopted  as  the  quickest  way  to  secure  a  new  tree.  As  with  working 
into  old  bark  in  other  trees,  it  is  necessary  to  take  an  older  bud  and 
a  larger,  thicker  shield  of  bark  behind  it,  than  when  budding  into 
younger  stock.  Some  remove  the  wood  from  the  back  of  the  shield, 
but  generally  it  is  not  done.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  practice 
approved  hy_llie .  Rejdiands.  HortLcultura^UClub  :  _  j 


PLANTING    THE    ORANGE 


441 


Keep  the  buds  carefully  in  a  damp  cloth.  Slide  the  bud  upward,  above  the 
cross-section.  Bind  around  the  bark,  steering  clear  of  the  buds  proper,  a 
wrapping  of  waxed  cloth,  already  prepared,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide. 
When  enough  of  this  has  been  wrapped  about  the  tree  trunk  or  branch  to 
keep  the  bark  and  the  bud  in  place,  rub  the  end  of  the  muslin  strip  with  the 
handle  of  the  budding  knife,  down  upon  the  muslin  already  wound  about  the 
bark.  This  will  hold  the  waxed  wrapping  firmly  in  place.  From  ten  days  to 
two  weeks  after  the  buds  have  been  inserted,  cut  off  the  entire  top  of  the  tree, 
above  the  buds,  and  cover  the  stump  of  trunk  or  large  branch  with  grafting 
wax — applied  hot — with  a  brush. 

As  soon  as  the  wax  is  put  on — and  it  must  be  put  on  as  soon  as  the  top 
is  sawed  off — whitewash  the  tree,  over  the  waxed  cloth,  also  over  the  bud, 
over  every  part  of  the  tree  that  is  left,  except  the  stump  ends,  to  which  the 
hot  wax  has  been  applied.  Immediately  the  buds  will  begin  to  grow.  From 
ten  days  to  two  weeks  after  whitewashing  take  off  the  muslin  wrap,  and,  if  the 
work  has  been  done  carefully,  in  accordance  with  the  above  directions,  90  per 
cent  of  the  buds  will  develop — perhaps  more.  A  prime  necessity  for  this  work 
is  a  razor-sharp  budding  knife. 

There  is  a  variation  in  practice  in  cutting  back  the  stock  above 
the  bud.  Instead  of  cutting  back  at  once,  heroically,  as  just  de- 
scribed, some  girdle  the  branch  or  cut  back  part  of  the  top  at  a 
distance  above  the  bud,  cutting  dov^n  to  the  bud  after  it  shows 
good  strong  growth,  tying  the  young  growth  to  the  stub  at  first 
to  protect  it.  Others  insert  the  bud  in  the  fall,  cutting  back  to  start 
the  bud  after  the  fruit  on  the  old  top  is  gathered.  It  is  very  im- 
portant to  watch  for  suckers  below  the  bud  and  remove,  or  pinch 
them  back,  to  make  a  bunch  of  leaves.  The  growth  from  the  bud 
itself  often  needs  pinching  to  induce  low  branching.  Twig-budding 
can  also  be  used  on  the  orange  by  the  method  already  described  for 
the  olive. 

Budding  in  old  trees  is  best  done  in  the  spring,  when  the  sap 
flow  is  strong,  but,  as  stated,  can  be  done  in  the  fall  and  the  bud 
allowed  to  lit  dormant  until  spring. 

PLANTING  ORANGES  IN  ORCHARD 

As  already  stated,  orange  trees  are  planted  out  at  greater  age 
than  deciduous  fruit  trees.  Budded  trees  are  given  one  or  two 
years'  growth  in  nursery  and  one  or  two  years'  growth  on  the  bud. 
which,  added  to  the  year  in  seed  bed,  makes  them  three  to  four 
years  of  age  from  the  sowing  of  the  seed.  Seedlings,  to  be  planted 
out  as  such,  are  allowed  two  years'  growth  in  the  nursery,  which 
makes  them  three  years  old  from  the  seed.  For  this  length  of  time 
and  the  unusual  care  involved  in  their  growth,  taking  up  from  nur- 
sery and  preparation  for  carriage,  orange  trees  of  planting  age  arc 
of  much  greater  cost  than  deciduous  fruit  trees. 

Since  the  growing  of  seedlings  for  their  fruit  has  practically 
ceased,  the  distance  between  the  trees  in  orchard  planting  has 
ranged  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet.  All  the  varieties  now 
propagated  are  quick  to  bear  fruit,  and  if  properly  shaped  will  find 
ample  space  in  these  distances — the  greater  distance  on  the  richer 
soil  as  a  rule. 


442  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Preparation  of  land  for  orange  planting  by  deep  and  thorough 
cultivation  and  laying  off  to  secure  straight  rows  by  the  square, 
quincunx,  and  hexagonal  methods  have  been  quite  fully  discussed 
in  Chapter  X,  and  Chapter  XI  has  suggestions  for  planting,  many 
of  which  are  applicable  to  the  setting  of  orange  trees.  There  are, 
however,  special  methods  employed  in  lifting  the  orange  trees  from 
the  nursery  rows  and  in  placing  them  in  permanent  position,  which 
will  be  outlined. 

The  orange,  in  common  with  other  evergreen  trees,  is  exceed- 
ingly sensitive  to  exposure  of  its  roots,  and  for  this  reason  the 
handling  of  the  young  trees  is  very  different  from  that  of  ordinary 
orchard  trees.  Three  ways  are  employed  for  securing  this  constant 
moisture  of  the  roots,  as  follows : 

Packing  in  Wet  Straw. — As  fast  as  the  trees  are  lifted  from  the 
nursery  ground  by  digging  carefully  so  as  to  loosen  and  secure  all 
the  roots  possible,  they  are  packed  in  damp  and  partially  rotten 
straw,  proper  receptacles  being  at  hand  so  that  the  roots  are  not 
exposed  by  carrying  them  any  distance.  In  taking  up,  all  roots 
bruised  by  the  spade  are  cleanly  cut  with  a  sharp  knife.  The  tap- 
root is  cut  away  at  a  depth  of  a  foot  or  so  from  the  surface.  This 
use  of  wet  straw,  if  faithfully  carried  out,  will  answer  well  in  taking 
trees  short  distances  for  planting,  but  the  use  of  a  puddle  on  tne 
roots  before  packing  in  damp  straw  gives  additional  assurance  oi 
success. 

Puddling  the  Roots. — This  method  is  also  used  for  deciduous 
fruit  trees,  as  mentioned  in  Chapter  XL  It  consists  in  having  a  thin 
puddling  of  loamy  soil  with  preponderance  of  sand  rather  than  of 
clay,  into  which  the  roots  are  dipped  as  soon  as  the  tree  is  lifted 
from  the  nursery.  This  mixture,  which  should  be  about  as  thick  as 
cream,  may  be  made  in  a  hole  in  the  ground,  or,  better  still,  in  a 
box  or  cask  large  enough  to  allow  complete  plunging  of  the  roots. 
As  soon  as  dipped,  and  with  all  the  mud  which  will  adhere,  the  roots 
are  packed  in  wet  straw.  If  the  trees  are  to  remain  thus  packed 
for  any  length  of  time,  the  greatest  care  must  be  observed  to  keep 
the  straw  damp,  and  water  must  be  applied  gently  to  avoid  washing 
the  puddle  from  the  roots. 

Sacking  the  Roots  with  a  Ball  of  Earth. — This  is  a  very  satis- 
factory way  to  move  orange  trees,  and  if  it  is  well  done,  the  tree 
does  not  wilt,  and  may  be  moved  long  distances  and  handled  more 
freely  than  the  puddled  roots.  To  ball  and  sack  trees,  dig  a  trench 
along  one  side  of  the  row  about  six  inches  away  from  the  trees, 
and  about  a  foot  and  a  half  deep.  By  careful  digging  under  each 
tree  from  this  trench  the  tap-root  is  reached,  and  severed  by  a  cut 
with  a  sharp  spade.  The  side  roots  are  also  cut  by  thrusting  the 
spade  down  on  the  three  sides  not  opened  by  the  trench.     The  top 


I 


PLANTING    ORANGE    TflEES  ^^3 


earth  is  carefully  removed  nearly  down  to  the  highest  lateral  roots, 
and  after  being  sure  that  the  roots  are  severed  all  around,  the 
tree  is  lifted  out  with  the  ball  of  earth  which  encloses  the  remain- 
ing roots.  This  ball  is  rounded  off  carefully  and  then  placed 
on  a  half  of  a  grain  sack  or  other  piece  of  burlap,  the  corners  of 
which  are  drawn  up  and  tied  around  the  stem  of  the  tree  with 
baling  rope.  It  is  also  an  additional  surety  of  safety  to  allow 
the  baling  rope  to  run  under  and  around  the  ball  to  aid  in  hold- 
ing it  together.  The  balled  trees  must  be  carefully  handled  so 
as  not  to  break  the  ball,  which  would  result  in  tearing  to  pieces, 
as  well  as  exposing,  the  roots. 

The  manner  of  handling  the  trees  depends  somewhat  upon 
the  character  of  the  nursery  soil.  Successful  balling  of  course 
requires  a  certain  amount  of  adhesiveness  in  the  soil. 

One  can  not  be  too  careful  in  the  handling  of  orange  trees. 
Though  they  will  stand  harsh  treatment  when  in  permanent 
place,  they  must  be  most  carefully  transplanted.  Lifting  from 
the  nursery  when  the  soil  is  too  dry,  exposure  of  the  roots,  or 
careless  planting,  will  consign  the  tree  to  a  slow,  sickly  growth, 
and  often  kill  it  outright. 

Cutting  Back  at  Transplanting. — The  rule  of  reducing  the 
top  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  roots,  is  vital  in  moving  orange 
trees,  but  sometimes  cutting  back  is  carried  too  far'  and  subse- 
quent growth  is  checked  rather  than  promoted.  Some  growers 
cut  back  the  young  trees  a  little  while  before  lifting  them  from 
the  nursery.  Some  take  off  all  leaves  after  planting  out,  and 
claim  that  growth  starts  sooner  and  more  strongly,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  defoliation  is  advisable,  except  in  case  of  wilting, 
when  it  is  necessary. 

Digging  Holes  and  Setting  Trees. — The  same  considera- 
tions which  require  extra  care  in  lifting  trees  for  nursery,  rule 
in  putting  them  in  permanent  place.  All  authorities  on  the  sub- 
ject specify  exceptional  care  in  preparing  the  tree  holes  as  a 
profitable  investment  on  the  part  of  the  planter.  Large  and 
deep  holes  are  commended,  provided  the  planting  is  done  in  a 
deep,  free  soil.  Deep  holes  would  be  more  injurious  than  bene- 
ficial in  a  tight  subsoil,  unless  drainage  were  furnished,  but  there 
are  good  orange  trees  now  bearing  in  such  places — good  enough 
at  least  to  be  an  ornament  and  acceptable  fruit  producers  for 
family  use. 

On  large-scale  planting  in  deeply  prepared  soil,  holes  large 
enough  to  allow  good  spreading  of  the  roots  are  sufficient. 
Handling  the  soil  at  planting  has  been  fully  described  in  Chaptei 
XI,  and  the  importance  of  bringing  the  soil  into  firm  contact 
with  the  roots  has  been  urged.  The  use  of  water  in  planting 
citrus    fruit    trees    is    especially    desirable.      Transplanting   should 


444 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


be  done  just  as  the  growth  is  starting  in  the  late  spring  or  eariy 
summer,  and  this  is  the  opening  of  the  dry  season  and  rains  can 
not  be  expected.  Therefore  when  the  roots  are  arranged  and 
the  top  soil  lightly  tramped  around  them,  water  is  run  in  the 
hole  and  the  earth  compacted  around  the  roots  by  water  settling. 
After  the  water  has  settled  away,  the  hole  is  filled  and  the  sur- 
face left  loose  to  prevent  evaporation. 

These  instructions  apply  to  the  planting  out  of  trees  which 
are  taken  up  with  long  roots  and  puddled.  In  planting  out  balled 
trees,  the  sack  is  not  removed,  but  after  the  tree  is  embedded  in 
the  earth,  the  tying  rope  is  cut.    The  sack  soon  decays  in  the  soil. 

Orange  trees  can  be  successfully  transplanted  at  different 
times  of  the  year,  but  the  best  time,  as  just  stated,  is  after  the 
ground  gets  well  warmed  by  the  spring  sunshine.  The  date 
at  which  this  condition  arrives  depends  upon  locality.  Experience 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  young  orange  tree  is  in  best  condition 
to  transplant  just  as  the  new  growth  is  starting  out,  and  prefer- 
ably when  it  has  not  grown  out  more  than  two  inches. 


Good  form  secured  by  training. 


m^  — 

Fig.  1.     Orange  tree  at  planting 

in  orchard, 

3  feet  high. 


PRUNING    THE    ORANGE 


445 


Great  care  must  be  taken  that  transplanted  orange  trees  do 
not  become  dry  after  planting.  The  methods  of  irrigation  are 
described  in  Chapter  XV.  Good  cultivation  should  also  attend 
the  orange  from  its  first  planting  onward.  This  subject  is  fully 
discussed  in  Chapter  XIII. 

PRUNING   THE    ORANGE 

All  the  considerations  urged  in  Chapter  XII  in  favor  of  low- 
headed  and  strongly-branched  trees  apply  to  the  orange,  though 
the  habit  of  the  tree  in  growth  and  bearing  requires  different 
pruning  policies.  The  orange  tree  is  more  disposed  naturally  to 
assume  a  good  form  than  most  other  trees,  and  for  this  reason 
most  experienced  growers  declare  their  belief  in  pruning  as  little 
as  possible.  This  is  unquestionably  good  policy  providing  atten- 
tion enough  is  given  to  securing  a  shapely   and   convenient  tree, 


Fig.  2.     Branch  form  of  orange  before 
removing  lower  branches. 

and  to  overcome  the  tendency  in  the  young  tree  to  run  out  very 
long  shoots  which  result  in  unsymmetrical  shoulders  with  hollows 
beneath  them  and  obviate  a  weeping  habit,  which  interferes  with 
irrigation  and  cultivation  and  prevents  the  development  of  good 
bearing  space  above.  It  is  so  easy  to  bring  the  orange  tree  into 
good  form  by  a  little  hard  thinking  about  what  shape  is  desirable 
and  a  little  timely  cutting  and  pinching  to  secure  it. 


446 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


It  has  long  been  held  that  the  orange  tree  should  assume  a 
compact  wall  of  foliage.  The  interior  of  the  tree  being  consid- 
ered merely  the  framework  to  support  this  and  pump  sap  into 
it.      Recently   the   importance   of   removing  dead   wood   from   the 


Fig.  3.     Good  form  of  five-year-old  orange  tree. 


center  of  the  tree  is  being  urged,  even  though  the  cost  is  con- 
siderable, and  a  rational  thinning  of  branches  to  admit  light  and 
air  in  sufficient  amount  to  secure  good  fruit  nearer  the  center 
of  the  tree  is  also  being  advocated  and  practiced  to  some  extent, 


Fig.  4.     Branch  form  of  orange  six  months 
after  planting. 


PRUNING    THK    ORANGE 


447 


All  these  progressive  tendencies  carry  the  orange  nearer  to  the 
application  of  the  principles  of  pruning  which  are  discussed  in 
detail  in  Chapter  XII,  including  the  rational  recourse  to  more 
severe  pruning  or  cutting  back  to  induce  a  growth  of  new  and 
stronger  wood  for  subsequent  bearing.  In  other  cases  cutting 
back  of  varieties  inclined  to  make  a  rank  wood  growth,  like  the 
Valencia  Late,  to  encourage  a  better  supply  of  fruiting  wood, 
is  being  advocated.  It  seems  clear  that  there  are  important  ends 
to  be  gained  by  more  pruning  of  the  orange  tree,  and  by  earnest 
thinking  and  close  observation  along  this  line. 


Fig.  5.     Tendency  of  clipped  branches  to  rise. 

It  has  been  held  that  it  was  necessary  to  prune  the  young 
tree  to  quite  a  high  head  at  first  to  allow  for  the  natural  droop 
of  the  branches,  and  the  result  is  seen  in  many  young  trees  with 
slim  stems  and  umbrella-like  tops.  It  is  better  to  develop  a  stout 
stem  by  allowing  for  a  time  a  low  growth  upon  it  and  then  raise 
it  later  by  removal  of  the  lower  growth  which  has  done  good 
service  and  outlived  its  usefulness.  By  wise  underpruning  it  is 
possible  not  only  to  secure  a  shapely  and  convenient  tree  but 
also  to  so  train  the  lower  growth  that  it  shall  present  good,  low 
bearing  wood  without  groveling  in  the  dust. 

Unquestionably  the  drooping  habit  of  budded  orange  trees  is 
largely  due  to  their  treatment.  A  grower  who  does  not  believe 
in   pruning  allows   the   branches   to   extend   too   far   horizontally, 


448 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW     TO    GROW     THEM 


and  the  weight  of  the  foliage  and  the  early  fruiting  brings  the 
branches  to  the  ground.  To  relieve  the  lower  branches  of  the 
young  tree  of  a  part  of  this  weight  will  enable  them  to  assume 
a  better  direction,  and  this  slight  relief  at  first  will  prevent  much 


'^^^^r 


Fig.  6.     Branch  form  of  five-year-old 
tree  built  down. 


branch-sawing  in  later  years.  The  young  tree  as  it  comes  from 
the  nursery  usually  starts  upon  an  upright  course.  If  stopped 
at  about  three  feet  it  can  be  brought  along  to  develop  strong 
and  well-arranged  branches,  much  as  has  been  described  for 
deciduous  fruit  trees  in  Chapter  XII.  The  adjacent  engraving. 
Fig.  1,  shows  a  young  tree  in  planting  condition,  stopped  at  three 
feet  and  needing  only  a  slight  cutting  back  of  the  laterals  to  be 
readv  to  begin  its  orchard  life.     If  young  trees  are  transplanted 


Fig.  7.     Foliage  form  of  five-year-old  tree. 


J 


I 


SHAPING    THE    ORANGE    TREE  449 


short  distances  and  at  the  right  time  they  do  not  need  so  much 
cutting  back  as  is  commonly  given  them.  If  allowed  to  grow 
from  the  start  shown  in  Fig.  1,  pruning  only  to  prevent  long 
branches  from  running  out  at  random,  and  removing  branches 
which  may  start  strongly  from  near  the  base,  the  tree  will 
assume  the  branch-form  shown  in  Fig.  2  and  at  from  two  to  three 
years  after  planting  in  the  orchard.  At  about  this  age  the  removal 
of  lower  branches  begins,  as  they  have  served  their  purpose  in 
shading  the  trunk  and  bearing  the  first  fruit.  These  branches  are 
removed  one  by  one  until,  when  the  tree  is  five  years  in  the  orchard, 
it  has  lost  all  branches  below  the  two-foot  line  except  the  one  branch 
marked  "a"  of  which  the  upright-growing  part  will  be  retained. 
The  higher  branches  assume  the  more  horizontal  habit,  too  great 
out-shooting  is  repressed  and  at  about  five  years  orchard-age  the 
tree  attains  a  height  of  about  twelve  feet  and  is  of  the  general  form 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  next  few  months  will  bring  its  foliage  to  the 
ground  to  remain  there  or  to  be  under-trimmed,  as  the  notion  of 
the  grower  may  be. 

BUILDING    DOWN    AND    NOT    SAGGING    DOWN 

It  is  perfectly  feasible  and  rational  to  secure  a  good  form  of 
low  tree  without  removal  of  large  branches  and  without  relying 
upon  the  sag  of  the  branches  from  a  high  head.  It  requires 
rather  more  watchfulness  and  attention  and  study  of  the  subject 
than  some  growers  desire  to  give,  but  the  results  when  attained 
are  very  satisfactory.  The  method  is  that  of  J.  H.  Reed,  of 
Riverside,  and  has  been  followed  by  him  for  a  number  of  years 
with  his  own  orchard  and  others  of  which  he  has  had  charge. 
It  will  be  found  readily  intelligible  with  the  help  of  the  sketches. 
Mr.  Reed  would  begin  with  a  young  nursery  tree  like  that  already 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  He  does  not  believe  in  much  cutting  back 
before  planting  providing  a  fair  amount  of  roots  are  left  in  the 
ball  at  transplanting.  If  the  tree  has  been  properly  planted  and 
cared  for,  it  will  soon  begin  to  put  out  new  growth,  usually  first 
along  the  stem,  the  strongest  growth  being  lowest  down.  As 
many  of  these  young  branches  along  the  stem  as  are  not  desired 
for  permanent  branches,  are  rubbed  off,  the  earlier  the  better,  at 
least  before  woody  fiber  is  deposited  in  them.  Mr.  Reed  rubs 
off  promptly  all  below  a  point  about  two  feet  from  the  ground, 
if  there  is  a  prospect  of  getting  sufficient  good  branches  above 
that  point.  If  not  he  saves  them  down  to  eight  or  even  twelve 
inches  lower  if  need  be. 

Mr.  Reed's  idea  is  to  build  the  head  along  a  considerable 
length  of  the  trunk  and  not  have  the  branches  bunched  at  the 
top,  and  this  is  the  same  idea  that  is  urged  in  the  development 
of  the  trunk  of  the  deciduous  fruit  tree  in  Chapter  XII.     He  finds 


450  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

it  impossible  to  do  this  in  the  nursery  because  if  it  is  attempted 
to  form  a  head  18  or  24  inches  along  the  upper  portion  of  the  stem 
instead  of  one  bunched  near  the  top  of  it,  the  lower  branches  will 
appropriate  most  of  the  sap  and  the  upper  portion  will  not  be 
well  developed;  while  if  this  upper  story  is  well  established  in 
the  nursery  the  lower  portion  can  be  built  on  without  detrinjent 
to  the  upper,  if  nutriment  sufficient  for  both  is  furnished.  Fig. 
4  will  show  approximately  the  branch-form  of  the  young  tree  at 
about  six  months  from  planting  and  the  shoots  with  which  the 
building-down  is  begun.  The  first  step  is  to  check  the  drooping 
habit.    Upon  this  point  Mr.  Reed  says : 

The  common  notion  that  the  branch  Df  the  Navel  orange  naturally  tends 
down  is  a  mistake  which  grows  out  of  aie  fact  that  in  its  rapid  growth  the 
new  part  of  the  stems  and  large  leaves  are  so  loaded  with  sap  that  they  pull 
the  stems  from  their  natural  upright  position,  and,  unless  relieved,  hold  them 
there  till  the  deposit  of  woody  fiber  fixes  the  branches  in  the  drooping  or 
unnatural  position.  If  the  tips  of  these  rapidly  growing  branches,  with  their 
heavy  leaves,  be  clipped  at  the  right  time,  the  branches  will  spring  back  to  the 
erect  position,  where  they  will  remain  to  send  out  new  branchlets.  It  is  won- 
derful how  the  orange  tree  can  be  molded  like  a  thing  of  wax  by  pinching  and 
clipping  here  and  there,  if  done  at  the  right  time. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  result  of  this  clipping  of  heavy  shoots  to 
allow  them  to  assume  a  more  upright  growth  and  the  encour- 
agement of  new  shoots  below  the  two-foot  mark.  Fig.  6  gives 
the  branch-form  of  a  five-year-old  tree,  with  its  lower  story  of 
bearing  wood  well  developed,  and  Fig.  7  is  the  foliage-form  of 
the  same  tree,  about  fifteen  feet  high,  with  its  leaves  and  fruit 
reaching  to  the  ground.  As  to  how  low  the  branches  should  be 
allowed,  Mr.  Reed  says  that  until  recently  he  has  thought  it  best 
to  keep  the  lower  branches  clipped  back  so  that  the  fruit  would 
not  touch  the  ground,  but  he  is  persuaded  that  it  is  better  to  let 
them  come  to  the  ground  even  if  considerable  fruit  rests  on  it. 
He  finds  that  many  of  the  best  orchardists  do  this,  and  claim 
that  there  are  really  less  culls  among  the  fruit  on  the  ground 
than  on  the  less-protected  branches  above. 

Later  Pruning  of  the  Orange. — After  the  form  of  the  orange 
is  well  established  the  aim  should  be  to  preserve  a  compact,  sym- 
metrical and  convenient  form.  It  is  desirable  that  weak  wood 
should  be  removed;  dead  interior  branches,  which  have  given  up 
the  struggle  for  the  light,  should  also  be  removed.  It  is  an 
appalling  undertaking  to  get  into  the  inside  of  an  old  orange 
tree  and  saw  ofif  and  drag  out  the  dead  wood  but,  as  already  stated, 
the  conviction  is  growing  that  this  should  be  done.  Of  the  grow- 
ing shoots  there  is  a  reasonable  amount  of  thinning  to  be  done. 
The  clipping  back  of  ambitious  shoots  multiplies  laterals.  There 
should  be  a  good  cover  of  leaves,  but  the  crowding  of  leaves  on 
leaves  excludes  light  and  air  and  weakens  the  tree  by  lessening 


J 


THE    WASHINGTON    NAVEL 


451 


the  vigor  of  leaf  action.  Dead  twigs  which  appear  among  good 
bearing  shoots  should  always  be  removed.  The  gourmand  shoots 
or  suckers  should  be  repressed,  unless,  by  clipping,  one  can  be 
turned  into  a  branch  where  a  branch  is  needed. 

DISEASES    OF   THE    ORANGE 

The  orange  is  thus  far  subject  to  few  diseases  in  California. 
The  most  grievous  is  the  so  called  gum  disease,  which  as  analo- 
gous to  the  gumming  of  other  trees  and  will  be  discussed  in  the 
chapter  treating  of  tree  diseases.  Cracking  of  the  fruit  is  a  trouble 
which  has  never  been  fully  explained. 

There  are  several  serious  insect  enemies  of  the  orange,  which 
will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject.  The  "black 
smut,"  which  makes  leaves  and  fruit  unsightly  in  some  parts  of 
the  State,  is  a  fungoid  growth  upon  the  exudations  of  insects,  and 
can  be  prevented  by  removing  its  cause. 

VARIETIES    OF    THE    ORANGE 

Though  many  varieties  of  the  orange  have  been  introduced 
in  California,  but  few  are  largely  grown.  During  the  last  fifteen 
years  there  has  been  a  pervading  disposition  to  concentrate  upon 
the  Washington  Navel,  and,  except  to  get  other  varieties  either 
earlier  or  later  to  extend  the  season,  there  seems  little  reason 
to  go  beyond  the  Navel  for  commercial  purposes.  Not  only  have 
recent  plantings  been  predominantly  of  this  variety,  but  old  trees 
of  other  kinds  have  been  very  largely  budded  over  to  it,  and  this 
work  is  still  going  on  at  a  rapid  rate. 

As  already  claimed  in  the  opening  pages  of  this  chapter,  the 
Washington  Navel  is  the  greatest  commercial  orange  in  the 
world.  As  it  goes  from  California  into  the  world's  commerce  it 
is  a  combined  product  of  grower's  skill  and  climatic  conditions 
operating  upon  its  own  natural  qualities  and  characters.  Neither 
of  these  factors  alone  could  achieve  its  present  position.  The 
navel  mark  is  neither  peculiar  to  it  nor  determinative  of  it,  for 
there  are  other  navels  which  are  inferior  here  and  our  navel  is 
inferior  elsewhere;  and  even  in  Bahia,  whence  it  came,  it  has  no 
such  quality  and  standing,  because  in  coming  to  California  it 
passed  from  humid,  tropical  to  arid,  semi-tropical  environment. 
As  already  suggested,  the  tropical  orange  is  not  in  the  same  class 
with  the  semi-tropical  from  the  point  of  view  of  commerce.  Trade 
in  tropical  oranges  is  local  or  limited ;  trade  in  semi-tropical 
oranges  is  world-reaching.  The  orange  produced  in  an  arid,  semi- 
tropical  climate  is  dense  and  compact,  firm  and  better  in  keep- 
ing and  carrying  characters.  It  is  also  of  more  sprightly  flavor 
and    richer   composition.      Those    who    are    disposed    to    exalt    the 


452  OALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

humid  air  orange  for  superior  sweetness  forget  that  the  California 
orange,  as  compared,  for  instance,  with  the  Florida  product,  has 
not  less  sugar  but  adds  to  it  more  acid;  being,  in  fact,  not  less 
sweet  but  more  sour.  As  both  sugar  and  acid  are  nutritive  sub- 
stances, the  superiority  of  the  California  fruit  from  a  dietary 
point  of  view  is  clear.  Such  an  orange,  enclosed  in  a  thin  skin  of 
silky  texture  and  beautiful  finish,  comes  very  close  to  an  ideal 
upon  which  to  found  an  industry. 

Although  California  has  apparently  no  need  for  changes  of 
type  in  oranges  and  has  worked  diligently  and  long  for  the 
attainment  of  the  types  which  are  at  present  supreme  in  her 
industry,  there  is  still  opportunity  for  improvement  within  the 
types.  Such  improvement  is  probably  to  be  attained  not  by 
hybridizing,  but  by  selection.  The  Washington  Navel,  like  other 
members  of  the  citrus  family,  is  keenly  disposed  to  variation  and 
some  of  its  variations  have  been  named  and  propagated  as  the 
lists  below  will  show.  The  pursuit  of  such  and  other  improve- 
ments is  now  being  systematically  taken  up  at  the  Citrus  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Riverside  which  is  a  branch  of  the  University 
of  California  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley. 

Of  the  few  varieties  which  are  now  largely  grown  the  follow- 
ing is  the  ripening  season : 

Navel  and  Seedlings,  November  to  May;  Malta  Blood,  March 
to  June;  Mediterranean  Sweets,  April  to  July;  St.  Michaels,  May 
to  July;  Valencia  Late,  June  to  September. 

Washington  Navel  (Bahia,  Riverside  Navel). — Fruit  large,  solid,  and  heavy; 
skin  smooth  and  of  a  very  fine  texture;  very  juicy;  high  flavored,  with  melt- 
ing pulp;  is  practically  seedless,  only  in  exceptional  cases  are  seed  found;  tree 
is  a  good  and  prolific  bearer,  medium  thorny,  a  rapid  grower,  although  it  does 
not  attain  a  very  large  size;  bears  when  very  young,  commencing  to  bear  as 
early  as  one  year  old  from  the  bud;  ripens  early.  This  variety  was  imported 
from  Bahia,  Brazil,  in  1870,  by  Mr.  W.  Sanders,  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Washington,  and  in  1874  two  trees  were  received  from  Washington 
by  Mrs.  Tibbetts,  of  Riverside,  Gal.  Trees  were  also  received  about  the  same 
time  by  Alexander  Craw,  but  the  Riverside  trees  were  first  in  fruit,  and  the 
excellence  of  the  variety  being  at  once  recognized,  it  was  propagated  rapidly 
and  took  the  name  Riverside  Navel  from  the  place  where  its  characteristics 
were  first  made  known.  As  it  came  to  be  grown  largely  in  other  districts  as 
well,  a  broader  name,  Washington  Navel,  recognizing  its  receipt  from  the 
national  capital,  was  adopted. 

There  is  much  tendency  to  variation  in  the  Washington  Navel,  and  sub- 
varieties  are  to  be  found  involving  departures  in  the  direction  of  thinness  and 
silkiness  of  rind,  etc.,  as  well  as  interior  characters.  The  first  to  become 
prominent  of  these  is  Thomson's  Improved  Navel  with  A.  C.  Thomson,  of 
Duarte,  Los  Angeles  County,  claimed  to  have  produced  by  a  process  of  prop- 
agation, but  which  is  believed  to  be  a  natural  variation.  It  is  a  very  refined 
fruit;  generally  held  to  be  too  fine  for  ordinary  handling. 

Two  new  variations,  developed  on  the  propagating  grounds  of  the  San 
Dimas  Citrus  nurseries  of  R.  M.  Teague  are  as  follows : 

Golden  Buckeye  Navel. — Young  wood,  slender  but  strong;  tree  of  striking 
appearance;  fruit  marked  with  bands  of  deeper  color,  skin  very  smooth;  pulp 
aromatic  with  suggestion  of  pineapple  flavor. 


PACKING    CITRUS    FRUITS 


453 


Golden  Nugget  Navel. — Young  wood  willowy  and  slender,  tree  umbra- 
geous; fruit  smooth,  solid,  thin-skinned,  rather  oblong  and  good  size,  rich 
golden  color ;  pulp  free  from  rag,  and  delicious. 

Australian  Navel. — A  coarser  type  of  the  Navel  introduced  from  Australia 
in  1874  by  Lewis  Wolfskill,  of  Los  Angeles,  and  largely  propagated  formerly. 
It  has  now  been  practically  abandoned  for  the  Washington  Navel.  It  seems 
to  be  of  more  account  at  some  points  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  than  elsewhere. 

Valencia  Late  {Hart's  TarJi^) .—Medium  size,  oblong,  pale  yellow;  flesh 
rich,  deep  yellow,  sprightly  and  crisp;  tree  a  strong  grower,  slightly  thorny. 
Ripens  late,  and  valuable  for  late  shipping. 

Malta  Blood. — Fruit  small  to  medium,  oval;  flesh  fine  texture  and  flavor, 
streaked  and  mottled  with  red;  few  seeds.  The  tree  is  thornless  and  regular 
and  heavy  bearer. 

Ruby. — Medium  size,  roundish;  when  ripe  often  reddened  by  deep  red  pulp 
within;  juicy  and  sprightly,  often  rather  acid;  tree  vigorous,  thornless  and  a 
good  bearer. 

Mediterranean  Sweet. — Fruit  medium  to  large,  pulp  and  skin  of  fine  texture, 
very  solid  and  few  seeds;  ripens  late,  often  not  until  May  or  June.  The  tree 
is  thornless  and  of  dwarf  habit  of  growth  and  is  inclined  to  overbear.  It  was 
at  one  time  the  most  widely-distributed  variety  in  the  State,  next  to  the  Wash- 
ington Navel,  but  has  recently  been  largely  budded  over.  It  was  introduced 
and  named  by  T.  A.  Garey,  of  Los  Angeles. 

Paper  Rind  St.  Michael. — Fruit  small,  round,  very  firm  and  very  juicy; 
pale,  thin  skin ;  very  elegant  in  appearance.  It  ripens  late  and  keeps  "well  on 
the  trees  as  late  as  August;  tree  is  of  dwarf  habit,  medium  thorny,  a  good 
bearer,  and  very  desirable. 

Kumquat  {Citrus  Japonica). — Fruit  very  small,  oblong  or  olive  shaped,  rind 
thick,  yellow,  smooth;  sweet-scented;  very  little  pulp;  containing  many  seeds; 
tree  dwarf  (a  bush),  a  prolific  bearer.     Chiefly  used  for  conserves. 

Dancy's  Tangerine,  or  Kid  Glove. — ^Leaves  broad,  fruit  flat,  small  to  medium, 
reddish;  skin  separating  readily  from  the  pulp;  flesh  juicy  and  aromatic. 

Satsuma  {Unshiu  Oonshiu). — A  considerable  acreage  of  this  variety,  planted 
ten  years  ago  on  dwarfing  stock,  has  availed  very  little  commercially.  At 
present  there  is  disposition  to  grow  the  variety  on  sweet  orange  stock  because 
of  its  earliness,  but  this  practice  has  been  recently  condemned  by  Florida" 
experience,  where  it  is  held  that  it  must  be  grown  on  the  trifolicata  root.  Tree 
quite  hardy,  fruit  irregular  in  size,  but  usually  medium  size,  flattened;  rind 
easily  detached;  fine  texture,  sweet  and  nearly  seedless. 

Mandarin,  Willow-Leaved. — Medium  sized,  flattened,  deep  yellow;  flesh  dark 
orange,  skin  loose;  tree  compact,  ornamental. 

King. — Of  the  Mandarin  class ;  large,  rough  skinned,  skin  and  segments 
loose,  pulp  high  flavored,  sweet,  aromatic. 


STANDARD    PACK    FOR    CITRUS    FRUITS 

A  standard  orange  box  in  California  is  12x12x26  inches  outside 
measurements  with  a  fruit  space  ll^/^xl  1^x24  inches,  and  its 
weight  is  usually  estimated  at  72  pounds.  A  standard  California 
lemon  box  is  10^  x  14  x  27  inches  outside  measurements,  divided 
also  into  two  compartments.  Pomelos  are  packed  in  the  orange 
box,  while  the  Tangerines,  Mandarins  and  other  kid  glove  vari- 
eties are  packed  in  half  boxes  of  the  orange  size,  two  of  which 
are  cleated  together  for  shipment.  In  rare  instances  they  are 
packed  in  quarter  boxes,  four  being  cleated  together. 


454 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


A  carload  of  packed  oranges  varies  some  in  number  of  boxes 
in  keeping  with  the  size  of  the  car.  A  36-foot  car  will  take  336 
boxes,  the  40-foot  car  384,  and  the  42-foot  409.  In  lemons  the 
36-foot  car  will  take  288  boxes,  the  40-foot  car  312,  and  the  42-foot 
car  336.  When  packed  the  boxes  are  placed  on  end  two  tiers 
high  and  six  rows  wide,  with  a  space  for  ventilation  between 
each  and  every  box,  made  feasible  by  nailing  small  strips  of  lum- 
ber of  sufficient  strength  crosswise  of  the  car. 

In  oranges  the  regular  sizes  are  126,  150,  176,  200,  216;  small 
"off-sizes"  250,  324,  360;  large  "off-sizes"  64,  80,  96,  112.  The 
relative  value  of  the  different  sizes  in  the  regular  trade  is  given 
by  Mr.  Powell,  whose  excellent  publication  on  the  marketing  of 
oranges  is  cited  in  the  chapter  on  that  fruit,  in  this  way :  "A 
car  of  Washington  Navel  oranges  may  contain  boxes  of  all  sizes. 
A  car  is  called  a  "standard  car"  when  it  contains  not  more  than 
ten  per  cent  of  each  of  the  following  sizes:  96,  112,  250,  and  not 
over  twenty  per  cent  of  the  126  size.  The  remainder  of  the  car 
may  be  divided  among  the  150,  176,  200  and  216  sizes.  If  a  car 
is  sold  to  a  dealer  at  a  fixed  price  per  box  it  is  usual  to  allow  a 
discount  of  25  to  50  cents  per  box  on  the  excess  in  the  96,  112, 
126  and  250  sizes,  and  a  discount  of  50  cents  per  box  on  the  48, 
64,  80,  288,  300,  324,  360  and  420  sizes.  The  rule  concerning  the 
sizes  in  a  standard  car  may  vary  with  the  season,  with  the  sec- 
tion and  with  the  general  size  of  the  fruit  taken  as  a  whole. 
When  oranges  of  either  the  large  or  small  sizes  are  scarce,  they 
are  at  a  premium,  and  the  proportion  in  a  car  may  be  raised  with- 
out discount. 


CHAPTER    XXXIII 
THE   POMELO    OR   GRAPE   FRUIT    IN    CALIFORNIA 

This  citrus  fruit  achieved  a  very  sudden  interest  in  California 
because  of  the  prices  commanded  by  Florida  pomeloes  about  fif- 
teen years  ago.  When  this  supply  of  eastern  cities  was  cut  off 
by  the  serious  frost  injuries  in  Florida  there  arose  a  passion  for 
planting  the  trees  in  California,  and  a  considerable  acreage  was 
planted,  and  as  the  tree  is  a  very  rapid  grower  and  precocious 
in  fruit-bearing,  large  shipments  were  made  in  1898,  but  the 
the  results  were  not  satisfactory,  and  since  that  time,  although 
pomeloes  sometimes  sell  to  good  advantage,  the  demand  is  on 
the  whole  light  and  irregular.  The  local  consumption  of  pomeloes 
in  California  is  increasing  but  does  not  warrant  much  acreage. 
For  these  reasons  early  plantings  have  been  largely  grafted  over 
to  the  orange. 

The  fruit  is  a  Shaddock  (Citrus  decumana).  Varieties  have 
been  secured  of  smaller  size  and  of  blander  flavor  than  the  coarse, 
sour  and  acrid  fruit  which  is  suggested  by  its  name.  An  effort 
has  been  made  to  secure  the  favorite  varieties,  and  a  large  list 
has  been  planted  in  this  State,  but  the  fruit  does  not  command  the 
place  at  the  East  which  was  awarded  to  the  Florida  product.  As 
a  tree  the  pomelo  most  nearly  resembles  the  orange  and  its  culture 
is  the  same.  As  for  varieties,  California  experience  has  been  too 
brief  and  fitful  to  demonstrate  particular  value  or  adaptation  in 
them.  Among  growers  there  is  no  wide  agreement  as  to  superi- 
ority from  a  commercial  point  of  view.  Amateurs  can  find  many 
desirable  sorts  in  our  citrus  nurseries. 

Mr.  A.  P.  Griffith  of  Azusa  is  perhaps  the  most  enthusiastic 
and  confident  of  California  growers  that  the  pomelo  grown  in 
this  State  will  attain  wide  popularity  in  the  United  States.  His 
grove  is  now  seven  acres  in  extent,  nearly  all  of  the  Nectar  vari- 
ety which  is  of  the  type  which  he  believes  should  be  grown  to  win 
public  favor.  He  concludes  that  the  market  wants  a  fruit  not 
smaller  than  80's  and  prefers  them  to  stop  at  64's.  A  fruit  flat- 
round  that  will  cut  up  into  two  halves  each  of  which  will  stand 
upright  on  a  plate,  cut  side  up,  seems  especially  desirable.  A 
fruit  that  is  spherical  or  pear-shaped  is  not  desired.  There  are 
several  varieties  whose  similarity  in  type  would  seem  to  warrant 
including  all  under  one  name.  These,  with  the  addition  of  the  seed- 
less, comprise  all  there  is  of  intrinsic  value  among  California 
pomeloes.      If  all   other   varieties   not   of   this   type   were   budded 

455 


466 


CALIFORNIA     FRUITS:      HOW     TO     GROW     THEM 


over,  and  thus  taken  out  of  the  market,  Mr.  Griffith  believes  the 
demand  would  increase.  Of  the  following  varieties,  the  first  is 
propagated  by  Mr.  Griffith  and  the  others  by  Mr.  R.  M.  Teague 
of  the  San  Dimas  Citrus  Nurseries  and  other  citrus  nurserymen : 

Nectar. — A  Florida  seedling,  grown  at  Duarte;  flat-round,  heavy;  peel 
smooth  and  bright,  pale-lemon  color ;  oil  cells  small  and  numerous ;  flesh  dense, 
firm  texture,  abundant  juice,  vinous,  excellent,  bitter-sweet  element  distinct; 
few  seeds  and  little  rag;  sizes  from  42  to  80  to  the  box. 

Imperial. — Medium  to  large,  peel  very  smooth,  medium  thin  and  of  fine 
texture;  little  rag,  juice  abundant,  fine  aromatic  flavor,  good  keeper  and  shipper. 
Tree  upright  and  heavy  bearer. 

Marsh  Seedless. — Medium  size,  52  to  64  to  the  box;  thin  rind;  almost  en- 
tirely seedless ;  flesh  dark  and  rich,  a  late  keeper  and  early  and  abundant  bearer. 

Triumph. — Medium  size,  peel  smooth,  clear,  thin  and  fine  grained ;  very 
juicy,  heavy  and  good  flavored;  juice  free  from  bitterness;  very  little  rag;  an 
early  and  prolific  bearer. 

Marketing  Grape  Fruit. — The  California  problem  seems  to 
be  not  only  to  grow  grape  fruit  acceptable  to  consumers  in  distant 
markets  but  to  place  the  fruit  upon  those  markets  when  they  are  not 
otherwise  well  supplied.  Recently  better  results  have  been 
attained  by  shipping  during  the  Valencia  season  than  earlier. 
When  California  growers  give  as  much  attention  to  meeting  the 
demand  as  they  have  to  the  orange  and  the  lemon,  it  is  to  be 
expected  that  the  grape  fruit  will  become  commercially  more 
satisfactory. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV 
THE    LEMON    AND    MINOR    CITRUS    FRUITS 

Lemon  growing  is  a  very  unique  and  distinctive  branch  of  Cali- 
fornia horticulture,  which  in  the  present  advancement  of  culture 
and  preparation  for  the  market,  well  illustrates  the  originality  and 
invention  which  the  California  fruit  grower  has  displayed  in  his 
undertakings.  Lemon  growing  in  California  is  old  because  it  arose 
at  the  old  missions  in  the  second  century  back  of  us,  but  success- 
ful lemon  growing  as  a  great  industry  is  new  and  constantly  assum- 
ing new  phases.  For  the  old  seedling  lemons  were  bad,  and 
though  enterprising  growers  soon  learned  that  fact  and  set  about 
getting  better  ones,  it  took  years  to  secure  them  and  to  learn  how 
to  grow  and  handle  them  so  that  the  Californian  could  displace 
the  Sicilian  fruit  in  the  markets  of  the  United  States.  Nor  was 
time  the  only  thing  sacrificed — hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars 
were  lost  before  the  California  grower  could  put  upon  the  market 
a  good  lemon,  fit  to  stay  good  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time.  Un- 
profitable plantings ;  expensive  curing  houses,  which  did  not  cure 
well ;  countless  experiments  which  yielded  only  loss  and  disappoint- 
ment— all  these  are  wrecks  upon  the  rock  of  American  lemon  grow- 
ing. 

Naturally  Californians  sought  first  to  know  how  lemons  were 
grown  and  handled  abroad.  At  cost  of  great  effort  and  outlay  they 
learned  practically  nothing  that  they  could  do  and  a  great  deal 
that  it  was  not  necessary  to  do.  Then  they  assumed  a  more  rational 
mood — a  disposition  to  discern  what  principles  are  involved  in  the 
problem,  and  to  apply  them  in  their  own  way  according  to  con- 
ditions locally  prevailing.  Along  this  line  grand  success  has  been 
attained  by  a  few  masterful  men  conducting  large  lemon  enter- 
prises or  smaller  undertakings  of  their  own,  while  the  mass  of 
lemon  planters,  for  one  reason  or  another,  have  never  reaped  the 
reward  they  expected.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  lemon 
growing  is  a  much  harder  and  more  exacting  enterprise  than  orange 
growing,  and  for  this  reason  many  have  new-topped  their  trees  to 
oranges  and  thus  escape  difficulties  which  they  could  not  overcome. 

With  the  aid  of  the  protective  tariff  the  most  resolute  and 
capable  have  attained  success,  and  now  the  California  lemon  is 
highly  esteemed  upon  its  merits  everywhere.  The  tariff  has  some- 
what reduced  the  effect  of  cheap  labor  in  Italy  and  cheap  water 
transportation  from  the  Mediterranean  region,  and  our  lemons  can 
sometimes  compete  with  the  foreign  product  not  only  in  the  west 

457 


458 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


but  even  in  the  cities  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  All  this  has  been 
accomplished  within  two  decades  and  it  is  a  notable  result.  One 
measure  of  this  fact  may  be  found  in  the  shipment  of  over  three 
thousand  five  hundred  carloads  during  the  season  of  1906-7.  The 
California  lemon  has,  however,  not  yet  attained  mastery  of  Amer- 
ican markets  as  the  orange  has,  for  there  is  a  value  of  about  four 
millions  of  dollars  in  imported  lemons  while  imported  oranges  are 
only  worth  one-fourth  as  much.  It  is  manifest  that  the  lemon 
should  be  encouraged  with  increased  protection  to  enable  producers 
to  push  the  issue  of  an  American  lemon  for  Americans  to  a  suc- 
cessful termination. 

The  best  pack  of  California  lemons  has  a  uniformity  of  size,  a 
finish  of  skin,  a  juiciness  and  keen  acidity  which  is  unrivaled  in 
the  world.  Numerous  careful  tests  have  been  made  of  the  Cali- 
fornia lemon  in  Atlantic  cities  in  comparison  with  the  best  south 
European  product,  and  the  superiority  of  the  American  fruit  has 
thus  been  demonstrated. 

SITUATIONS   AND   SOILS    FOR   THE    LEMON 

The  lemon  does  best  in  a  practically  frostless  situation.  Such 
places  are  found  in  largest  area  in  the  southern  half  of  the  coast 
regions  of  California,  but  also  exist  at  favoring  elevations  in  the 
interior.  The  moderating  influence  of  proximity  to  salt  water,  and 
the  effect  of  local  topography  and  environment,  which  give  frost- 
free  nooks  or  belts,  are  elements  favoring  the  lemon  grower.  In 
such  situations  the  lemon  blooms  and  fruits  continuously  through- 
out the  year. 

While  the  lemon  requires  a  less  extreme  of  low  temperature 
than  the  orange,  it  also  thrives  with  a  less  extreme  of  high  tem- 
perature and  less  duration  of  it.  It  apparently  does  not  require  as 
much  heat  to  develop  acid,  which  is  the  charm  of  the  lemon,  as 
it  does  sugar,  which  is  essential  to  an  acceptable  orange ;  therefore, 
a  coast  situation  which  may  not  yield  a  sweet  orange  may  produce 
a  good  lemon,  although  it  is  a  fact  that  in  the  southern  coast  region, 
where  the  largest  commercial  production  of  lemons  is  now 
achieved,  the  orange  also  does  well.  Another  advantage  of  the 
lower  summer  temperature  is  that  the  continuous  ripening  is  not 
interfered  with,  as  it  is  by  high  summer  heat,  which  hastens  ma- 
turity and  brings  the  mass  of  the  fruit  to  marketable  condition 
in  the  winter — a  season  when  the  demand  for  the  lemon  is  very 
small.  This  objection  is,  however,  being  measurably  overcome 
by  the  proper  storage  and  treatment  of  the  fruit  for  sale,  at  a  con- 
siderable interval  after  picking,  as  will  be  mentioned  presently. 
But  both  the  curing  and  storage  of  lemons  are  more  eas^ily  secured 
in  the  more  equable  temperature  and  moister  air  of  the  coast 
region. 


PLANTING    AND    PRUNING    LEMONS 


459 


The  lemon  delights  in  a  sandy  loam,  and  probably  our  best 
orchards  are  on  such  soil,  but  the  trees  thrive  in  other  soils.  There 
is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  growers  as  to  what  soil  is  to  be 
especially  sought  for.  There  are  profitable  lemon  orchards  in 
southern  California  located  upon  deep  clay  loams,  and  even  upon 
strong  red  clay  soils.  As  with  some  other  fruits,  the  choice  of 
soil  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  governed  by  the  stock  on  which  the 
lemon  is  worked. 

PROPAGATING    AND    PLANTING 

The  prevailing  stock  for  the  lemon  is  the  orange  seedling 
either  the  sweet  or  sour  stock,  under  the  same  conditions  that  each 
is  preferred  for  the  orange,  the  sour  stock  resisting  measurably 
the  effects  of  ill-drainage  of  heavy  land  or  flat,  low  places.  The 
orange  root  thrives  on  a  greater  variety  of  soils  than  the  lemon, 
and  produces  a  healthy  lemon  tree  where  the  lemon  on  its  own 
root  would  fail.  The  growth  of  orange  seedlings  for  budding  has 
been  described  in  the  last  chapter.  If  lemon  seedlings  are  desired 
they  may  be  grown  in  the  same  way.  Plants  either  for  permanent 
growth  or  for  stocks  for  budding  can  be  grown  from  cuttings,  as 
explained  in  Chapter  VIII.  The  budding  of  the  lemon  is  prac- 
tically the  same  as  of  the  orange,  which  has  been  described.  An 
old  tree  can  be  changed  from  one  variety  to  another  by  the  meth- 
ods described  for  the  orange,  and  oranges  can  be  worked  into 
old  lemon  trees  and  good  fruit  secured  if  the  lemon  itself  be  grow- 
ing upon  an  orange  root,  which  is  likely  to  be  the  case  with  trees 
planted  during  the  last  decade. 

Planting  of  the  lemon  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  orange.  The 
distance  in  planting  varies  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet.  Irri- 
gation of  lemon  and  orange  trees  is  also  similar. 

PRUNING   THE    LEMON 

The  pruning  of  the  lemon  is  essentially  different  from  that  of 
the  orange,  because  the  habit  of  the  tree  is  different.  The  lemon 
requires  constant  attention  to  bring  it  into  good  bearing  form  and 
keep  it  there ;  the  orange,  after  it  is  well  shaped,  simply  needs 
attention  to  encourage  it  to  retain  the  bearing  form  to  which  it 
seems  naturally  disposed.  The  orange  provides  itself  with  sat- 
isfactory bearing  wood,  as  a  rule ;  the  lemon  devotes  itself,  even 
when  it  is  old  enough  to  know  better,  to  a  rangy  rambling  wood 
growth  with  bearing  wood  upon  the  ends  of  willowy  rods  where 
it  is  swept  about  in  the  wind  and  burned  in  the  sun,  instead  of 
nestling  it  neatly  among  the  leaves  as  the  orange  does. 

The  rational  proceeding  with  the  lemon  is,  then,  to  develop  it 
at  first  into  a  low,  stocky  and  strong  form,  such  as  is  described  in 


460 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Chapter  XII  for  deciduous  trees.  This  may  be  secured  by  pinch- 
ing so  as  not  to  allow  running  out  of  long  branches  at  first,  or  it 
may  be  secured  by  severe  cutting  back  of  the  long  growths  of  the 
young  tree.  In  either  case  low  branching  will  be  secured.  Make 
good  selection  from  these  branches  to  form  a  symmetrical  tree 
and  cut  back  the  growth  which  comes  upon  them  to  cause  it  to 
branch  in  its  turn.     In  this  way  plenty  of  good,  strong  wood  is 


^  k     /'S 

r  --^^mi.iSfe. 

Pf^>''    ^   '"^Hm 

^mr-jwrnm^-w^. 

it^M^- 

Lemon  tree  with  fruit  near  ground  but  capable  of  under-cultivation. 


secured  low  down,  and  with  short  distances  between  the  laterals. 
Strong,  upright  shoots  (wrongly  called  ''suckers")  which  break 
out  at  points  where  branches  are  not  desired,  should  be  rubbed 
off  or  cleanly  cut  away.  Having  secured  about  the  right  branch- 
ing in  about  the  right  places  no  strong  sprouts  should  be  allowed, 
and  the  tree  should  be  encouraged  to  make  smaller  laterals,  which 
will  be  the  bearing  wood.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  this 
rational  plan  of  restricting  wood  growth  and  directing  the  energies 
of  the  tree  to  fruit  has  in  some  cases  been  pursued  too  far  and 
the  tree  has  resented  repression  by  diminished  thrift.  The  pruner 
must  allow  freer  growth  of  shoot  to  secure  better  foliage.  The 
pruning  of  the  lemon  as  of  other  trees  must  always  be  pursued 
with  judgment  rather  than  by  recipe. 

When  the  adequate  growth  of  bearing  wood  within  reach  is 
borne  in  mind  it  appears  that  the  pruning  of  the  lemon  involves 
many  of  the  considerations  urged  in   Chapter  XII  for  deciduous 


I 


PRUNING    THE    LEMON 


461 


fruits;  the  method  of  making  a  strong,  short  trunk,  the  arrange- 
ment of  branches,  the  prevention  of  long  growths,  the  encourage- 
ment of  low,  bearing  twigs,  the  thinning  of  twigs  to  prevent  the  tree 
from  becoming  too  dense,  the  points  to  be  observed  in  cutting  back, 
not  by  shearing  but  by  treating  each  branch  according  to  its  position 
and  vigor — all  these  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  lemon  pruner.    It 


Lemon  tree  under-pruned  to  bring  fruit  a  distance  from  the  soil. 


must  also  be  remembered  that  the  work  must  be  resolutely  con- 
tinued and  the  tree  always  prevented  from  wild  growth  and  kept 
down  to  bearing  on  the  smaller  twigs,  which  are  promoted  and 
retained  for  that  purpose.  The  building-down  process  described  for 
the  young  orange  is  easily  applicable  to  the  lemon. 

Old  lemon  trees  which  have  been  allowed  to  grow  away  into 
a  long,  rangy  form  and  to  bear  fruit  too  high  for  profit,  can  be 
brought  down  to  good  form  by  severe  cutting  back  and  after- 
treatment  of  the  new  shoots,  keeping  the  smaller  horizontal 
growths  and  cutting  out  cleanly  the  strong  upright  shoots,  or  cut- 
ting them  back  if  more  branches  are  needed.  The  time  for  pruning 
the  lemon  depends  upon  the  end  in  view;  if  a  young  tree,  to 
promote  wood  growth,  prune  at  the  opening  of  the  growing  season 
in  the  spring;  in  older  trees,  to  repress  growth  and  advance  fruit- 
ing, prune  in  midsummer. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  harvesting  lemons  is  a  continuous 
operation  as  will  be  stated  presently,  keeping  the  bearing  wood 


462 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


of  the  tree  within  easy  reach  is  more  imperative  from  an  economic 
point  of  view  than  with  trees  from  which  fewer  pickings  gather  the 
crop.  Adjacent  engravings  give  suggestive  views  of  rationally 
controlled  lemon  trees.  Pruning  is  also  related  to  escaping  infec- 
tion of  the  fruit  from  the  ground  which  will  be  discussed  in  the 
Chapter  on  Diseases  of  Trees  and  Vines. 


Lemon  tree  with  medium  amount  of  under-pruning. 


PREPARATION    OF    LEMONS    FOR    MARKETING 

The  lemon  as  taken  from  the  tree  is  not  in  condition  for 
marketing  except  to  packers  who  wish  to  undertake  the  curing. 
To  secure  best  results  in  quality  and  in  keeping  properties,  the 
lemon  should  be  carefully  cut  from  the  tree  as  soon  as  proper  size 
is  reached.  To  allow  the  fruit  to  hang  upon  the  tree  until  lemon 
color  is  assumed,  gives  a  lemon  which  is  deficient  in  juice,  over- 
sized, apt  to  develop  bitterness,  and  prone  to  decay.  Two  and 
five-sixteenths  rings  are  used  for  winter  pickings  and  2^  for 
spring  and  summer,  never  more  than  six  weeks  being  allowed 
to  elapse  between  pickings,  and  the  fruit  is  usually  picked  once 
a  month.  By  careful  attention  to  this,  desirable  sizes  and  good- 
keeping  stock  are  obtained.  Neglect  of  this  is  the  weak  point  of 
many  of  the  lemon  growers  of  California.  Mr.  C.  C.  Teague,  man- 
ager of  the  Limoneira  Company  of  Santa  Paula,  Ventura  County, 


LEMON    PACKING    AND    CURING  4^3 

the  largest  lemon  growing  concern  in  California,  has  made  close 
examination  of  practice  among  lemon  growers,  and  concludes  that 
the  carelessness  with  which  picking  is  done  is  almost  criminal. 
In  grove  after  grove  which  he  visited  at  least  50  per  cent,  of  the 
values  had  been  lost  by  allowing  the  fruit  to  hang  on  the  tree 
too  long.  Not  only  on  account  of  large  sizes  would  it  have  to 
be   discounted   50  cents   per  box,   but  the   keeping  quality   of  the 


Washing  Lemons — Curing  Tent  in  background. 


464 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


lemon  which  is  allowed  to  mature  on  the  tree  is  never  good.  Good 
results  can  not  be  obtained,  even  by  the  best  methods  of  keeping 
lemons,  unless  the  fruit  is  picked  at  the  proper  time  and  properly 
handled.  Mr.  Teague  says  a  lemon  should  be  handled  as  carefully 
as  an  egg. 

If  gathered  before  the  color  begins  to  turn  properly  cured 
lemons  may  be  kept  for  months,  and  they  will  improve  in  market 
qualities,  by  a  thinning  and  toughening  of  the  skin,  and  by  increase 
of  juice  contents.  This  curing  of  the  fruit,  as  it  is  called,  is 
accomplished  in  many  simple  ways.  If  the  fruit  is  gathered  and 
placed  in  piles  under  the  trees,  where,  with  low-headed  trees,  it 
is  completely  shaded  by  the  foliage,  it  processes  well  and  comes 
out  beautiful  in  color  and  excellent  in  quality,  providing  it  is  a 
good  variety.  Some  have  trusted  wholly  to  this  open-air  curing 
under  the  trees,  merely  protecting  the  fruit  by  a  thin  covering  of 
straw,  or  other  light,  dry  materials.  Others  let  the  fruit  lie  a 
few  days  under  the  trees,  carefully  shaded  from  the  sun,  and  place 
it  in  boxes  or  upon  trays,  and  keep  it  months  in  a  darkened  fruit- 
house,  providing  ventilation  but  guarding  the  fruit  against  draughts 
of  air.  Gathering  the  fruit  while  still  green  and  packing  with  alter- 
nate layers  of  dry  sand,  has  given  excellent  marketable  fruit,  but 
of  course  the  handling  of  so  much  sand  is  too  expensive  nor  is  it 
at  all  necessary. 

Much  attention  has  been  given  to  lemon  storage  in 'southern 
California,  and  many  curing  and  storage  houses  have  been  con- 
structed. Naturally  there  is  great  variation  in  design  and  method 
of  operation.  The  essential  conditions  to  be  secured  are  exclusion 
of  light;  regulation  of  temperature;  ample  ventilation,  under  con- 
trol, however,  so  as  to  prevent  entrance  of  air  which  is  too  dry  or 
too  hot;  convenience  and  cheapness  of  handling,  for  the  lemon  is 
expensive  in  handling  at  best  during  the  months  of  storage  which 
is  often  desirable.  Some  of  these  conditions  are  relatively  of  much 
more  importance  in  the  interior  than  in  the  coast  region,  because 
heat  and  dry  air  reach  occasionally  extremes  which  are  not  ex- 
perienced near  the  ocean  which  is  a  great  regulator  of  temperature 
and  atmospheric  moisture.  For  these  reasons  a  much  simpler 
system  of  storage  is  now  in  large  use  in  the  coast  district,  while 
in  the  interior  suitable  special  buildings  or  basements  are  appar- 
ently necessary.  Anyone  entering  upon  lemon  handling  should 
certainly  visit  establishments  now  in  satisfactory  use  and  learn  by 
careful  observation  of  their  suitability  to  his  purposes. 

Near  the  coast,  and  so  far  toward  the  interior  as  ocean  influ- 
ences extend  in  adequate  degree,  the  building  of  special  curing 
houses  has  been  abandoned  and  some  quite  expensive  structures 
have  been  turned  to  other  uses.  An  objection  to  house-storage 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  fruit  is  apt  to  be  massed  in  the  house  and 
that  which  is  just  picked  given  the  same  ventilation  as  that  which 


LEMON    CURING    HOUSE  4g5 

has  been  in  the  house  several  months,  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
lemons  in  different  stages  of  curing  require  radically  different 
treatment  as  regards  ventilation.  As  a  result  of  this  treatment 
some  of  the  fruit  is  usually  wilted  from  receiving  too  much  air, 
while  the  greater  portion  of  it  is  badly  decayed  from  receiving  too 
little. 

Proper  ventilation  is  the  keynote  of  success  in  keeping  lemons. 
and  after  extensive  and  expensive  experience  along  the  old  lines, 
Mr.  Teague  of  the  Limoneira  Company,  already  cited,  concluded 
that  lemon  handlers  had  been  on  the  wrong  track  in  believing  a 
low  temperature  first  in  importance.  If  the  ventilation  is  right 
the  temperature  will  take  care  of  itself.  Mr.  Teague  decided  that 
proper  conditions  for  keeping  lemons  lie  just  between  the  points 
where  they  wilt  and  where  they  sweat,  inducing  neither  if  possi- 
ble, for  too  much  moisture  induces  decay  and  too  little  causes 
shriveling.  The  fragment  of  the  stem  left  on  the  fruit  by  the  cut- 
ter may  be  used  as  a  test :  if  it  adheres,  the  conditions  are  right 
for  slow  curing;  if  it  detaches  easily,  the  best  keeping  quality  is 
not  being  secured. 

The  Limoneira  Company  was  first  to  equip  a  house  on  the 
open  air  plan.  The  house  is  300x100  feet.  The  flooring  is  2-inch 
planking  and  the  roof  covered  with  gravel-paper  roofing.  The 
building  has  no  sides  whatever,  allowing  free  circulation  of  air. 
The  fruit  for  storage  is  put  into  regular  shipping  boxes,  piled  in 
blocks  of  560  boxes.  There  is  a  double  row  of  these  blocks  on 
either  side  of  a  20-foot  space  which  extends  to  the  entire  length 
of  the  building,  and  which  answers  the  double  purpose  of  a 
work  room  and  an  air  space.  The  boxes  are  so  piled  as  to  permit 
of  the  circulation  of  air  around  each  box.  Each  block  of  fruit  is 
covered  by  a  canvas  10x10x20,  made  box  shape  by  a  canvas  cover 
and  four  canvas  curtains  on  rollers,  the  openings  at  the  corners 
being  closed  by  lacings  as  desirable.  The  ventilation  is  controlled 
by  raising  or  lowering  the  canvas,  and  each  block  of  fruit  can  De 
given  exactly  the  ventilation  that  it  requires,  irrespective  of  the 
other  fruit  in  the  house.  By  this  method  50  or  100  cars  of  fruit 
can  be  handled  and  kept  in  as  good  condition  as  if  there  was  only 
one.  Each  block  being  numbered,  a  complete  record  of  the  lemons 
from  each  of  the  six  sections  of  the  ranch  is  kept  from  the  time 
it  is  picked  until  the  fruit  is  shipped.  The  fruit  is  all  washed  in  a 
lemon  washing  machine,  and  is  piled  up  in  the  house  wet,  just  as 
it  comes  from  the  machine.  The  canvas  covers  are  not  dropped 
over  it,  however,  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry.  An  idea  of  these 
curing  tents  can  be  had  from  an  adjacent  engraving  which  shows 
them  on  both  sides  of  a  central  space  which  is  used  for  packing 
the  fruit  in  the  shipping  boxes. 

With  proper  curing  facilities  lemons  picked  in  November  and 
December  may  be  kept  until  the  following  July.     Later  pickings 


460  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:     HOW    TO     GROW     THEM 

may  not  keep  so  well  and  may  be  marketed  first.  Of  the  finer 
points  in  lemon  handling,  however,  there  is  much  which  must  be 
learned  by  experience. 


VARIETIES    OF    LEMONS    FOR    CALIFORNIA 

During  the  earlier  years  of  California  lemon  growing  there 
were  continuous  efforts  put  forth  to  secure  better  lemon  varieties. 
During  the  last  decade  three  varieties  have  been  accepted  as  satis- 
factory and  nearly  all  others  have  been  dropped.  The  three  are 
Eureka,  Lisbon,  and  Villa  Franca,  arranged  according  to  present 
degree  of  popularity  in  southern  California,  where  nearly  the  whole 
commercial  product  is  now  made,  although  some  plantings  have 
been  undertaken  farther  north,  chiefly  in  the  citrus  belt  on  the 
east  side  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley. 

Eureka. — A  native  of  California,  originated  by  C.  R.  Workman,  at  Los 
Angeles,  from  seed  imported  from  Hamburg  in  1872,  only  one  seed  growing, 
from  which  buds  were  put  by  him  on  orange  stock.  Distributed  by  T.  A. 
Garey,  of  Los  Angeles.  Tree  very  free  from  thorns.  Fruit  medium  size,  sweet 
rind,  a  good  keeper,  few  seeds;  very  popular,  especially  in  coast  regions.  Less 
popular  in  the  interior  because  of  scant  foliage. 

Lisbon. — Imported  from  Portugal ;  first  grown  by  D.  M.  Burnham,  of 
Riverside.  Fruit  uniformly  medium  size,  rather  oblong,  fine  grain,  thin  sweet 
rind,  strong  acid;  few  seeds;  a  good  keeper;  tree  is  a  strong  grower,  with  com- 
pact foliage,  prolific  bearer,  but  starts  bearing  late;  quite  thorny,  but  thorns 
decrease  in  size  as  the  tree  grows  older ;  popular  at  interior  points  especially. 

Villa  Franca. — Imported  from  Europe.  Medium  size,  oblong,  slightly  pointed 
at  the  blossom  end,  rind  thin,  without  bitterness,  acid,  strong,  juicy,  nearly 
seedless.  Tree  thornless,  branches  spreading  and  somewhat  drooping,  foliage 
abundant;   withstands  lower  temperature  than  other  imported  varieties. 


THE    LIME 

The  lime  {Citrus  medica  acida)  has  proved  much  less  hardy 
than  the  lemon.  It  has  been  killed  in  situations  where  the  orange 
and  lemon  have  not  been  injured.  Unless  adequate  protection  is 
thought  worth  the  effort,  there  is  little  use  in  planting  the  lime, 
except  in  a  frostless  situation.  Such  localities  are  found  near  the 
ocean  in  southern  California,  and  here  and  there  at  proper  ele- 
vation in  the  interior  both  north  and  south,  still  the  growth  of  the 
lime  must  be  counted  very  hazardous.  There  is  less  inducement 
to  experiment  with  the  fruit  from  the  fact  that  the  Pacific  Coast 
markets  are  well  supplied  with  Mexican  limes,  usually  at  prices 
which  leave  no  opportunity  for  competitors. 

Limes  are  grown  from  seed,  the  variety  usually  coming  true 
from  seed.  The  trees  are  small  and  are  frequently  grown  in  hedge 
form.  The  common  variety  is  the  Mexican.  The  Imperial,  a 
large,  rather  hardy  variety  is  favorably  reported  by  several  growers. 


THE    BERGAMOT  ^Q^j 

THE    CITRON 

This  fruit  (Citrus  mcdica  cedra)  is  little  grown  in  California, 
although  it  is  quite  hardy  and  could  be  produced  over  a  large  area. 
The  only  use  for  the  fruit,  which  resembles  a  monstrous  lemon, 
is  in  its  candied  rind,  and  no  one  has  deemed  it  worth  while  to 
push  competition  with  the  imported  candied  citron,  though  very 
fine  experimental  lots  have  been  produced,  and  the  interest  of  the 
fruit-preserving  establishments  in  the  product  recurs  periodically. 
There  have  been  collections  of  citron  trees  imported  from  the 
Mediterranean  region  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture planted  at  several  points  in  southern  California.  As  yet 
no  considerable  product  has  been  reached.  There  is,  however,  no 
cessation  of  interest,  and  experimental  planting  continues,  with  a 
prospect  of  satisfactor}^  attainment  ere  long.  Samples  of  the  can- 
died article  have  been  approved  by  experts  as  very  satisfactory. 

ORNAMENTAL    CITRUS     SPECIES 

There  are  grown  in  this  State  for  curiosity  or  ornament  various 
minor  citrus  species,  including  the  Bergamot  and  the  dwarf  orna- 
mental sorts  from  Asia.  There  are,  of  course,  the  ornamental 
species  grown  by  florists  for  their  fragrant  bloom. 


CHAPTER    XXXV 
MINOR   SEMI-TROPICAL   FRUITS    IN    CALIFORNIA 

A  number  of  interesting  fruits  are  now  grown  in  this  State 
which,  for  one  reason  or  another,  have  not  yet  attained  any  great 
commercial  importance,  although  some  of  them  are  advancing  in 
popular  esteem  and  likely  to  gain  much  higher  place  in  the  mar- 
kets. Others  will  probably  never  be  grown  except  for  home  use 
and   garden   ornament. 

THE    BANANA 

The  banana  has  been  a  favorite  plant  for  experimental  culture 
for  many  years,  and  though  good  fruit  has  been  grown  at  various 
points  in  the  State,  the  culture  is  too  hazardous  to  warrant  large 
investment,  and  if  this  danger  was  not  present,  the  ab*undant  sup- 
plies available  from  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  would  probably 
reduce  the  profits  to  a  narrow  margin.  The  banana  can  be  trusted 
only  in  protected  situations  and  in  small  numbers  which  can  be 
given  special  attention.  With  these  conditions  the  banana  may 
yield  very  acceptable  fruit  for  home  use  and  be  an  ornament  to 
the  garden.  Its  beauty  is,  however,  seriously  impaired  by  winds, 
which  whip  its  tender  leaves  into  shreds  and  give  the  plant  an 
unkempt  appearance. 

The  largest  number  of  bananas  are  seen  in  Los  Angeles  and 
Santa  Barbara,  and  one  grower  at  an  elevation  near  the  latter  place 
reports  his  table  supplied  daily  throughout  the  year  with  the  fruit 
of  the  Cavendish  species,  which  is  the  most  commonly  grown 
sort.  The  Yellow  Martinique  or  Yellow  Costa  Rica,  the  Orenoco 
the  Hawaiian  Lele,  Hart's  Choice,  and  a  large-fruited  variety 
known  in  Los  Angeles  county  as  the  Baldwin,  are  also  approved 
by  growers.  How  to  grow  bananas  in  the  garden,  according  to 
the  experience  of  the  late  S.  H.  Gerrish,  of  Sacramento,  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

By  experiment  I  have  found  that  the  banana  will  live — if  in  a  proper  soil — 
without  injury  to  the  roots,  at  a  temperature  as  low  as  sixteen  degrees  Fahr. ; 
the  stalk  will  stand  a  temperature  of  twenty-five  degrees  without  injury,  and 
the  leaves  are  not  wilted  until  the  air  is  chilled  to  thirty  degrees.  My  method 
has  been  to  supply  the  richest  food  for  this  gigantic  plant  and  force  it  to  its 
extreme  growth.  Every  one  has  old  chip  dirt,  ashes,  boots,  shoes,  clothes,  and 
manure,  which  are  often  a  nuisance.  Dig  a  big  hole,  bury  this  up,  in  the  center 
of  the  mass  place  a  pailful  of  sand,  and  plant  the  fresh  bulb.  This  is  to 
preserve  the  dormant  plant  from  the  wire-worms  and  insects,  which  will  not 
attack  the  growing  plant.     As  the  plant  grows,  give  it  an  abundance  of  water 

468 


I 


CHERIMOYER   AND    CHOCHO 


469 


and  all  the  slops  of  the  house.  Any  kind  of  manure,  fresh  or  old,  ashes,  leaves, 
and  vegetables  will  soon  disappear  and  be  absorbed  by  this  gigantic  king  of 
plants.  As  the  rainy  season  approaches,  pile  all  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  trees 
around  the  plants.     It  protects  the  bulbs  and  makes  the  soil  rich  for  next  season. 


THE    CHERIMOYER    OR    PERUVIAN    CUSTARD    APPLE 

The  oldest  cherimoyer  (Anoiia  cherimolia)  is  growing  in  Santa 
Barbara.  The  fruit  was  introduced  about  fifty  years  ago,  and  the 
parent  tree  has  for  many  years  produced  abundant  fruit  in  such 
perfection  that  the  seeds  have  readily  germinated,  and  the  trees  thus 
propagated  have  been  in  successful  bearing  in  several  Santa  Bar- 
bara gardens.  The  leaves  are  oval  and  pointed  at  both  ends ; 
flowers  solitary,  very  fragrant,  and  having  a  greenish  color.  Good 
specimens  of  the  fruit  are  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  often 
heart-shaped,  grayish  brown  or  nearly  black  when  fully  ripe.  The 
tlesh,  in  which  thirty  or  forty  brown  seeds  are  found,  is  soft,  sweet, 
and  pleasant  to  the  taste,  being  most  palatable  when  near  decay. 
Mr.  I.  H.  Cammack,  of  Whittier,  describes  the  pulp  as  of  the 
consistency  of  ice  cream  or  a  custard  flavored  with  a  blending 
of  pineapples  and  bananas.  If  it  has  a  fault  it  is  too  rich.  Appar- 
ently it  has  no  particular  season  for  ripening,  yet  the  best  speci- 
mens seem  to  be  found  in  Santa  Barbara  in  April  and  May.  The 
cherimoyer  is  also  found  in  gardens  in  San  Diego  and  Los  Angeles 
counties.  It  needs  a  well-protected  situation.  The  fruit  has  been 
marketed  on  a  limited  scale  in  Los  Angeles,  and  larger  plantations 
have  been  made,  especially  in  the  Cahuenga  Valley,  near  Los  An- 
geles. The  plant  comes  true  from  seed  and  the  tree  bears  in  its 
fourth  year,  and  should  have  as  much  room  as  an  orange  tree. 
Mr.  C.  P.  Taft,  of  Orange,  points  out  the  fact  that  much  can  be 
gained  by  selection  and  propagation  from  the  most  satisfactory 
trees,  as  follows : 

Cherimoyers  found  in  the  gardens  of  southern  California  are  almost  always 
seedlings,  and  generally  shy  bearers.  There  is  but  one  named  variety,  so  far 
as  I  am  aware,  the  Golden  Russet.  This  is  very  prolific  and  frequently  attains 
large  size.  Specimens  above  one  pound  in  weight  are  not  uncommon.  The 
quality  is  as  good  as  any,  but  is  variable  owing  to  the  season  and  time  of 
ripening,  much  cold  having  a  marked  deteriorating  effect.  The  normal  shape 
is  like  that  of  the  strawberry,  and  the  variations  from  the  normal  are  equally 
abundant;  in  fact,  in  this  respect  the  cherimolia  is  quite  extraordinary,  as  the 
same  tree  will  have  on  it  fully  matured  fruit  from  less  than  an  inch  in  diameter 
up  to  six  or  eight  inches.  In  size  the  tree  averages  about  the  same  as  the 
peach.  The  market  is  a  good  one,  large  fruit  commanding  $3  per  dozen  or 
more,  while  the  smaller  ones  sell  by  the  pound  at  a  relatively  lower  price. 

THE    CHOCHO    OR    CHAYOTA 

The  chocho  plant  is  fruiting  in  Santa  Barbara  county,  for  Mr. 
Kinton  Stevens,  of  Montecito,  who  ot)tained  the  seed  from  Samoa. 
Sechium  edule  is  the  botanical  name  of  this  plant,  but  it  is  per- 


470 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


haps  better  known  as  ''choco,"  "chocho,"  '"chayota,"  and  "Portu- 
guese squash."  It  belongs  to  the  order  cucurbitacae,  and  is  a 
perennial  vine,  resembling  in  growth  and  fruit  our  summer  squash 
or  vegetable  marrow.  It  is  a  very  prolific  bearer.  Both  the  fruit 
and  the  great  yam-like  tuber  are  used  as  food  by  man  and  beast 
in  the  West  Indies,  where  it  is  considered  a  wholesome  article  of 
diet.  The  roots  often  weigh  as  much  as  twenty  pounds.  They 
have  a  flavor  similar  to  the  yam,  and  are  considered  a  greater  deli- 
cacy than  the  fruit,  which  in  a  raw  state  resembles  the  chestnut 
in  flavor,  and  under  favorable  conditions  weighs  over  three  pounds. 
The  proper  way  to  grow  them  is  to  plant  the  whole  fruit,  as  they 
have  but  one  seed,  and  they  produce  fruit  in  three  months,  under 
favorable  conditions. 

THE    GUAVA 

Two  species  of  guava  have  been  quite  widely  tried  in  this 
State — the  strawberry  guava  {Psidium  cattlcyanum)  and  the  lemon 
guava  (Psidium  guayava).  The  former  is  the  hardier,  and,  in  fact, 
seems  to  be  about  as  hardy  as  the  orange,  and  it  has  fruited  in 
widely-separated  parts  of  the  State ;  the  latter  is  quite  tender, 
and  is  at  present  only  grown  in  favorable  places  along  our  southern 
coast,  and  even  there  it  is  found  inferior  in  quality  and  usefulness 
to  the  strawberry  guava. 

Mr.  C.  P.  Taft  of  Orange  has  confidence  in  the  lemon  guava 
through  the  selection  of  better  varieties.  It  is  far  larger  than  the 
Strawberry,  and  of  quite  attractive  appearance.  Sometimes  the 
color  is  almost  white,  sometimes  quite  green,  and  frequently  of 
a  bright  yellow,  often  with  a  red  cheek.  These  variations  are  only 
what  is  naturally  to  be  expected  from  seedlings,  and  almost  no 
others  have  yet  been  planted.  Mr.  Taft  has  fruited  quite  a  num- 
ber, perhaps  a  hundred,  and  finds  it  to  possess  qualities  which  if 
properly  selected  and  developed  will  cause  it  to  equal  the  Straw- 
berry guava  in  hardiness  and  flavor  and  early  ripening. 

The  guava  grows  quite  readily  from  the  seed,  and  grows  from 
cuttings  under  glass.  In  regions  of  generous  rainfall  and  on  reten- 
tive soil  it  does  not  require  irrigation,  but  it  must  have  sufficient 
moisture  at  command.  A  light  loam  seems  best  adapted  to  the 
shrub. 

THE    FEIJOA 

Along  with  the  guava  should  be  mentioned  the  Feijoa  Sellow- 
iana,  a  member  also  of  the  myrtle  family.  In  habits  of  growth  it  is 
much  the  same  as  the  guava  and  while  the  foliage  is  not  so  hand- 
some, being  of  a  generally  silver  gray  effect,  the  flower  is  very 
showy.     In   May   it  sends   forth   a   great   profusion   of   blossoms, 


I 


THE    LOQUAT  471 


which  may  be  called  red,  white  and  blue,  unless  one  desires  to  be 
perfectly  accurate,  in  which  case  the  blue  would  have  to  be 
changed  to  purple.  The  petals  are  unusually  thick  and  fleshy  and 
are  very  sweet  to  the  taste.  The  highly  perfumed  fruit,  about 
one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  or  more  in  length,  comes  in  Novem- 
ber. The  flavor  is  delicious,  like  the  strawberry  but  lacking  the 
acid.  The  seeds  are  very  small,  almost  unnoticeable ;  quite  a  con- 
trast in  this  respect  to  the  guava. 

THE  GRANADILLA 

The  granadilla  is  the  term  applied  to  the  edible  fruit  of  a  species 
of  passion  vine  (Passiflora  edulis)  which  is  quite  hardy,  and  is  grow- 
ing in  different  parts  of  the  State.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a 
small  hen's  egg,  purple  exterior  when  ripe,  the  thin,  brittle  shell 
inclosing  a  mass  of  small  seeds  covered  with  a  brilliant  yellow 
pulp,  mildly  acid,  and  of  very  agreeable  flavor.  Very  good  jelly 
has  been  made  of  the  fruit.  Another  passion  vine  with  large  pink 
flowers  is  very  widely  distributed  in  California,  and  bears  a  large, 
yellowish-brown  fruit  with  edible  pulp. 

THE  JUJUBE 

The  jujube  {zyziphus  jujube),  from  the  fruit  of  which  the  deli- 
cate paste  of  the  confectioner  is,  or  should  be,  made,  was  intro- 
duced by  G.  P.  Rixford  in  1876,  and  is  fruiting  regularly  and  freely 
in  several  parts  of  the  State.  The  plant  is  easily  grown  from  seed 
or  cuttings.  The  orange-red  berries  are  produced  three  years  from 
planting,  and  ripen  in  November  and  December.  They  are  edible 
fresh  or  dried.  As  yet  the  fruit  has  not  been  turned  to  commercial 
account. 

THE  LOQUAT 

The  loquat  (Eriobotrya  Japonica)  is  widely  grown  in  California 
as  an  ornamental  plant,  and  a  small  amount  of  fruit  is  profitably 
marketed  each  year.  During  the  last  twenty  years  a  very  marked 
improvement  in  loquats  has  been  achieved  by  painstaking  effort 
by  Mr.  C.  P.  Taft,  of  Orange,  whose  experience  is  freely  drawn 
upon  in  this  chapter.  Mr.  Taft's  work  has  demonstrated  that  this 
fruit  is  susceptible  of  improvement  in  size,  flavor,  appearance,  in 
bearing  habit  of  the  tree,  and  in  direction  of  early  and  late  varieties, 
and  in  all  these  directions  not  only  in  the  line  of  better  fruit,  but 
fruit  which  commands  in  the  market  several  times  the  value  of  the 
common  types.  Upon  the  basis  of  the  new  varieties  the  season  for 
the  loquat  is  from  February  to  June,  the  bulk  of  the  crop  coming 


The  Victor  Loquat:    a  California  variety. 


472 


THE    PERSIMMON 


473 


in  April  and  the  first  half  of  May.  The  Advance  Loquat  was  the 
first  of  the  new  varieties  to  attract  attention.  It  is  very  prolific. 
The  fruit  is  often  as  much  as  three  inches  in  length,  and  from  one 
inch  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter;  it  being  of  a  peculiar 
pear  shape.  The  clusters  frequently  contain  twenty  specimens. 
Its  color  is  a  bright  orange  yellow  when  fully  ripe,  and  it  should 
never  be  picked  until  it  is  so.  The  flavor  is  distinct  and  very  sweet. 
Many  compare  it  to  the  cherry.  If  not  bruised  when  handled  it 
will  keep  easily  two  weeks,  growing  sweeter  by  the  process,  and 
will  eventually  shrivel  up  without  decay,  thus  proving  itself  capable 
of  being  shipped  long  distances.  Mr.  Taft  has  named  the  follow- 
ing varieties : 

Blush. — Very  large,  much  like  Advance  resistant  to  diseases. 

Advance. — Yellow,  pear-shaped,  from  two  to  three  inches  in  length,  clusters 
very  large,  very  sweet  when  fully  ripe. 

Premier. — Salmon-colored,    oval,    large,    but    not    as    large   as    the   Advance. 
sweet,  but  peculiar  flavor. 

Victor. — Largest,  color  pink  to  red,  probably  the  best  for  canning. 

Pineapple. — Very   large,    round,   immense   clusters;    flesh   white,   skin   yellow. 

Commercial. — Very  large,  pear  shaped,  yellow  with  white  flesh. 


THE  PERSIMMON 

The  persimmon  of  the  southern  States  {Diospyros  Virginiana) 
was  introduced  into  California  in  early  days  some  time  ago,  as 
there  are  trees  thirty  to  forty  feet  high  growing  on  Rancho  Chico. 
The  widely-distributed  species,  however,  is  the  Japanese  (Diospyros 
Kaki),  of  which  many  varieties  are  now  fruiting  in  different  parts 
of  the  State.  The  tree  is  quite  hardy,  and  fruits  freely  both  along 
the  coast  region  and  in  the  interior.  It  easily  takes  the  form  of  a 
low  standard,  and  with  its  large,  glossy  leaves  during  the  summer, 
and  its  immense,  high-colored  fruit  clinging  to  the  twigs  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen,  it  is  a  striking  object  in  the  orchard  or  in  the 
house  garden. 

Persimmons  grow  readily  from  seed,  but  in  most  cases  the  im- 
proved varieties  must  be  reproduced  by  grafting  on  seedlings  either 
of  the  Japanese  or  American  species.  The  tree  seems  to  thrive 
in  any  fair  fruit  soil,  taking  very  kindly  to  close  soils  if  well  culti- 
vated. The  amounts  of  fruit  now  reaching  our  markets  are  increas- 
ing and  a  dernand  is  found  for  certain  amounts  at  fair  prices,  but 
there  is  no  object  now  apparent  for  large  increase  of  production. 
This  fruit,  so  highly  esteemed  in  the  Orient  and  so  highly  praised 
by  travelers,  has  not  become  as  popular  as  expected  on  this  coast, 
nor  have  the  great  markets  at  the  East  required  more  than  a  car- 
load or  two  a  year  so  far.  Americans  who  wish  persimmons  at 
all  seem  to  prefer  the  smaller  but  more  piquant  Virginia  species. 


474  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Recently,  however,  the  local  demand  has  increased  because  of 
the  large  numbers  of  Japanese  who  are  now  upon  the  Pacific 
Coast  and  a  shipping  demand  for  the  fruit  from  Seattle  to  the  Ha- 
waiian Islands  and  other  Pacific  ports,  has  arisen.  The  removal 
of  astringency  while  the  fruit  remains  firm  has  been  successfully 
accomplished  by  Mr.  George  C.  Roeding  of  Fresno,  following  a 
Japanese  method.  It  is  simply  to  place  the  fruit  in  tubs,  from 
which  saki,  or  Japanese  "  rice  beer,"  has  been  lately  removed.  The 
tubs  are  hermetically  sealed,  and  the  fruit  left  in  them  from  eight 
to  ten  days.  When  it  is  then  removed,  it  is  found  to  have  alto- 
gether lost  the  puckering  power.  Mr.  Roeding  says  that  he  used 
eight  large  saki  tubs,  each  of  which  would  hold  twenty-five  gallons, 
and  in  those  treated  one  thousand  pounds  of  persimmons. 

THE  PINEAPPLE 

Casual  experiments  with  the  pineapple  in  the  open  air  in  this 
vState  have  been  made  for  a  number  of  years,  the  fruit  being  occa- 
sionally produced.  Most  has  been  accomplished  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Rapp, 
of  Hollywood,  Los  Angeles  County.  Mr.  Rapp's  place  is  in  the 
Cahuenga  Valley,  and  in  that  part  of  the  valley  which  is  famed 
as  frostless,  where  even  beans  and  tomatoes  survive  winter  tem- 
peratures. Mr.  Rapp  set  out  his  first  twenty-five  plants  in  1891, 
and  a  number  of  his  neighbors  also  set  out  groups  of  plants,  but 
two  years  finished  up  all  but  his.  In  1893  the  first  of  his  plants 
fruited,  but  they  did  not  seem  to  take  kindly  to  the  situation  at 
first.  They  grew  very  slowly  and  the  first  fruit  only  weighed  half 
a  pound.  After  setting  out  his  own  acclimated  plants,  they  have 
done  better  each  year,  and  the  fruit  which  Mr.  Rapp  has  sold 
recently  has  weighed  from  two  to  four  pounds  each.  If  the  strong- 
est offsets  or  suckers  are  planted  they  bear  inside  of  a  year,  and 
Mr.  Rapp  is  endeavoring  to  have  his  fruit  set  from  May  to  Novem- 
ber, as  the  fruit  setting  at  other  times  in  the  year  is  usually  under- 
sized on  account  of  the  slow  growth  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring.  It  seems  probable  that  the  pineapple  resents  the  dry  air 
of  our  summer  as  well  as  the  lack  of  winter  heat,  and  a  lath  cover- 
ing and  a  summer  spraying  may  be  desirable.  It  is  very  doubtful 
whether  the  fruit  can  be  profitably  grown  in  this  State  on  a  com- 
mercial scale. 

The  pineapple  thrives  best  on  a  fine  sandy  loam,  but  will  grow 
well  on  many  soils  if  well  drained  and  cultivated.  The  plants  can 
be  set  three  by  three  or  four  by  five  feet,  so  as  to  allow  cultivation 
both  ways  while  the  plants  are  young.  Plants  are  secured  from 
"  suckers,"  which  come  from  the  root,  from  "  slips,"  which  grow  on 
the  stem  just  below  the  ''apple,"  and  from  ''crowns"  or  the  tufts 
of  leaves  at  the  top  of  the  fruit.  Suckers  are  said  to  bear  in  one 
year,  and  slips  and  crowns  in  two  years.     Strong  suckers  are  best 


POMEGRANATE     AND     PAWPAW 


475 


for  planting,  and  they  should  be  set  out  early  in  the  spring  as  soon 
as  the  danger  of  cold  weather  is  over. 

THE  POMEGRANATE 

This  fruit  (Pimica  granatum)^  famed  in  literature  and  art,  is 
grown  in  various  parts  of  the  State,  and  certain  amounts  are  profit- 
ably sold.  The  shrub  or  low  tree,  in  good  soil,  will  reach  the 
height  of  twenty  feet.  It  is  a  hardy  plant,  easy  of  propagation 
from  seed  or  cutting.  The  beauty  of  the  tree,  not  taking  the  fruit 
into  account,  has  caused  it  to  be  planted  in  many  gardens.  Ex- 
posed to  the  raw  sea  winds  it  does  not  bloom  well  nor  set  with 
fruit,  and  is  best  adapted  to  the  warmer  regions  of  the  interior, 
where  it  is  an  early  and  abundant  bearer.  The  variety  chiefly  cul- 
tivated is  a  bright  orange  color,  but  there  is  found  a  large  variety 
of  them,  varying  from  almost  pure  white  with  a  faint  blush,  to  dark 
red.  The  fruit  ripens  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State,  north  and 
south,  in  October. 

THE  STRAWBERRY  TREE 

The  Spanish  madrono  {Arbutus  uncdo)  is  now  quite  widely 
grown,  chiefly  as  an  ornamental  shrub  or  tree.  The  growth  is 
exceedingly  beautiful  if  kept  free  from  scale  insects,  the  fruit  rang- 
ing as  it  ripens  through  shades  of  yellow,  orange,  and  deep  red, 
and  contrasting  beautifully  with  the  glossy  evergreen  foliage.  The 
fruit  is  of  pleasant  flavor. 

MELON    SHRUB 

This  plant  {Solarium  Guatemalensc)  is  a  small,  half-herbaceous 
shrub  from  the  table-land  of  Guatemala.  The  fruit  is  yellow, 
splashed  with  violet,  somewhat  of  the  shape  of  the  egg-plant,  but 
is  usually  seedless,  and  is  readily  propagated  from  cuttings.  There 
are  thriving  plants  in  many  protected  places  in  the  State,  and  some 
fruit  reaches  the  market,  but  few  seem  to  like  the  flavor,  which  is 
something  like  a  tomato  and  melon  mixed.  Its  greatest  use  will 
probably  be  for  salads. 

THE    MELON    TREE 

The  melon  pawpaw  {Carica  papaya)  has  been  widely  introduced 
experimentally  in  this  State,  and  many  situations  are  found  unfitted 
for  its  growth,  but  satisfactory  fruiting  has  been  secured  at  several 
places  in  southern  California,  especially  if  protected  the  first  year 
it  will  stand  light  frosts  afterwards.  With  Mr.  Cammack,  at  Whit- 
tier,  Los  Angeles  County,  it  ripens  fruit  the  third  year  from  the 


476  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

seed — the  fruit  being  pleasant  to  eat  as  one  would  a  mushroom. 
The  large  fig-like  leaves  and  the  peculiar  markings  of  the  trunk 
make  the  tree  a  very  striking  object. 


THE    PRICKLY    PEAR 

The  tuna,  or  fruit  of  the  cactus  {Opnntia  vulgaris),  is  produced 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  State  except  on  the  mountains.  It  was 
one  of  the  old  mission  fruits,  and  was  enjoyed  by  the  early  mining 
population  until  better  fruits  were  available.  It  is  about  as  large 
as  a  medium-sized  pear,  and  has  a  pleasant  acid  flavor  if  one  suc- 
ceeds in  escaping  the  prickles  in  getting  at  the  interior  of  the  fruit. 
The  tuna  is  still  a  commercial  article  in  a  small  way.  Plants  are 
grown  readily  from  cuttings  of  the  fleshy  leaves. 

Quite  a  distinction  must  now  be  made  between  the  foregoing 
and  the  smooth  or  spineless  fruits  which  are  superior  in  quality  as 
well  .as  unarmed  with  prickles,  and  therefore  readily  handled  and 
eaten.  Varieties  more  or  less  innocent  in  this  respect  were  intro- 
duced from  the  Mediterranean  region  many  years  ago,  and  prop- 
agated to  a  limited  extent.  Recently  Mr.  Luther  Burbank  of  Santa 
Rosa  has  undertaken  special  work  with  the  cactus,  both  for  fruiting 
and  forage  purposes,  and  has  attained  remarkable  results  which  are 
attracting  wide  attention,  and  upon  which  producing  enterprises  are 
being  undertaken. 

THE    ALLIGATOR    PEAR 

The  avocado,  or  Aguacate  of  the  Mexicans  {Persca  gratissima) 
has  proved  hardy  in  several  districts  in  the  State,  north  and  south. 
It  is  not  likely  that  it  will  be  satisfactory  without  high  summer  heat 
and  freedom  from  heavy  frosts.  It  is,  however,  one  of  the  most 
promising  of  its  class  of  fruits,  as  it  is  known  to  epicures,  and  its 
marketing  at  a  high  price  reasonably  assured.  Mr.  J.  C.  Harvey, 
of  Los  Angeles,  gives  this  interesting  account  of  it: 

It  is  a  handsome  evergreen  tree,  and,  in  the  typical  form,  bears  elliptical 
leaveft;  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  inches  in  width,  narrow  toward  the 
base,  and  about  six  inches  long.  In  some  varieties  the  new  growth  is  of  a 
reddish  brown,  ultimately  becoming  deep  green.  The  fruits  are  pear-shaped, 
about  the  size  of  a  Bartlett  pear,  and  contain  a  single,  rather  large  seed.  When 
ripe,  the  skin,  which  is  much  thinner  than  that  of  an  orange,  parts  easily  from 
the  pulp,  which  is  of  a  moderately  firm  though  buttery  consistency,  and  forms, 
with  lime  juice  or  pepper  and  salt,  one  of  the  most  delicious  salads  known  to 
epicures.  Indeed,  the  fruit  is  a  perfect  mayonnaise  in  itself.  Few  persons  fail 
to  like  it,  even  at  first,  and  in  countries  where  it  is  common,  it  is  esteemed  above 
all  other  vegetable  productions,  both  by  natives  and  foreigners  alike.  The  pulp 
is  quite  rich  in  a  bland  and  most  agreeable  oil,  said  to  be  very  nutritious.  The 
tree  attains  a  height  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  feet,  and  forms  a  hand- 
some object  when  liberally  cultivated.  The  tree  is  a  gross  feeder.  Good- 
sized  trees  carry  a  large  crop,  which,  after  attaining  a  certain  size,  can  be  picked 
at  intervals  of  a  week  or  two  extending  over  a  period  of  two  or  three  months, 


THE    WHITE    SAPOTA 


477 


pthe  fruits  in  each  instance  ripening  in  a  week  or  ten  days  after  gathering; 
tand  a  very  remarkable  fact  is  that  the  quality  or  flavor  of  the  last  picking 
seems  just  the  same  as  the  first. 

The  alligator  pear  must  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  prom- 
rising  fruits  included  in  this  chapter;  it  may  prove  the  most  profit- 
[able  of  the  group.  Efforts  are  in  progress  in  California  and  else- 
^where  for  improved  varieties  by  selection  and  propagation  by 
budding  with  the  ordinary  shield-bud  and  a  waxed  cloth  binding, 
is  easily  done.  The  literature  of  the  alligator  pear  is  increasing  and 
should  be  consulted.*  Of  progress  in  its  growth  thus  far  in  south- 
ern California  Mr.  Taft  writes: 

It  is  hardly  probable  that  here  in  California  we  can  ever  produce  fruit 
quite  equal  in  size  to  the  largest  from  the  tropics,  but  there  are  smaller  and 
hardier  varieties  which  are  no  whit  inferior  but  rather  better  in  flavor  and 
richness  which  have  been  found  to  do  well.  These  are  from  local  or  Mexican 
seeds  whose  ancestors  for  many  generations  have  grown  in  a  climate  much 
like  our  own.  In  southern  California  there  are  perhaps  a  hundred  trees  old 
enough  to  bear.  Of  these  about  ten  produce  abundant  and  regular  crops. 
Fortunately  they  are  so  located  as  to  indicate  that  there  is  a  considerable  area 
adapted  to  Avocado.  Of  these  first  class  trees  one  or  two  grow  at  Hollywood, 
two  or  three  in  Los  Angeles,  one  at  Monrovia,  one  at  Santa  Ana,  and  I  have 
two  or  three  at  Orange.  One  of  those  at  Hollywood  is  probably  the  most 
prolific. 

It  is  from  these  trees  that  we  should  establish  our  groves.  Probably  the 
safest  plan  is  to  plant  in  orchard  seedling  trees,  direct  from  the  can  or  pot  in 
which  they  are  started,  for  many  have  found  the  Avocado  rather  cranky  about 
transplanting.  When  balled,  though,  it  moves  readily  enough.  Trees  which 
do  not  fruit  satisfactorily  can  be  budded  over  as  soon  as  this  fact  is  shown. 

As  there  is  an  uncommonly  great  variation  in  the  time  of  blooming  and 
also  in  the  period  required  for  the  fruit  of  different  types  of  trees  to  come 
to  maturity,  an  orchard  may  be  obtained  by  selection  which  will  bear  continu- 
ously. This  is  of  course  very  desirable  to  the  consumer  and  immaterial  to  the 
market  grower,  as  there  is  plenty  of  demand  at  all  times. 

The  tree  at  Monrovia  was  grown  by  W.  Chappelow  and  has 
been  named  for  him  by  W.  A.  Taylor  of  the  U.  S.-  Department  of 
Agriculture  who  imported  the  seed  from  Mexico. 

THE    WHITE    SAPOTA 

There  are  two  old  trees  in  Santa  Barbara,  one  believed  to  have 
survived  from  the  mission  planting  in  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century,  the  other  half  as  old,  of  the  white  sapota  (Casimiroa  ediUHs). 
Dr.  Franceschi  commends  the  tree  for  every  garden.  Mr.  Harvey 
of  Los  Angeles  describes  the  sapota  as  growing  with  him  from  seed 
from  Vera  Cruz  as  follows : 


This  tree  endures  slight  frosts  unharmed.  It  is  indigenous  in  northwest  Mex- 
ico and  is  remarkable  among  the  Aurantiacca,  producing  green  colored  flowers, 
and  superficially  bears  little  resemblance  to  an  otherwise  well-marked  order  of 
plants.     The  fruits  are  the  size  of  apples,  and  are  esteemed  in  that  portion  of 

•  The  Avocado,  by  G.  N.  Collins.  Bulletin  77,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S. 
Dept,  of  Agr.,  1907.  Consult  also  Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  for  1905  and 
1906. 


478  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Mexico  where  it  is  common;  according  to  some  botanical  authorities  it  is  not 
considered  aUogether  wholesome,  possessing  narcotic  properties.  The  pulp  is 
described  as  possessing  a  delicious,  melting,  peach-like  taste. 

Mr.  Taft  reports  the  sapota  as  bearing  well  with  him.  The  tree 
is  an  exceedingly  rapid  grower,  much  after  the  habit  of  the  walnut, 
but  evergreen.  In  August  and  September  the  peach-like  fruit, 
greenish  yellow,  with  large  seeds  shaped  like  those  of  an  orange, 
matures  well  and  is  excellent,  this  being  the  normal  season  for 
ripening.  At  other  times  fruit  is  often  found,  but  is  apt  to  be 
worthless  and  even  dangerous.  As  it  will  not  ripen  well  ofif  the 
trees  and  must  be  quite  soft  when  eaten,  it  will  never  be  of  much 
market  value. 

THE    TREE    TOMATO 

This  plant  (Cyphomandra  hctacea)  was  brought  to  general  notice 
by  Mr.  Cammack  of  Whittier.  It  is  a  native  of  Central  America 
and  is  of  shrubby  habit,  growing  five  or  six  feet  high,  with  large, 
shining  leaves,  often  a  foot  long.  The  flowers  are  fragrant,  of  a 
pale  flesh  color,  with  yellow  stamens,  and  are  followed  by  fruit  the 
shape  and  size  of  a  duck's  ^gg,  at  first  of  a  purple  tint,  but  gradually 
assuming  a  warm,  reddish  color  as  it  ripens.  When  ripe  the  fruit 
may  be  used  raw  as  a  tomato  is.  If  the  skin  is  removed  and  the  fruit 
stewed  with  sugar,  it  has  a  slight  sub-acid  flavor  which  is  very 
refreshing.  It  makes  a  fine  jelly.  The  plants  bear  the  second  year 
from  the  seed  and  the  fruit  ripens  continuously  for  several  months. 
The  seeds  should  be  started  just  as  are  those  of  the  common  tomato, 
and  the  plants  set  out  eight  or  ten  feet  apart. 

THE    KAI    APPLE 

This  name  is  applied  to  the  fruit  of  Aberia  Caifra^  a  native  of 
Natal  and  Kafifaria,  a  tall  shrub,  yielding  an  edible  fruit  of  a  golden 
yellow  color,  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  commended  as  a 
hedge  plant,  as  it  is  densely  clothed  with  strong  dry  spines.  The 
leaves  are  small  and  of  a  rich  green  hue.  The  fruit,  which  is  pro- 
duced freely  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State,  is  chiefly  used  for 
making  preserves. 

OTHER    FRUITS 

The  foregoing  enumeration  does  not  include  all  the  exotic  fruits 
which  have  found  a  place  on  California  soil.  There  are  many  more, 
some  of  which  are  demonstrating  their  fitness  to  add  to  the  graces 
or  the  gains  of  our  horticultural  life.  The  caricas,  carissas,  eugenias, 
hovenia,  etc.,  are  all  gaining  places  in  California  gardens.  Even  the 
more  strictly  tropical  mango,  the  monstera,  sapodilla  and  the  like 
are  claiming  the  attention  of  amateurs. 


PART    SIX:    SMALL    FRUITS 


CHAPTER    XXXVI 
BERRIES    AND    CURRENTS    IN    CALIFORNIA 

In  suitable  soils  and  situations,  and  with  proper  care  and  cultiva- 
tion, the  small  fruits  sustain  the  general  reputation  of  California 
by  the  size  and  quality  of  the  product,  and  by  the  long-continued 
and  abundant  fruiting  of  the  plants.  Probably  nowhere  else  in  the 
world  do  small  fruits  better  repay  generous  treatment  than  in  this 
State,  and  probably  nowhere  do  they  suffer  more  from  neglect. 
There  are  parts  of  the  State,  of  course,  where  some  small  fruits,  left 
to  their  own  resources,  thrive  and  bear  abundantly,  but,  speaking  of 
the  State  as  a  whole,  the  price  of  success  is  intelligent  devotion  on 
the  part  of  the  grower. 

There  are  localities  in  California  which  favor  almost  continuous 
growth  and  fruiting  of  some  of  the  small  fruits,  and  it  is  no  fiction 
to  say  that  in  such  a  place  one  may  have  raspberries  and  straw- 
berries upon  his  table  every  month  of  the  year.  Such  situations  are 
the  thermal  belts,  which  are  practically  frostless,  and,  by  securing 
favoring  moisture  conditions  in  the  soil  and  proper  varieties  of  the 
fruits,  the  existing  temperature  conditions  will  produce  the  results 
indicated.  Though  this  be  the  case,  the  profitable  growth  of  small 
fruits  is  not,  of  course,  restricted  to  such  situations,  but  the  largest 
commercial  enterprises  are  carried  on  in  places  where  the  summer- 
crop  rule  prevails,  but  the  bearing  season  is  much  larger  than  in  the 
eastern  States. 

Small  fruits  for  family  use  may  be  grown  on  all  fertile  soils,  and 
therefore  they  should  be  produced  on  every  farm.  Growing  for 
market  on  a  large  scale  involves  considerations  of  suitability  of  soil 
and  climate,  ease  of  cultivation,  water  supply,  and  facilities  for 
transportation,  which  will  probably  occur  to  any  one  who  gives  the 
matter  the  thought  and  personal  observation  of  existing  small  fruit 
farms,  which  such  an  important  commercial  venture  should 
command. 

It  is  often  claimed  that  soil  for  small  fruits  should  be  deep  and 
rich  of  the  types  generally  called  garden  soils.  There  is  an  advan- 
tage in  this  because  of  amount  of  plant  food  and  retention  of  moist- 
ure when  well  cultivated,  but  at  the  same  time  shallow  soils  even 
when  overlying  hardpan,  which  may  not  suit  deep  rooting  trees  or 

479  ■  ♦  . 


480 


California  fruits:  how  to  grow  them 


garden  roots,  can  be  profitably  used  for  small  fruits  if  water  and 
fertilizers  are  intelligentJy  used.  This  will  be  stated  more  fully  in 
the  discussion  of  the  strawberry,  but  the  general  fact  is  pertinent 
to  the  growth  of  other  small  fruits  also. 

Preparation  of  soil  for  small  fruits  should  be  most  thorough  and 
careful.  Even  more  generous  work  than  that  commanded  in  Chap- 
ter X  for  trees  and  vines  should  be  done.  It  is  the  more  necessary 
to  work  deeply  because  subsequent  culture  of  small  fruits  must  be 
shallow. 

THE  BLACKBERRY 

The  blackberry  is  a  great  favorite  in  California  markets.  It 
thrives  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  and  the  plant  is  best  suited  of  all 
small  fruits  to  yield  generously  without  irrigation,  though  it  relishes 
sufficient  moisture  and  repays  it  with  fruit.  There  is  great  differ- 
ence in  practice  as  to  supplying  water  artificially.  The  growth  of 
cane,  and  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  fruit,  will  show  the  observ- 
ing grower  what  should  be  the  practice  in  his  situation,  and  the  gen- 
eral suggestions  as  to  irrigation  in  Chapter  XV  are  applicable.  There 
ar^  regions  in  which  blackberries  are  irrigated  weekly  throughout 
the  summer,  and  others  in  which  the  berries  are  gathered  from  June 
to  November  without  irrigation.  Of  course,  with  such  wide  local 
variations  there  can  be  no  general  rule  for  practice.  Let  the  grower 
simply  bear  in  mind  that  if  he  does  not  get  good,  plump,  and  glisten- 
ing fruit  and  good  strong  growth  of  new  canes  at  the  same  time,  he 
should  give  irrigation.  The  requirements  of  the  plant  during  the 
fruiting  season  are  great,  and  they  must  be  met.  Many  failures  are 
due  to  lack  of  irrigation  when  needed. 

Propagation. — Blackberry  plants  are  secured  by  digging  up  the 
shoots  from  old  stools,  securing  therewith  a  bunch  of  fibrous  roots 
with  a  portion  of  the  main  root.  To  propagate  on  a  large  scale  dig 
up  the  roots  entirely,  and,  cutting  them  up  with  pruning  shears  into 
pieces  about  two  inches  long,  plant  them  in  a  well-prepared  bed  in 
the  garden  or  nursery.  Place  the  root  cuttings  about  two  inches 
apart  and  cover  about  three  inches  deep  with  well-pulverized  soil, 
the  depth  being  regulated  of  course,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  deeper  in  light  than  heavy  soils.  A  light  mulch  will  assist  in 
retaining  moisture.  The  time  for  this  work  is  at  the  dormant  period 
of  the  plant.  One  summer's  growth  gives  good  plants  for  setting 
out. 

Planting  out  Blackberries. — Blackberries  should  be  planted  in 
rows  far  enough  apart  to  admit  of  the  use  of  the  horse  and  culti- 
vator. As  the  constant  tendency  of  the  plant  is  to  extend  itself  in 
the  growth  of  new  canes,  the  rows  should  not  be  less  than  six  to 
eight  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  about  three  feet  apart  in  the  row. 


GROWING    BLACKBERRIES 


481 


The  plants  sooti  occupy  the  full  space  in  the  row,  and  cultivation  is 
only  possible  between  the  rows.  Some  growers  plant  blackberries 
as  they  do  grapevines,  seven  or  eight  feet  apart  both  ways,  and  then 
cultivate  with  the  horse  both  ways.  Planting  in  rows  is  better. 
The  number  of  plants  to  fill  an  acre  at  different  distances  can  be 
calculated  as  described  in  Chapter  XXVI  for  grapevines. 

D.  Edson  Smith,  of  Orange  County,  who  had  much  experience 
with  small  fruits,  described  his  method  of  laying  out  and  planting 
on  a  large  scale,  with  a  view  to  irrigation,  as  follows : 

Plow  deeply  and  harrow  thoroughly  several  times  before  setting  out. 
Lastly,  open  a  trench  with  your  plow  where  the  row  is  to  be,  twenty  inches 
deep ;  go  along  with  a  basket  of  plants,  a  four-foot  lath  and  a  shovel,  and  set 
a  plant  in  this  trench  every  four  feet  and  fill  the  dirt  around  it  with  the  shovel. 
If  this  trench  is  too  deep  in  places  for  the  length  of  the  plant  root,  fill  in  with 
a  little  dirt;  if  not  quite  deep  enough  in  places,  scoop  out  a  shovelful.  Aim,  in 
preparing  the  ground  with  plow  and  smoother,  to  leave  it  dishing  each  way 
toward  the  row  of  young  plants,  so  that  irrigating  water  turned  in  at  the 
upper  end  will  run  along  the  row  of  plants  as  in  a  trough.  Aim  to  have  the 
ground  around  the  set  plants  a  few  inches  below  the  general  level  of  the  land. 
After  the  plants  are  all  set  in  a  row,  go  along  with  a  rake  if  there  are  but  a 
few  plants,  or  with  a  horse-hoe  if  there  are  many,  and  fill  in  the  trench  between 
the  plants.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  set  out  plants  in  this  way,  and  such  deep,  rich 
well-stirred  soil  delights  the  plant  roots,  so  that  they  grow  rapidly  in  every 
direction,  and  the  plants  throw  up  their  heads  in  a  manner  entirely  satistac- 
tory  to  all  concerned.  If  the  ground  is  dry,  or  there  is  no  rain  soon  after 
setting  out  the  plants,  irrigating  water  should  be  turned  down  the  row  or  at 
least  a  quart  or  two  of  water  poured  around  each  plant;  then,  before  the  soil 
hardens,  stir  it  well  with  cultivator  and  hoe.  All  future  care  resolves  itself 
into  frequent  waterings  and  frequent  stirrings  of  the  soil.  Allow  no  weeds  to 
appear,  and  keep  three  inches  of  surface  soil  well  loosened  with  the  horse  and 
hoes.  These  small  fruits  require  frequent  waterings,  especially  when  forming 
fruit  and  during  the  fruiting  season. 

Cultivation. — Thorough  cultivation  of  the  surface  soil  is  essen- 
tial for  retention  of  moisture.  After  the  plants  attain  size,  culti- 
vation should  be  secured  with  as  shallow-cutting  tools  as  possible 
so  as  to  prevent  injury  to  the  roots,  which  not  only  weakens  the 
plant,  but  increases  the  growth  of  suckers  between  the  rows.  A 
horse-hoe  with  a  long  knife  running  horizontally,  or  with  duck-foot 
teeth,  well  sharpened,  answers  well  in  keeping  the  ground  clear  of 
weeds  and  suckers,  and  the  surface  loose.  Due  regard  must,  how- 
ever, be  paid  to  securing  sufficient  depth  in  this  surface  layer  to 
prevent  the  soil  beneath  baking  hard  and  drying  out,  as  discussed  in 
the  chapter  on  cultivation. 

Frequency  of  cultivation  depends  upon  irrigation,  for  the  cul- 
tivator must  always  follow  the  application  of  water.  The  spaces  in 
the  row  which  can  not  be  reached  with  the  cultivator  must  be  kept 
clean  from  weeds,  and  free  from  baking,  by  the  use  of  the  hoe. 
It  is  advisable  that  the  cultivation  be  the  cleanest  possible,  for 
moisture  exhaustion  by  weeds  can  not  be  afforded. 


The  Mammoth  Blackberry. 


482 


PRUNING    BLACKBERRIES  4g3 

Pruning  aftd  Training. — There  is  a  little  difference  in  the  way 
of  training  blackberries  practiced  in  this  State.  Of  course  this  does 
not  include  the  "  let  alone  "  system,  which  is  not  followed  by  any 
good  grower.  The  difference  lies  mainly  in  the  use  or  disuse 
of  artificial  supports  for  the  canes  —  the  prevailing  practice  being 
to  dispense  with  them.  In  either  case  the  pruning  of  the  canes  is 
similar  in  kind  but  different  in  degree,  for  if  no  supports  are  used, 
the  canes  are  headed  lower. 

At  planting  out,  cut  back  the  cane  to  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  mark  the  plant  with  a  small  stake.  At  first  the  top 
growth  should  not  be  checked,  but  when  new  canes  grow  out 
strongly  they  should  be  pinched  at  the  tip  to  force  out  lateral 
branches  for  fruiting  the  next  year.  Those  who  intend  to  tie 
canes  to  a  stake  or  trellis  let  them  attain  a  height  of  five  or  six 
feet  before  pinching  off  the  terminal  bud;  those  who  intend  to 
teach  the  cane  to  stand  alone  pinch  when  it  is  from  two  to  four 
feet  high.  All  agree  to  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  lateral  branches 
at  about  twelve  inches  from  the  main  stem.  This  pinching  of 
blackberry  canes  may  be  done  by  the  watchful  grower  of  a  few 
plants,  with  the  thumb  and  finger,  but  thrifty  blackberry  plants 
are  such  rapid  cane  growers  that  in  large  plantations  cutting  back 
is  often  done  with  a  sickle  or  corn  hook  or  sharp  butcher-knife, 
several  times  in  the  course  of  the  summer.  It  is  also  advisable  to 
thin  out  the  suckers  with  the  hoe  while  cutting  out  weeds,  leaving 
only  about  as  many  is  it  is  desired  to  have  for  fruit  the  next  season. 
This  method  gives  stout  canes,  with  plenty  of  short  side  branches, 
well  supplied  with  buds,  which  will  send  out  fruiting  shoots  the 
following  spring.  If  supports  are  used,  the  four  to  six  canes  which 
are  left  to  each  stool  are  gathered  within  a  loosely-drawn  bale  rope 
and  tied  to  the  stake;  or  if  a  trellis  is  used,  the  branches  are 
brought  up  to  the  wire  or  slat  so  that  the  distance  is  about  evenly 
divided  between  the  shoots. 

Though  these  systematic  methods  of  summer  pruning  are  prac- 
ticed and  advocated  by  the  most  careful  growers,  it  should  be 
stated  that  there  are  large  plantations  which  are  conducted  upon  a 
more  simple  system.  The  pruning  consists  in  cutting  out  old 
canes  in  the  winter,  and  the  only  summer  pruning  is  slashing  off 
these  canes  which  interfere  with  cultivation.  The  canes  are  some- 
times held  up  by  tying  bunches  of  them  together  with  ropes.  Of 
course  this  system  costs  less  than  the  more  careful  one  which  has 
been  described,  and  yields  profit  enough  to  induce  adherence  to  it. 
No  doubt  quite  as  great  weight  of  berries  could  be  had  from  a 
smaller  area  by  a  better  system  of  growing. 

After  the  leaves  fall,  the  canes  which  have  borne  fruit  during 
the  summer  are  all  cut  off  even  with  the  surface  of  the  ground 
with  long-handled  pruning  shears  or  with  a  short  hooked  knife  with 
a  long  handle,  and  all  debris  removed  from  the  rows. 


4g4  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Application  of  Manure. — The  blackberry  loves  very  rich  ground, 
and  plenty  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  or  compost,  as  described 
in  Chapter  XIV,  should  be  applied.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  apply  in 
a  thick  covering  all  over  the  ground  and  between  the  canes  as 
soon  as  the  patch  is  cleaned  up  in  the  fall.  The  early  rains  carry 
down  the  soluble  parts  of  the  manure,  and  later  in  the  season  the 
whole  is  plowed  in  between  the  rows,  leaving  a  foot  or  more  next 
the  plants  to  be  carefully  forked  in,  as  the  digging  fork  does  not 
cut  the  roots  like  the  spade. 

Mulching. — The  mulch,  to  keep  the  ground  moist  and  to  obviate 
summer  cultivation,  is  very  satisfactory  where  it  is  thoroughly 
done.  Apply  coarse  manure  or  partially-rotted  straw  and  the  like, 
after  the  last  spring  cultivation,  and  use  the  hoe  to  keep  down 
weeds  and  suckers  which  come  up  between  the  rows.  Some  grow- 
ers use  mulch  close  to  the  canes,  cultivating  the  remainder  of  the 
ground  between  the  rows. 

Bearing  Age  and  Longevity. — If  blackberry  plants  are  well 
treated  the  first  year  after  planting  out,  there  will  be  considerable 
fruit  the  following  summer.  How  long  the  plants  will  bear  satis- 
factorily depends,  also,  on  situation  and  treatment.  Sometimes  the 
plants  fail  early;  even  with  good,  generous  treatment  in  good  soil, 
the  old  stool  becomes  weak,  the  shoots  are  thin,  and  the  fruit 
small.  Some  count  about  eight  years  as  the  profitable  age  of  the 
plant,  and  then  cut  out  the  plants  and  give  the  land  a  change.  Of 
course  berry  growers  prepare  for  this  by  frequently  making  new 
plantations. 

Varieties  of  the  Blackberry. — Comparatively  few  kinds  are 
largely  grown.  The  Wilson  Junior,  Lawton,  and  Kittatinny  were 
formerly  the  prevailing  kinds,  ripening  in  the  order  named.  The 
Erie  is  favored  by  some  as  a  middle  season,  variety.  The "  Early 
Harvest  has  been  favorably  reported  by  a  number  of  growers. 
These  have,  however,  been  largely  superseded  by  a  renamed  vari- 
ety, Crandall's  Early,  which  is  the  earliest  of  the  improved  vari- 
eties, and  has  a  very  long  fruiting  season.  The  fruit  was  named 
after  Dr.  J.  R.  Crandall,  of  Auburn,  who  first  fruited  the  variety 
from  plants  given  him  by  a  stranger  hailing  from  Texas,  and  the 
proper  name  of  the  variety  is  probably  Texas  Early.  It  is  a  strong, 
vigorous,  hardy  plant,  very  productive,  of  firm,  handsome  berries; 
resembles  Lawton  in  canes,  leaves,  and  flavor  of  fruit ;  not  given  to 
sprouting  from  running  roots. 

Another  variety  which  has  advanced  in  favor  is  the  Oregon 
Evergreen,  introduced  from  Oregon  but  not  native  nor  originated 
in  that  State.  The  late  John  Rock  described  it  as  follows :  "Origin 
unknown ;   beautiful ;   cut-leaved    foliage,   which   it   retains    during 


BLACKBERRY-RASPBERRY    HYBRIDS  485 

the  winter;  berries  large,  black,  sweet,  rich,  and  delicious.     It  con 
tinues  to  ripen  from  July  to  November,  which  makes  it  one  of  the 
best   berries   for   family   use."     It   loses   size   and   quality    notably 
on  scant  moisture. 

Some  effort  has  been  made  to  secure  improved  varieties  of  our 
native  blackberry,  and  a  most  striking  result  has  been  secured  by 
Judge  J.  H.  Logan,  of  Santa  Cruz,  by  crossing  the  wild  berry  with 
Crandall's  Early,  producing  a  fruit  so  large  that  it  has  been  named 
"  Mammoth  "  by  its  originator.  The  canes  of  the  Mammoth  are 
very  peculiar,  being  very  large  and  thickly  covered  with  small, 
short  spines.  The  canes  start  early  in  March,  grow  thick  and 
stout  until  about  five  feet  high.  They  then  take  on  a  running 
habit  and  grow  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  in  a  season.  Late 
in  the  fall  the  tips  or  stolons  seek  the  ground  and  take  root.  The 
Mammoth  is  not  an  evergreen  like  its  Texas  parent,  although  it 
does  not  entirely  lose  its  leaves  in  winter.  It  begins  to  grow  and 
flower  very  early  in  spring  and  ripens  its  fruit  the  last  of  May, 
some  weeks  earlier  than  the  Lawton.  The  fruit  is  more  acid  than 
the  Lawton,  but,  when  perfectly  ripe,  is  sweet  and  of  superior 
flavor.  When  cooked  or  canned  the  flavor  is  identical  with  the 
wild  berry  of  California.  This  variety  is  often  wrongly  called 
*'  Black  Loganberry." 

The  Himalaya  is  a  blackberry  of  wonderful  growth  and  pro- 
lificness,  highly  praised  by  amateurs  but  not  yet  fully  made  out 
from  a  commercial  point  of  view.  It  is  magnificent  on  a  garden 
fence  or  trellis. 

The  Dewberry. — The  improved  varieties  of  the  dewberry,  or 
trailing  blackberry,  are  now  quite  widely  known  and  highly  praised. 
Some  growers  use  trellises ;  others  train  the  vines  along  rows  on 
the  ground  surface.  The  following  is  the  method  of  Mr.  A.  M. 
Munger,  of  Fresno,  and  includes  irrigation  arrangements : 

For  planting  the  Lucretia  dewberry,  prepare  the  ground  by  plowing  deep 
and  cultivating  until  the  dirt  is  thoroughly  pulverized.  Set  the  plants  about 
three  inches  deep  and  four  feet  apart,  in  rows,  leaving  a  space  of  six  feet 
between  the  rows.  Plant  between  February  15th  and  March  15th.  Irrigate  as 
,  often  as  once  a  month,  always  thoroughly  cultivating  after  each  irrigation.  By 
[SO  doing  a  sufficient  growth  is  secured  to  produce  a  good  crop  the  second  year, 
[immediately  after  the  first  rainfall,  generally  in  October,  the  vines  should  be 
fpruned  by  cutting  back  within  about  sixteen  inches  of  the  base  of  the  vine. 

In  February  of  the  second  year,  plow  between  the  rows  with  a  small  one- 
horse  plow,  turning  the  furrows  toward  the  vines,  but  using  a  shield  so  as  not 
to  cover  them.  Follow  immediately  with  a  hoe,  drawing  the  dirt  up  under 
the  vines  and  forming  a  ridge.  This  ridge  should  be  high  enough  to  keep  the 
vines  up  out  of  the  water  when  irrigating.  After  this  ridge  is  formed,  water 
should  be  run  quite  often,  as  the  dewberry  requires  a  great  deal  of  water  to 
mature  properly.  The  vines  should  be  irrigated  as  often  as  three  times  at 
least  during  the  spring.  The  fruit  begins  to  ripen  in  Fresno  about  May  25th, 
and  continues  about  one  rnonth.  The  dewberry  roots  readily  from  the  tips 
without  covering  if  the  soil  is  loose  and  moist.  If  many  plants  are  desired 
it  is  -advisable  to  cover  slightly,  and  the  tips  will  root  as  soon  as  the  soil  is 
moistened  by  the  fall  rains. 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

The  dewberry  which  has  recently  been  most  largely  planted  in 
central  and  southern  California  is  known  as  the  Gardena  because 
of  the  prolificness  and  profitability  of  a  patch  grown  by  W.  M. 
Gray,  of  Gardena,  Los  Angeles  county.  Its  qualities  are  vigorous 
growth,  hardiness,  regular  and  profuse  yield  of  large,  early  berries. 

Pruning  and  Training  Trailing  Berries. — With  reference  to  the 
handling  of  trailing  blackberries  and  the  blackberry-raspberry  hy- 
brids which  are  continually  becoming  more  popular,  it  may  be  said 
that  there  is  no  one  best  way.  There  are  several  good  ways,  ac- 
cording to  the  desires  and  convenience  of  the  growers,  and  this 
is  the  reason  why  there  is  an  apparent  conflict  in  which  all  con- 
testants may  be  right,  each  from  his  own  point  of  view.  The  vari- 
eties are  sufficiently  alike  to  be  discussed  together.  What  seem 
to  us  the  essentials  in  pruning  them  are  these. 

First,  they  all  bear  on  canes  which  grow  the  previous  year,  and 
the  fruit  comes  on  laterals  which  break  from  them.  In  this  mild 
climate  there  is  continuous  break  of  laterals  which  may  cover 
quite  a  long  period  and  the  same  wood  may  seem  to  be  bearing 
twice.  This  second  bearing  is  of  so  little  account  that  the  general 
rule  to  remove  old  wood  after  its  main  fruiting  is  a  good  one. 

Second,  the  wood  which  grows  this  year  will  therefore  bear 
next  year,  and  it  will  send  out  bearing  laterals  sufficiently  with  a 
number  of  treatments.  The  new  cane  may  be  pinched  at  any  time 
during  growth  and  it  will  then  send  wood  laterals  (not  fruit  later- 
als) at  once  and  each  of  these  laterals  will  have  the  same  character 
that  the  main  shoot  would  have  had  if  it  had  not  been  pinched : 
that  is,  it  will  send  out  fruiting  laterals  at  the  same  date  the  fol- 


Third,  it  does  not  matter  whether  you  make  the  new  growth 
bunchy  by  laterals  following  pinching  or  whether  you  let  it  run 
out  and  cut  off  part  of  it  at  the  end  of  the  growing  season  or 
whether  you  shorten  it  in  and  at  the  same  time  cut  away  closely 
all  the  laterals  which  it  may  have  made  on  its  own  account  when 
it  was  running  out.  In  all  cases  there  will  be  dormant  buds  enough 
to  give  fruiting  shoots  on  whatever  part  of  the  cane  you  reserve. 

Fourth,  the  way  you  prune,  then,  depends  upon  serving  your 
own  convenience  in  the  training  of  these  shoots  up  to  a  post,  along 
on  a  wire  or  along  on  a  ridge  on  the  ground  —  whatever  suits 
you  best  to  keep  the  fruit  out  of  the  dirt,  and  to  promote  such 
cultivation  as  is  desirable,  etc.,  will  be  accepted  by  the  plant  as  not 
interfering  with  its  starting  fruiting  shoots  from  whatever  dor- 
mant buds  you  have  allowed  it  to  retain  on  the  wood  which  it 
matured  the  previous  season. 


CRANBERRY  AND  CURRANT 


487 


Fifth,  there  is  in  addition  the  application  of  the  principle  that 
good  large  fruit  is  the  product  of  a  plant  which  is  not  carrying  too 
much  bearing  wood;  that  is,  is  not  endeavoring  to  perfect  too  much 
fruit  at  the  same  time.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  for  convenience, 
it  is  desirable  not  to  allow  a  plant  to  retain  all  the  cane  it  grows, 
but  to  shorten  it  or  to  remove  the  laterals  or  part  of  them  or  to 
shorten  the  laterals  or  in  any  other  way  to  require  the  plant  to 
direct  its  energy  to  the  better  development  of  fewer  fruits. 

Sixth,  growers  are,  of  course,  influenced  by  different  consider- 
ations. Amateur  growers  delighting  in  running  vines  on  fences 
or  trellises  would  not  prune  as  would  a  commercial  grower,  who 
I  can  not  have  canes  running  all  over  his  fields.  The  amateur  can 
;  pinch  a  main  shoot  and  send  the  laterals  up  the  arms  of  a  fan- 
shaped  trellis  if  he  likes  and  make  an  object  of  rare  garden  beauty, 
and  he  can  reduce  the  excess  of  bearing  wood  by  cutting  away  the 
parts  of  the  laterals  which  run  beyond  his  arms  or  extra  ones  be 
yond  those  he  can  carry  on  his  trellis.  From  the  point  of  view  ol 
the  plant,  he  does  the  same  thing  that  the  commercial  grower 
does  when  he  comes  along  with  his  scythe  or  sickle  and  cuts  away 
indiscriminately  all  the  growth  which  goes  beyond  the  space  where 
it  is  convenient  for  him  to  have  the  fruit. 

Seventh,  do  not  be  too  particular  about  exact  methods  to  imi- 
I  tate ;  try  rather  to  discern  principles  which  may  be  served  by 
I    many  different  methods.  ' 


THE  CRANBERRY 

Though  attention  has  been  given  to  experiments  with  the 
^^rowth  of  the  Cranberry  in  California  for  many  years,  it  has  not 
.;  been  demonstrated  that  the  culture  is  successful  or  profitable.  Cran- 
I  berries  have  been  produced,  and  the  fruit  shown  at  fairs,  but 
beyond  this  nothing  has  yet  been  accomplished.  It  would  seem 
to  be  a  fair  conclusion  that  even  in  the  most  moist  regions  our  sum- 
mer air  is  too  dry  to  suit  the  plant. 

THE  CURRANT 

The  Currant  reaches  perfection  in  size  and  quality  in  parts  of 
California   adapted   to   its   growth,   but   its   area   is   comparatively 

n  small.  The  plant  does  not  thrive  in  the  dry,  heated  air  of  the  inte- 
rior either  at  the  north  or  south.  It  does  well  near  the  coast, 
especially  in  the  upper  half  of  the  State,  and  is  grown  for  market 
chiefly,  on  lands  adjacent  to  the  bay  of  San  Francisco.     The  com- 

^  paratively  cool  and  moist  air  of  the  ocean  favors  it,  but  even  here 
the  sunburn,  which  is  the  bane  of  its  existence  in  the  interior  val- 


488 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


leys,  occasionally  injures  the  fruit.  Away  from  the  coast,  cur- 
rants are  grown  to  a  limited  extent  along  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  Rivers,  near  their  confluence,  but  not  in  the  hot  valleys 
whence  they  flow.  On  the  foot-hills,  too,  where  the  plant  has  a 
northerly  slope,  or  other  cooling  influence,  and  sufficiently  moist 
soil,  it  will  do  moderately  well.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  cur 
rant  may  be  satisfactorily  grown  for  home  use,  or  for  local  market 
in  parts  of  the  State  where  at  present  one  does  not  find  it,  pro- 
viding the  moderating  effect  of  elevation  and  northerly  exposure, 
coupled  with  the  shade  of  trees,  be  secured,  but  even  then  the 
hot  north  wind  of  the  early  summer  may  often  injure  the  fruit. 
So  far  as  the  metropolitan  market  is  concerned,  it  does  not  matter 
that  the  currant  area  is  limited,  for  existing  plantations  produce 
all,  and  sometimes  more,  than  can  be  profitably  disposed  of  at 
present.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  future  may  show  a 
larger  demand,  for  the  pure  food  laws  are  likely  to  prevent  the 
further  selling  of  apple  jelly  with  a  currant  color  and  flavor  under 
the  name  of  currant  jelly. 

Propagation. — The  currant  is  readily  grown  from  cuttings.  As 
soon  as  the  bush  drops  its  leaves,  and  the  ground  is  in  condition, 
as  to  moisture,  secure  the  cuttings  a  foot  in  length  from  straight 
wood  of  the  last  growth,  and  place  them  in  nursery  or  in  permanent 
place,  in  good  sandy  or  garden  loam,  deeply  spaded  and  well 
broken  up.  Set  the  cutting  firmly  in  the  earth,  six  or  seven  inches 
deep.  If  they  are  to  be  trained  as  small  trees,  every  bud  below 
where  the  lowest  limb  is  to  start  should  be  cut  out  —  even  to  the 
end  of  the  cutting  underground  —  otherwise  they  will  be  contin- 
ually throwing  up  suckers.  If  they  are  to  grow  as  bushes,  the 
natural  and  more  productive  form  of  the  currant,  set  them  as  they 
are  taken  from  the  parent  bush. 

Planting  and  Care. — Currants  are  usually  grown  in  rows  about 
five  or  six  feet  apart,  the  plants  standing  two  and  a  half  or  three 
feet  apart  in  the  rows.  Most  of  the  currant  plantations  are  between 
orchard  rows,  the  partial  shade  of  the  trees  being  considered  desir- 
able. It  is  claimed  that  currants  do  best  when  interplanted  with 
cherry,  apricot,  apple,  and  pear,  not  so  well  when  associated  with 
plum  and  peach,  and  the  almond  is  least  desirable  —  possibly  be- 
cause the  almond  is  often  given  less  cultivation  than  the  pulp}^ 
fruits  or  is  grown  on  lighter,  drier  soils.  The  cultivation  is  such 
as  is  usually  given  to  the  orchard,  except  that  in  heavy  soil  the 
plow  is  not  allowed  to  come  near  the  cuttings  the  first  season  for 
fear  of  tearing  them  from  their  rooting.  After  the  first  year  the 
plow  is  used  in  the  winter  and  the  cultivator  in  summer. 

Currants  will  repay  generous  applications  of  well-rotted  manure, 
and  relish  sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil.     Where  this  can  not  be 


I 


THE    GOOSEBERRY  '    439 

had  from  rainfall,  and  retained  by  cultivation  and  mulching,  irri- 
gation must  be  resorted  to. 

Pruning. — If  the  currant  is  to  ^e  grown  in  tree  form,  the 
branches  from  the  upper  buds  of  the  cutting  should  be  shortened  in 
at  the  end  of  the  first  summer,  and  branches  growing  horizontally 
should  be  removed.  The  weaker  shoots  in  the  head  are  thinned 
out,  but  not  so  much  as  to  leave  the  top  too  open.  If  the  plant 
is  to  grow  as  a  bush,  the  only  winter  pruning  will  consist  in  remov- 
ing dead  wood,  and  thinning  the  new  shoots  as  may  seem  desir- 
able. Summer  pinching  of  the  new  growth  is  desirable,  as  it  causes 
the  fruit  to  set  closely  and  tends  to  a  thick  growth  of  foliage  also, 
and  this  is  necessary,  for  the  bark  is  liable  to  sunburn,  and  the 
best  fruit  is  that  which  is  well  sheltered  by  the  leaves.  Another 
advantage  of  the  bush  form  is  the  less  likelihood  of  killing  by 
borers,  which  is  imminent  when  the  growth  depends  upon  a  single 
stem. 

Bearing. — The  currant  bears  a  quantity  of  excellent  fruit  the 
second  year  from  the  cutting,  and  reaches  its  fullest  product  about 
the  fifth  to  the  eighth  year,  when  the  yield  in  the  Haywards  region 
is  said  to  range  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  tons  to  the  acre. 

Varieties. — The  Cherry  currant  is  the  prevailing  variety,  al- 
though the  old  sorts,  the  Red  and  White  Dutch,  the  Red  and  White 
Grape,  etc.,  are  grown  in  some  localities,  and  Fay's  Prolific  is 
approved  by  some  growers.  Pomona  is  one  of  the  best  of  the 
newer  red  varieties  and  the  old  Fertile  de  Palluau  is  reported  as 
doing  better  than  others  in  hot,  interior  situations.  Black  cur- 
rants are  but  little  grown,  the  market  demand  for  them  being  very 
light. 

THE  GOOSEBERRY 

The  Gooseberry  is  another  fruit  with  somewhat  circumscribed 
area  in  this  State.  In  localities  which  favor  it,  the  fruit  is  often 
found  very  profitable,  but  the  demand  does  not  warrant  any  great 
increase  of  product.  Though  the  gooseberry  thrives  in  some  situa- 
tions which  do  not  suit  the  currant,  they  may  both  be  described 
as  averse  to  the  hot  and  dry  parts  of  the  State.  Still,  for  home 
use  or  local,  sale  one  can  grow  certain  varieties  of  gooseberries  suc- 
cessfully, by  protecting  them  from  too  great  exposure  to  the  sun, 
and  by  keeping  the  soil  sufficiently  rich  and  moist.  The  choice  of 
varieties  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  as  will  be  mentioned  pres- 
ently. At  present  the  chief  supplies  of  the  gooseberry,  as  of  the 
currant,  are  produced  in  the  country  adjacent  to  San  Francisco 
Bay,  though  thriving  and  profitable  plantations  are  found  elsewhere 
near  the  coast,  here  and  there  in  the  interior,  and  at  considerable 
elevations  on  the  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 


490 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Propagation,  Pruning,  etc. — The  gooseberry  is  grown  from  ct 
tings,  very  much  as  already  described  for  the  currant.  The  coi 
mon  and  the  best  method  is  to  start  the  cuttings  early  in  the  win^ 
ter,  though  some  have  succeeded  with  cuttings  taken  in  the  spring 
just  as  the  new  growth  is  starting  out.  Disbudding  the  lower  part 
of  the  cutting  if  it  is  desired  to  train  in  tree  form  is  also  practiced 
with  the  gooseberry,  but  a  smaller  percentage  of  cuttings  is  found 
to  grow  after  disbudding. 

Gooseberries  are  planted  out  and  cultivated  as  already  described 
for  currants,  and  the  requirements  of  the  plant  in  soil,  moisture, 
and  manuring  are  much  the  same. 

If  the  gooseberry  is  to  be  grown  in  tree  form,  constant  attention 
to  removal  of  suckers  is  necessary;  if  in  bush  form,  it  will  only  be 
necessary  to  remove  too  old  wood  and  thin  out  the  new  shoots. 
Suckers  should  be  removed  clean  from  the  stem,  so  as  to  eradicate 
the  latent  buds,  and  pulling  off  with  a  gloved  hand,  when  the  suck- 
ers become  woody  enough  to  withstand  breaking,  is  advised.  As 
with  the  currant,  the  borer  is  a  constant  menace  to  the  life  of  a 
gooseberry  plant  confined  to  a  single  stem. 

Diseases  and  Pests. — ^The  gooseberry  is  subject  to  insect  depre- 
dation both  in  wood  and  fruit  and  leaf.  The  prevailing  trouble, 
however,  and  that  which  causes  the  failure  of  so  many  foreign  i 
kinds,  is  the  mildew.  To  escape  this  nothing  is  usually  done  ex- 
cept to  select  varieties  not  subject  to  the  disease,  but  susceptible 
varieties  can  be  protected  by  spraying  just  as  the  leaves  are  open- 
ing and  once  a  month  afterwards  with  potassium  sulphide  half  an 
ounce  to  the  gallon  of  water.  This  does  not  stain  nor  poison  the 
fruit.     The  cooler  and  moister  the  air  the  less  the  mildew. 

Varieties  of  the  Gooseberry. — The    American    varieties,  Down- 
ing and  Houghton's  Seedling,  chiefly  the  latter,  constituted  for  aP 
long  time  the  main  varieties  marketed  in  San  Francisco.     Early  ex-' 
periments  vv^ith  collections  of  English  varieties  showed  that  most 
of  them  were  failures  because  of  mildew;  still  a  few  of  the  greer 
and  white   sorts,   notably  the  Whitesmith,   have   succeeded.     Tht_ 
proportion  of  large  berries  now  being  marketed  is  much  great 
than  formerly,  and  the  superior  price  warrants  especial  effort 
produce  them. 

A  large  English  variety,  which  was  brought  to  California  maj 
years  ago  by  the  late  John  W.  Dwindle,  is  now  the  most  wid( 
distributed  large  kind.  Its  true  name  was  lost  and  it  has  been  pr< 
agated  under  various  names,  viz.,  Dwindle,  Kelsey,  New  Frencl 
but  the  name  Berkeley,  adopted  by  W.  P.  Hammon,  in  his  wid( 
distribution  of  it  in  1884,  now  prevails.  It  is  large  and  handsome 
very  prolific,  ripens  early,  and  is  usually  free  from  mildew. 

The  Champion,  an  Oregon  seedling  grown  by  Seth  Lewdling 
is  medium  sized,  very  smooth,  and  thick  fleshed,  the  seeds  beini 


THE    RASPBERRY  49]^ 

few  and  small.    They  are  entirely  free  from  mildew,  and  are  clean, 
bright,   and   beautiful.     The   Columbus,   a    New   York   variety,   is 
^  large  and  of  good  quality  and  resists  mildew  well. 

THE  MULBERRY 

Nearly  all  varieties  of  the  mulberry  have  been  introduced  in 
California  and  grown  rapidly  and  thriftily.  Most  attention  has 
been  paid  to  those  varieties  most  suitable  for  feeding  silk-worms, 
but  the  fruiting  varieties  are  also  grown  here,  though  the  fruit 
has  assumed  no  commercial  importance.  The  mulberry  is  grown 
readily  from  cuttings.  The  fruiting  varieties  thus  far  chiefly  dis- 
tributed are  the  Downing  Everbearing,  the  Persian,  the  New 
American,  the  Russian,  and  the  Black  Mulberry  of  Spain.  AH 
these  bear  large  and  desirable  fruit.  The  last  named,  introduced 
by  Felix  Gillett,  of  Nevada  City,  is  grown  quite  widely.  The  mul- 
berry has  a  long  season;  the  Persian  ripens  in  Tulare  the  last  of 
May  and  continuously  thereafter  until  October. 

THE  RASPBERRY 

The  raspberry  is  another  of  the  great  small  fruits  of  California. 
It  thrives  over  a  great  area  of  the  State ;  in  fact,  there  are  few  situ- 
ations in  which  it  cannot  be  grown  with  at  least  a  measure  of  suc- 
cess if  proper  attention  is  given  to  retention  of  moisture  in  the 
surface  soil,  and  to  giving  the  plants  partial  shade  in  the  heated 
valleys,  and  the  cooler  exposures  in  the  foot-hills.  The  raspberry, 
skillfully  pruned  and  generously  fed  and  cared  for,  is  almost  a  con- 
stant bearer,  as  has  already  been  intimated.  It  is  a  continual  de- 
light in  the  home  garden,  and  always  brings  a  high  average  rate 
in  local  and  metropolitan  markets. 

The  culture  of  the  raspberry  is  in  the  main  like  that  of  the  black- 
berry, as  already  described.  The  red  varieties,  which  are  the  kinds 
almost  exclusively  grown  in  this  State,  are  propagated  by  suckers 
and  root  cuttings  like  the  blackberry,  but  the  "  black  caps  "  are 
propagated  by  layering  the  cane  tips  during  the  growing  season, 
and  this  method  is  also  necessary  with  the  Loganberry  and  other 
blackberry-raspberry  hybrids.  Bending  down  a  cane  with  its 
branches  and  covering  lightly  with  soil  and  with  a  light  mulch  to 
retain  moisture,  will  result  in  free  rooting  of  the  buried  parts,  and 
one  can  sometimes  secure  a  dozen  plants  by  the  layering  of  a  single 
cane  with  it  laterals. 

The  pruning  of  the  raspberry  is  also  by  the  renewal  system,  as 

advised  for  the  blackberry.     The  topping  ofif  of  new  canes,  when 

they  reach  about  three  feet  in  height,  the  subsequent  pinching  of 

the  laterals  which  are  thus  forced  out,  the  resolute  thinning  out 

i    of  sprouts  so  that  but  three  or  four  strong  canes  are  allowed  from 


492  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

one  root,  the  faithful  repression  of  all  weeds,  the  maintenance  of  a 
loose  surface  layer  of  the  soil  by  very  shallow  cultivation,  the  free 
application  of  manure  and  of  water  unless  a  continually  moist  con- 
dition near  the  surface  can  be  secured  by  cultivation  and  mulching, 
— all  these  are  among  the  essentials  of  cultivation  which  will  se- 
cure abundant  fruit  and  a  long  bearing  season.  However,  as  has 
already  been  stated  with  regard  to  blackberries,  there  are  large 
plantations  which  pursue  a  less  careful  system  of  cultivation  es- 
pecially in  the  moderate  heat  and  drouth  of  the  coast  district. 

Continuous  bearing  of  the  raspberry  may  be  secured  in  those 
varieties  which  endure  the  treatment,  by  cutting  out  a  cane  as  soon 
as  its  fruit  is  gathered,  the  force  of  the  plant  being  then  devoted  to 
the  fruiting  of  a  second  cane,  which  has  previously  been  pinched, 
and  a  third  shoot  is  pinched  and  allowed  to  mature  its  wood  to 
carry  over  and  bear  the  first  crop  of  the  following  year.  A  suc- 
cession of  sprouts  is  gained  by  pinching  off  the  tips  of  some  as 
soon  as  they  have  grown  up  a  few  inches,  which  results  in  the 
growth  of  later  shoots  lower  on  the  stems.  In  this  way  a  succes- 
sion of  fruit  is  obtained. 

The  Cuthbert  and  other  strong-growing  varieties,  after  the 
pinching  at  about  three  feet  from  the  ground,  will  send  out  laterals 
which  will  bear  late  in  the  fall,  and  the  same  cane  will  bear  a  crop 
early  in  the  following  spring,  when  its  career  is  ended  and  it  should 
be  removed. 

Raspberries  are  planted  about  three  feet  apart  in  rows,  and  the 
rows  about  six  feet  apart.  They  can  be  well  grown  nearer  together 
than  is  required  for  blackberries. 

Varieties  of  the  Raspberry. — ^The  old  varieties  have  been  largely 
replaced  by  the  Cuthbert,  which  is  the  universally  popular  and  most 
largely-planted  sort,  having  been  found  trustworthy  as  a  grower 
and  as  a  free  and  constant  bearer.  The  good  points  of  the  Cuth- 
bert, as  representing  the  experience  of  many  California  growers, 
include  the  following:  A  profuse  grower,  with  healthy  and  rich 
foliage,  which  protects  fruit  from  sunburn;  an  excellent  bearer 
with  the  fruit  well  distributed  through  the  bush;  the  fruit  comes 
off  easily,  and  does  not  crumble,  is  of  fine  flavor,  and  ships  well. 
The  Herstine,  Franconia,  King  and  Marlboro  varieties  are  grown 
to  a  limited  extent;  and  the  Barter,  a  renamed  variety,  the  identity 
of  which  is  unknown,  has  always  retained  a  degree  of  popularity 
in  the  foothill  region  of  Placer  County,  where  it  first  appeared. 

The  Black  Cap  varieties  thrive  fairly  in  most  parts  of  the  State, 
but  do  not  sell  well  in  the  markets,  and  are  only  grown  for  home 
use.  The  golden  or  yellow  raspberries  are  also  out  of  favor  be- 
cause they  are  shy  bearers  and  cut  no  figure  in  the  California 
product. 


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The  Loganberry  (natural  size),  a  California  Hybrid. 


493 


49^  CAl^lFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Blackberry-Raspberry  Hybrids. — Two  crosses  of  California  ori- 
gin have  been  widely  distributed  and  have  demonstrated  great 
value. 

The  Loganberry  was  originated  by  Judge  J.  H.  Logan  of  Santa 
Cruz,  and  is  a  cross  between  the  California  wild  blackberry  and  a 
red  raspberry,  thought  to  be  the  red  Antwerp.  It  was  a  chance 
hybrid  developed  by  growing  plants  from  the  seed  of  the  wild 
blackberry  in  1881.  The  plant  was  multiplied  by  its  originator 
and  fruited  for  more  than  ten  years,  plants  being  meantime  given 
to  Mr.  James  Waters,  of  Watsonville,  who  grew  it  on  a  commercial 
scale  and  was  gratified  at  the  results  of  his  marketing  of  the  fruit. 
The  variety  was  first  given  to  the  public  through  the  University 
of  California  in  1893  and  has  since  then  been  propagated  by  nur- 
serymen and  sold  in  large  quantities.  It  has  proved  a  most  val- 
uable fruit  in  all  parts  of  California,  and  has  commanded  the  at- 
tention of  pomologists  and  growers  all  over  the  world.  The  Logan- 
berry is  an  exceedingly  robust  grower,  and  has  unique  foliage  and 
cane  growth  as  well  as  fruit.  The  fruit  is  strikingly  large  and 
handsome;  sometimes  an  inch  and  a  quarter  long,  with  the  shape 
of  a  blackberry,  and  sometimes  the  hue  of  a  dark  red  raspberry. 
Its  flavor  is  unique  and  peculiar,  and  gives  to  many  tastes  sugges- 
tions of  the  combination  of  blackberry  and  raspberry  flavors.  The 
culture  of  the  Loganberry  is  like  that  of  the  dewberry  —  both  in 
growth  and  propagation,  rooting  readily  from  cane  tips  without 
covering,  unless  many  plants  are  desired  and  then  a  covered  cane 
will  root  at  each  joint. 

The  Phenomenal  is  a  hybrid  which  has  recently  been  largely 
grown  for  a  trade  which  prefers  a  less  sharp  acid  than  that  of  the 
Loganberry.  It  is  one  of  the  notable  achievements  of  Mr.  Luther 
Burbank,  of  Santa  Rosa,  and  is  a  cross  between  the  California 
dewberry  and  a  red  raspberry.  It  is  exceedingly  large,  bright 
crimson,  very  productive  and  of  delicious  flavor.  The  fruit  comes 
in  large  clusters  and  single  berries  have  weighed  four  to  the  ounce. 
In  shipping  it  holds  shape  and  color  well. 

The  Primus  is  another  blackberry-raspberry  hybrid,  by  Mr.  Bur- 
bank.  It  is  described  as  like  a  raspberry  in  color  and  shape,  though 
much  larger,  many  specimens  attaining  a  length  of  an  inch  and 
a  half  by  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  has  a  larger  and 
softer  pulp  core  or  center  than  the  blackberry,  and  does  not  come 
off  the  stem  like  a  cap  as  a  raspberry,  but  it  is  a  little  more  tart  and 
is  best  cooked.  It  ripens  early  and  the  plant  yields  well.  It  has 
been  widely  distributed  and  is  popular  for  home  use,  softness  and 
danger  of  crushing  on  the  core  in  picking  seem  to  be  defects  for 
commercial  growing.  It  is  a  little  earlier  than  Phenomenal.  It 
has  a  trailing  habit. 


STRAWBERRY    GROWING 


THE  STRAWBERRY 


495 


"  Strawberries  all  the  year  round  "  is  the  trite  expression  by 
which  the  charms  of  the  California  climate  are  characterized.  It 
is  no  fiction,  for  in  the  wonderfully-even  climate  of  regions  adja- 
cent to  the  coast  and  in  thermal  belts  in  the  interior,  the  straw- 
berry plant  blooms  and  bears  almost  continuously,  providing  proper 
moisture  conditions  are  maintained  in  the  soil.  There  are,  how- 
ever, more  or  less  well-defined  crops,  and  "  strawberries  all  the 
year"  does  not  mean  a  uniform  supply ;  nor  does  it  mean  that 
everywhere  in  California  can  one  expect  such  constant  fruiting. 
In  the  very  hot  interior  situations  the  plant  rebels  against  the  at- 
mospheric conditions  of  midsummer,  even  though  the  ground  be 
moist;  and  in  frosty  places  the  plant  becomes  dormant  during  the 
wintry  portion  of  the  year.  The  conditions  of  constant  growth 
and  bearing  are  moderation  of  temperature  and  of  atmospheric  and 
soil  moisture  throughout  the  year. 

SITUATIONS  AND  SOILS  FOR  THE  STRAWBERRY 

Bearing  in  mind  the  conditions  described,  the  strawberry  can  be 
grown  anywhere  in  California.  The  native  species,  as  mentioned 
in  Chapter  V,  flourish  from  the  sand  of  the  ocean  beach  to  the  rich 
valleys  of  the  Sierra,  just  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  the 
deduction  is  that  wherever  fertile  soil  and  sweet  water  can  be 
brought  together  in  California,  the  strawberry  will  reward  the 
grower. 

Strawberries  do  well  on  a  variety  of  soils,  but  as  a  rule  a  deep, 
moist,  loamy  soil  will  yield  best  results.  Boggy  or  swampy  spots 
should  be  avoided  unless  drainage  is  provided,  and  in  this  wav 
most  excellent  strawberry  ground  may  sometimes  be  secured.  Land 
which  will  produce  good  potatoes  or  corn  will  generally  yield  good 
results  with  strawberries,  provided  irrigation  is  furnished.  In  many 
regions  the  plants  will  hardly  survive  the  summer  without  irriga- 
tion, and  everywhere  a  succession  of  crops  during  the  season  de- 
pends upon  irrigation.  It  is  the  common  experience  that  light, 
warm  soils  yield  the  earliest  and  highest-flavored  berries,  and  heavy 
soils  the  later  and  larger  ones ;  but  the  size  of  the  berry  depends 
more  upon  the  supply  of  available  moisture,  and  immense  fruit 
can  be  produced  on  loose,  open  soils  by  free  irrigation.  And  yet 
the  heavier  soil,  both  because  of  its  usually  superior  fertility  and 
retention  of  moisture,  is  preferred  for  the  strawberry.  The  largest 
producing  regions  for  the  San  Francisco  market  in  the  Santa  Clara 
and  Pajaro  Valleys  are  comprised  mainly  of  low-lying,  heavy  val- 
ley soils,  naturally  moist  and  rich,  and  furnished  with  abundant 
water  supply  for  irrigation.  And  yet  in  southern  California  the 
chief   market   crops   are   produced   upon    light   sandy   loams   with 


496  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

water  equal  to  the  needs  of  the  plants  upon  such  a  footing.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  strawberry  is  a  shallow-rooting  l)lant  and 
must  have  moisture  retained  near  the  surface.  Some  loose  soils, 
especially  on  uplands,  are  almost  out  of  the  question  for  straw- 
berry growing.  They  are  so  leachy  that  they  will  not  hold  mois- 
ture near  the  surface  though  one  should  stand  with  a  hose  and 
almost  continually  pour  it  on.  The  plants  would  also  dry  up 
though  the  water  were  running  near  by  in  a  ditch.  To  grow 
strawberries  it  is  often  an  advantage  to  have  a  shallow  loam  over 
a  clay  or  hardpan,  for  then  the  tight  layer  below  will  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  water  below  the  reach  of  the  roots.  If  this  can  not  be 
had,  the  best  way  to  grow  strawberries  on  leachy  soils  for  home  use 
is  to  mulch  and  sprinkle. 

Propagation  of  the  Strawberry. — Seedlings  undertaken  in  the 
hope  of  originating  valuable  new  varieties  are  easily  grown  by 
taking  off  the  outside  layer  of  the  choicest  berries,  which  carries 
with  it  the  small,  yellow  seeds.  Wash  these  from  the  skin  and 
cover  them  slightly  in  a  sandy  soil  partially  shaded  and  kept  moist 
by  sprinkling,  or  a  light  mulch,  and  the  plants  are  readily  grown. 
As  with  seedlings  of  other  fruits,  few,  if  any,  will  be  found  superior 
to  the  parent  variety. 

Plants  for  setting  out  are  secured  by  taking  off  the  small 
growths  rooted  from  runners.  The  strongest  plants  are  those 
nearest  to  the  parent  plant.  When  these  are  allowed  to  root  in 
small  pots  plunged  into  the  soil,  they  are  called  "  pot-grown,"  and 
are  superior  for  planting  out,  but  they  are  not  largely  used  in  this 
State.  When  plants  of  any  variety  are  desired  for  new  beds  or 
fields,  a  row  or  more  are  allowed  to  send  out  runners  during  the 
summer,  and  these  are  fit  for  taking  up  and  replanting  the  follow- 
ing winter  or  spring. 

Laying  off  Ground  for  Strawberries. — The  essentials  are  deep 
and  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil  and  grading  of  the  surface 
so  that  water  will  flow  slowly  in  the  ditches.  Suggestions  as  to 
location  of  grade  lines  may  be  found  in  Chapter  XV.  The  inclina- 
tion which  answers  for  water  distribution  may  be  very  slight ;  about 
two  inches  to  the  hundred  feet  answers  on  the  level  lands  of  the 
Pajaro  Valley,  while  in  the  foothills  much  greater  fall  is  made  use 
of,  and  on  hillsides  rows  are  located  on  contour  lines  and  not  in 
straight  lines.  A  grade  of  three  and  three-quarters  inches  to  the 
hundred  feet  is  sometimes  used.  The  triangle  described  in  Chapter 
XV  can  be  used  to  fix  the  grades. 

Of  course,  in  grading  the  field  it  is  often  necessary  to  give  ad- 
jacent blocks  opposite  inclinations  to  provide  for  the  return  of  the 
water.  On  hillsides,  where  the  water  is  carried  down  a  ridge  to  a 
flume,  it  is  usual  to  keep  the  water  always  running  away  from  the 
flume,  and  only  enough  is  taken  out  to  reach  to  the  ends  of  the  small 


LAYING    OFF    FOR    STRAWBERRIES 


497 


ditches.     A  grade  of  six  inches  to  the  rod  is  practicable  for  hillside 
irrigation,  but  of  course  only  a  small  flow  of  water  is  employed. 

There  are  various  ways  of  laying  out  strawberry  beds  and  plan- 
tations. Some  give  flat  cultivation  and  lay  out  in  single  rows  two 
and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  in  some  districts 
flat  culture  is  unquestionably  the  best.     Others  lay  out  in  double 


Strawberry  Field  laid  off  in  double  rows. 

rows  a  foot  and  one-half  or  two  feet  apart,  and  between  each  pair 
of  rows  the  soil  from  the  center  is  drawn  up  to  each  side,  making  a 
low  ridge  or  level  a  little  higher  than  the  surface  on  which  the 
plants  are  set.  This  levee  serves  as  a  walk  between  the  beds  and 
holds  back  the  water  upon  the  bed  when  irrigated  by  flooding.  An- 
other, and  the  generally-adopted  plan,  is  to  have  the  plants  in 
double  rows  on  a  slight  ridge,  while  between  the  beds  is  a  furrow 
which  serves  as  a  walk  and  for  irrigation.  This  is  accomplished 
by  throwing  up  the  soil  with  the  plow  into  ridges  about  two  feet 
wide,  with  a  double  furrow  between.  On  the  sides  of  these  ridges 
the  plants  are  set,  and  often  on  the  top  of  the  ridge  between  the 
rows  of  strawberries  a  single  row  of  onions  or  lettuce,  or  some 
other  vegetable,  is  grown  the  first  year.  In  irrigation  the  water 
is  drawn  up  from  the  trenches  by  the  roots  and  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion, and  the  upper  surface  does  not  bake  as  it  would  by  flooding  if 
the  soil  be  heavy.  In  hoeing  out  weeds  and  in  fruit  gathering,  the 
workman  walks  in  the  ditch  and  does  not  pack  the  soil  around  the 
plant  by  tramping.  This  is  the  best  method  for  laying  out  for  large 
plantations.  The  rows  are  a  uniform  distance  apart  across  the 
field,  whether  the  space  between  be  a  ridge  or  a  ditch.    The  method 


498 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


of  making  the  beds  a  little  lower  than  the  general  surface  of  th 
ground,  answers  best  on  free,  open  soils  with  perfect  drainage. 
Cultivation  can  be  reduced  by  covering  the  depressed  surface  of 
the  bed  with  mulch  of  fine,  clean  litter,  such  as  chafif,  cut  straw, 
etc.  This  retains  moisture  and  gives  the  berry  a  clean  surface  to 
rest  on.  Such  a  bed  is  an  excellent  arrangement  for  the  home  gar- 
den. 

In  all  arrangements  the  plants  are  set  at  less  distances  in  the 
rows  than  the  rows  are  from  each  other.  Probably  the  prevailing 
distance  is  one  foot  between  the  plants ;  the  range  is  from  eight 
to  eighteen  inches  in  the  practice  of  different  growers,  and  deter- 
mined, of  course,  largely  by  the  habit  of  the  variety.  A  vine  like 
the  Sharpless,  with  a  spreading  growth  and  long  fruit  stems  needs, 
perhaps,  sixteen  inches  which  some  growers  give  it,  while  the 
smaller  more  compact,  Longworth  Prolific,  may  do  well  with  half 
that  distance. 

Planting  Strawberries. — Strawberry  plants  are  set  out  either  in 
spring  or  fall,  or  at  any  time  in  the  winter  when  the  ground  is  warm 
and  in  good  condition.  Fall  planting  usually  gives  a  fuller  spring 
crop  though  planting  as  late  as  February  has  brought  two  crops  the 
following  spring  and  summer,  and  planting  in  April  has  secured 
fruit  the  same  year,  but  it  is  better  to  prevent  it  and  induce  more 
growth.  Spring  planting  is  in  April  and  May.  In  the  drier  parts 
of  the  State,  early  fall  or  winter  planting  is  more  essential  than  else- 
where. If  the  ground  is  dry,  water  should  always  be  used  in  plant- 
ing. This  may  be  given  by  thorough  irrigation  of  the  ground  be- 
fore planting,  or  a  little  water  may  be  used  in  setting  each  plant. 
At  planting  it  is  usually  best  to  remove  all  leaves  from  the  plant, 
shorten  the  roots  to  three  inches  or  less,  and  be  sure  the  plants 
do  not  dry  while  planting  progresses.  As  with  handling  rooted 
grape-vines,  it  is  advisable  to  carry  around  the  plants  in  a  vessel 
which  has  water  in  it.  If  the  plants  have  been  received  by  mail 
they  are  invigorated  by  soaking  in  water  a  few  hours  before  plant- 
ing. 

In  setting  the  plants,  scoop  out  a  little  excavation  with  the  hand 
or  a  trowel,  spread  the  roots  well,  cover  with  fine  soil,  being  sure 
that  the  crown  of  the  plant  shall  not  be  below  the  surface  when  the 
soil  is  leveled.  Too  many  strawberry  plants  are  buried,  not  planted. 
Some  plant  very  rapidly  by  using  a  dibble  to  make  a  hole,  into 
which  the  roots  are  dropped  and  soil  pressed  around  them  by  using 
the  dibble  alongside ;  others  set  the  plants  on  the  side  of  the  fur- 
row, trusting  to  the  next  furrow  to  complete  the  covering.  Nearly 
all  ways  succeed  if  the  plant  is  not  set  too  deeply  and  the  ground 
is  moist  at  planting  and  not  allowed  to  dry  out  afterwards  —  pro- 
viding good,  strong  plants  are  used.  In  buying  plants  it  is  often 
poor  economy  to  buy  the  cheapest. 


CARE    OF    THE    STRAWBERRY  499 

Staminate  and  Pistillate. — In  associating  varieties  be  sure  the 
pistillate  varieties  are  not  set  by  themselves.  Some  sorts  have 
perfect  flowers  and  are  self-fertilizing;  others  have  only  the  pistil- 
late element  in  the  bloom  and  must  have  the  staminate  adjacent  in 
another  variety.  All  the  varieties  largely  grown  in  California  have 
perfect  flowers,  though  some  pistillate  sorts  have  been  locally  ap- 
proved. 

Care  of  the  Strawberry  Plantation. — Herein  lies  the  secret  of 
success  with  the  strawberry.  Neglect  has  led  to  disappointment  and 
condemnation  of  the  strawberry,  where  intelligent  care  would  have 
rendered  it  a  constant  delight.  The  cheap  elements  of  proper  care 
may  be  thus  enumerated : 

Retention  of  moisture  very  near  the  surface  by  careful,  shallow 
cultivation  or  by  mulching,  persistent  destruction  of  weeds,  and 
compensation  for  summer  evaporation  by  frequent  irrigation.  The 
plants  during  the  bearing  season  should  never  be  allowed  to  show 
any  leaf-shriveling  from  drouth.  Frequency  of  irrigation  depends 
upon  local  conditions.  Irrigation  at  intervals  of  four  to  ten  days, 
according  to  the  soil,  are  the  outlines  of  prevailing  practice. 

Constant  removal  of  runners  from  all  plants  except  those  it  is 
desired  to  multiply  to  furnish  new  plants  or  to  fill  the  rows.  Pinch- 
ing of  runners  should  always  accompany  picking  or  hoeing  of 
weeds,  and  on  the  garden  bed  there  can  be  no  excuse  for  neglect 
in  this  respect.  The  young  plants  should  be  faithfully  freed  from 
runners  to  strengthen  them  up  for  bearing. 

Though,  as  already  stated,  strawberries  may  in  some  locations 
be  had  all  winter,  it  is  better  practice,  as  a  general  rule,  to  lay  the 
plants  away  for  a  rest.  The  market  season  in  the  regions  supplying 
the  San  Francisco  market  extends  from  April  to  December,  and 
fruit  is  continuously  shipped  during  that  period.  At  the  approach 
of  winter  in  the  last-named  month,  it  is  usual  to  go  over  the  beds 
with  a  sickle,  cutting  off  the  old  crops  of  leaves  close  to  the  root 
crown,  carefully  cleaning  up  the  plantation  for  the  heavy  rains.  In 
most  cases  it  will  be  a  great  advantage  then  to  cover  over  all  with 
a  light  coat  of  good  manure,  which  the  winter  rains  will  leach  down 
in  to  the  soils.  The  result  of  the  fall  clipping  and  enriching  will 
be  an  early  and  strong  start  of  the  plant  in  the  spring,  and  a  most 
abundant  fruitage. 

Duration  of  the  Plantation. — Strawberry  plants  well  cared  for 
and  not  visited  by  insect  pests,  have  a  long,  productive,  and  profit- 
able life  in  California.  Twelve-year-old  plants  are  sometimes  re- 
ported as  still  producing  abundantly.  It  is  customary  to  count  from 
five  to  eight  years  as  the  profitable  life  of  a  plant,  though  some 
growers  replant  after  two  bearing  years.  The  effective  duration 
depends  directly  upon  preventing  growth  of  plants  and  too  close 
matting  of  the  rows. 


500 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Varieties  of  the  Strawberry. — Though  all  new  varieties  are  tried 
by  California  growers,  and  quite  a  number  may  be  considered  suc- 
cessful either  for  market  or  for  home  use,  only  a  very  few  may 
be  said  to  be  widely  grown.  In  the  Watsonville  district,  which 
largely  supplies  San  Francisco,  the  Melinda,  which  some  growers 
hold  to  be  indistinguishable  from  the  Dollar,  is  chiefly  grown,  with 
Brandywine  as  a  distant  second.  In  the  Florin  district,  near  Sac- 
ramento, growing  berries  to  ship  all  through  the  northern  States  of 
the  coast  and  eastward  to  Colorado,  the  Dollar  is  grown  almost  ex- 
clusively, with  a  few  Jessies  for  extra  early.  Excelsior  is  also 
grown.  In  the  districts  near  Los  Angeles,  the  Brandywine  pre- 
vails. It  is  best  for  shipping  and  is  held  to  be  sweeter  than  at  the 
east  and  next  to  it,  in  the  commercial  fields  at  the  south,  is  Klon- 
dyke.  The  Arizona  Everbearing  is  declining  in  popularity  al- 
though still  favored  by  amateurs  for  home  use. 

Three  old  kinds  which  still  hold  favor  for  home  use  and  local 
sale  are  the  Longworth  Prolific,  the  Sharpless,  and  the  Monarch 
of  the  West.  The  Sharpless  is  the  most  widely  grown ;  the  Mon- 
arch shows  better  size  and  color  in  southern  California  and  on  the 
vSierra  foot-hills  than  in  the  regions  adjacent  to  San  Francisco,  al- 
though it  is  still  grown  therein  to  some  extent.  The  Longworth 
is  an  old  favorite,  early,  productive,  and  hardy,  and  its  style  has 
become  very  popular  in  the  markets.  Wilson's  Albany  also  holds 
favor. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  varieties  show  marked  difference 
in  behavior  in  different  soils  and  situations.  In  planting  for  mar- 
ket or  home  use  the  planter  will  be  safe  in  making  his  largest  plan- 
tations of  the  varieties  commended  by  leading  growers  and  well 
informed  nurserymen,  and  at  the  same  time  he  should  put  out 
experimental  plants  of  other  varieties. 

The  most  notable  work  for  new  varieties  in  California  is  being 
pursued  by  Albert  F.  Etter,  of  Briceland,  Humboldt  county.  He 
is  crossing  cultivated  varieties  with  local  wild  species  and  is  thus 
introducing  factors  not  employed  hitherto  with  results  which  prom- 
ise to  be  notable.  His  first  named  variety  is  Rose  Ettersburg, 
which  is  a  cross  of  a  third  generation  Sharpless  x  Parry  with  a 
novel  type  of  Fragaria  Chiloensis.  It  has  remarkable  drouth  resis- 
tance and  thrift  on  poor  soils.  The  blossoms  are  often  as  large 
as  a  silver  dollar,  the  berries  large,  often  1^  inches  in  diameter,  and 
blush  pink  in  color.  Single  stocks  from  sets  18  months  out  meas- 
ured 22  inches  high  and  over  10  feet  in  circumferance.  Mr.  Etter's 
work  is  described  in  detail  in  the  Pacific  Rural  Press  for  August  22 
and  29  and  September  5  and  19,  1908,  and  is  very  interesting. 


PART    SEVEN:     NUTS 


CHAPTER    XXXVII 
NUT    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA 

Two  nuts  have  risen  to  large  commercial  importance  in  Cali- 
fornia :  The  English  walnut  and  the  almond.  Other  nuts  than 
these,  except  peanuts,  have  never  attained  great  acreage,  although 
several  have  succeeded  and  promise  to  become  popular. 

The  commercial  production  of  almonds  and  walnuts  in  Califor- 
nia during  the  last  thirteen  years  has  been  estimated  by  the  trade 
as  follows,  in  tons  of  2,000  lbs. : 


Year  Almonds        Walnuts 

1895 825  2,310 

1896 1,605  4,115 

1897 2,375  3,985 

1898 450  5,660 

1899 2,320  5,530 

1900 2,740  5,430 

1901 ,1,560  6,910 

1902 3,270  8,520 

1903 3,200  5,500 

1C04 800  7,590 

1S05 2,125  5,750 

1906 900  6,125^ 

1£07 750  6,500^ 

1908 2,900  8,500 

1909 1,500  8,000 


The  walnuts  are  chiefly  grown  in  Santa  Barbara,  Ventura,  Los 
Angeles  and  Orange  counties  in  Southern  California.  The  almonds 
are  from  interior  counties  in  the  central  regions  of  the  State.  Rea- 
sons for  the  extreme  fluctuations  in  production  will  be  suggested 
by  the  discussion  of  each  nut  which  will  follow. 

THE  ALMOND 

The  almond  has  an  interesting  history  in  California,  but  it  can 
be  outlined  in  a  few  sentences.  The  importation  of  the  best  Euro- 
pean varieties  began  very  early,  and  a  number  of  them  had  been 
planted  in  1853.  They  proved  irregular  bearers,  though  the  trees 
grew^   thriftily   and   in   some   cases   showed   fruit   very   soon   after 

501 


502 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


planting.  The  barren  almond  trees  were  largely  grafted  into 
prunes  or  made  into  firewood  and  the  conclusion  was  reached  that 
to  secure  regularity  and  abundance  in  fruiting,  locations  for  almond 
orchards  must  be  sought  with  the  utmost  care,  and  that  the  secret 
of  success  lay  in  the  location.  After  that  local  seedlings  seemecl 
to  demonstrate  their  value  in  regular  crops,  and  in  characteristics 
and  qualities  superior  to  foreign  kinds.  Large  planting  was  then 
undertaken  on  the  ground  that  the  choice  of  soil  and  situation, 
and  the  selection  of  trustworthy  varieties,  are  both  factors  of  suc- 
cess, but  that  possibly  more  lay  in  the  choice  of  variety  than  of 
location.  This  belief  led  to  wide  planting  in  locations  now  seen 
to  be  unfitted  by  reason  of  frosts  and  losses  were  again  encoun- 
tered. Now  it  seems  to  be  fully  demonstrated  that  no  matter  what 
variety  is  planted,  locations  for  the  almond  must  be  selected  with 
great  care.  It  has  also  been  demonstrated  that  association  of 
varieties  promotes  pollination  and  satisfactory  bearing. 

Situations  and  Soils  for  the  Almond. — Almonds  are  now  doing 
best  on  the  higher  lands  in  coast  valleys,  free  from  fogs  and  pro- 
tected from  direct  winds,  but  subject  to  tempered  breezes;  also  at 
various  points  in  the  interior  valleys  and  foot-hills.  The  general 
proposition  that  low  lands  in  small  valleys  should  be  avoided,  and 
bench  or  hillside  situations  preferred,  seems  to  be  a  safe  one.  Lands 
directly  upon  the  coast  have  not  proved  satisfactory.  In  the  large 
interior  valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin,  almonds  are 
successfully  grown  on  flat  valley  lands  but  little  lifted  above  sea 
level  and  from  such  plains  the  chief  product  comes.  Why  almonds 
are  safer  on  the  low  lands  of  a  great  valley  than  of  a  small  valley  is 
explained  by  the  discussion  on  page  15. 

The  almond  prefers  a  loose,  light,  warm  soil,  and  heavy,  poorly- 
drained  soils  should  be  avoided.  Though  they  need  moisture 
enough  to  make  good,  thrifty  growth  they  will  produce  good  crops 
on  soils  that  are  too  light  or  dry  to  grow  satisfactory  peaches,  apri- 
cots, nectarines,  cherries,  or  similar  pulpy  fruit.  The  almond  is,  how- 
ever, a  very  deep-rooting  tree,  and  may  succeed  by  reaching  deeply 
for  moisture  rather  than  by  denying  itself,  as  some  think.  The 
tree  certainly  suflfers  and  is  barren  from  drouth  in  some  cases. 

Propagating,  Planting,  and  Pruning. — The  almond  is  propa- 
gated from  seedlings  grown  as  described  in  Chapter  VIII,  and 
budded  as  described  in  Chapter  IX.  The  almond  root  is  preferred, 
though  the  peach  answers  well.  The  apricot  root  should 
be  avoided. 

For  planting  out,  trees  in  dormant  bud  are  very  successful  if 
given  proper  care.  Yearling  trees  are,  on  the  whole,  best,  and 
usually  those  which  have  made  a  moderate  instead  of  a  very  large 
growth  are  to  be  preferred.     The  almond  makes  a  comparatively 


ALMOND     HARVESTING 


503 


large  tree  and  should  have  plenty  of  room — not  less  than  twenty- 
four  feet  apart  (though  some  plantations  are  made  at.  twenty  feet), 
and  thirty  feet  is  better. 

Old  almond  trees  are  readily  worked  over  to  other  varieties  by 
grafting  and  by  budding  into  new  shoots  forced  out  by  cutting 
off  large  branches.  Methods  with  the  peach  described  on  page 
280  are  applicable  to  the  almond. 

The  pruning  of  the  almond  is  very  simple.  The  tree  should 
be  headed  low  and  pruned  during  the  first  three  years,  as  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  XII,  to  secure  a  shapely,  strong  tree.  After 
the  third  year  little  pruning  is  required  except  to  thin  out  objec- 
tionable branches  by  winter  pruning.  There  is  danger  of  allowing 
the  trees  to  become  too  dense.  Shortening  in,  as  practiced  with  the 
peach,  is  sometimes  proposed  for  the  almond,  for  the  thrift  of  the 
tree  and  the  size  of  the  nut,  but  growers  have  not  had  courage 
enough  to  assume  the  increased  cost  of  production  which  would 
be  involved. 

The  cultivation  of  the  almond  orchard  is  the  same  as  com- 
mended for  other  fruit  trees,  and  as  the  trees  are  often  planted  in 
naturally  dry  soils,  the  greater  care  in  cultivation  is  needed  to 
retain  sufficient  moisture  to  give  good  size  to  the  nuts.  In  certain 
locations,  of  course,  irrigation  will  be  necessary,  but  usually  a  light 
rainfall  will  answer  if  good  cultivation  is  given. 

Gathering,  Hulling,  and  Bleaching. — Almonds  are  gathered  by 
spreading  canvas  under  the  tree  and  shaking  the  branches  sepa- 
rately; the  few  nuts  remaining  can  be  displaced  by  striking  with 
a  light  stick.  The  gathering  should  be  done  after  the  hulls  have 
burst  open,  but  should  not  be  delayed  until  the  nuts  are  badly 
discolored.  Discoloration  of  the  nut  depends  upon  local  atmos- 
pheric conditions  and  is  worst  in  regions  subject  to  moist  winds 
or  fogs  from  the  ocean,  and  they  often  extend  considerable  dis- 
tances into  the  interior  valleys.  On  dry  plateaux  adjacent  to  the 
Mojave  Desert  perfectly  bright  almonds  are  produced  naturally, 
but  at  these  elevations  frost  injuries  are  frequent  and  notable. 

Hulling  is  done  with  machines  devised  for  that  purpose.  There 
are  several  in  use  and  recently  great  capacity  and  cheapness  of 
operation  have  been  attained. 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  almond  product  bleaching  is  appar- 
ently demanded  by  market  requirements.  Sulphur  should  not  be 
applied  until  the  nut  is  thoroughly  dry,  or  else  the  fumes  will 
penetrate  it,  and  not  only  spoil  its  flavor,  but  will  destroy  its  ger- 
minating power.  The  nuts  are  dried  by  exposure  to  sun  on  plat- 
forms or  trays,  and  in  dewy  places  should  be  covered  during  the 
night.  After  being  well  dried,  sprinkle  the  nuts  sufficiently  to 
moisten  the  shell  surface  only  and  apply  sulphur  fumes.  Various 
home-made  contrivances  are  used  for  bleaching,  such  as  piling  up 


504  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    IIOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

several  of  tlie  slat-bottom  trays  one  upon  another,  placing  around 
them  sides  made  of  boards  so  as  to  hook  to<;'ether  at  the  corners, 
cover  the  top  with  a  damp  canvas,  and  burn  the  sul])hur  in  a  hole 
in  the  ground  below  the  bottom  tray. 

Webster  Treat,  formerly  a  large  grower  of  almonds,  describes 
his  sulphuring-house  for  almonds  : 

My  bleaching-hoiise  is  about  twenty-five  feet  by  eight  feet,  and  I  generally 
put  in  about  four  thousand  pounds  of  almonds  and  expose  them  to  sulphur 
fumes  for  three  or  four  hours.  The  house  is  boarded  with  tongue  and  groove 
flooring,  inside  and  out,  and  roofed  with  well-laid  shingles,  and  has  a  flue 
about  two  feet  high  on  the  apex,  to  help  draft  the  sulphur  smoke  up.  The  floor- 
is  of  one-by-three-inch  stuff,  set  up  edgewise,  three-eighths  of  an  in^j|^part, 
or  just  wide  enough  to  admit  the  fumes  from  the  sulphur  burning  J^^^  and 
narrow  enough  to  prevent  the  nuts  from  falling  through.  The  floJ^B^bout 
two  and  one-half  feet  above  the  ground,  and  the  lower  space  is  baffded  up 
with  tongue  and  groove  also  and  fitted  with  small  doors  every  five  feet,  so  that 
the  sulphur  pans  can  be  placed  underneath  the  floor. 


Sulphur  fumes  are  applied  until  the  nuts  are  of  a  light  yellow- 
ish color;  the  proper  shade  is  to  he  learned  by  securing  approved 
samples  from  some  trustworthy  dealer. 

The  following  explicit  account  of  handling  almonds  on  a  large 
scale  is  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Dargitz,  of  Acampo,  San  Joaquin  county  : 

''When. the  hulls  on  the  nuts  are  loose  from  the  shell,  as  will 
be  indicated  by  their  bursting  open,  it  is  time  to  begin  gathering  if 
you  wish  to  hull  them.  If  they  get  too  dry  you  will  have  to  wet 
them  before  hulling  or  you  will  break  the  shells.  If  you  wish  to 
shell  them  then,  the  drier  they  get  the  better.  It  will  not  pay  to 
begin  until  the  nuts  about  the  crotches  of  the  trees  are  ready  and 
they  will  be  the  last  to  ripen.  When  they  are  all  ready  you  can 
get  all  at  one  gathering.  Have  some  sheets  made  of  heavy  un- 
bleached sheeting  or  light  duck  or  sail  cloth..  Mine  for  large  trees 
are  15x30  feet,  handled  by  two  men  to  a  sheet  and  two  sheets  to  a 
tree.  Spread  the  sheets  under  the  tree,  one  on  each  side,  lapping 
the  edges  where  they  join.  Then  the  men  take  willow  or  bamboo 
poles  and  by  jarring  the  limbs  cause  the  nuts  to  fall  on  the  sheets. 
Always  strike  the  limb  sideways,  for  if  you  strike  a  glancing  blow 
down  the  limb,  you  will  reduce  next  year's  crop.  The  object  is  to 
get  the  nuts  and  disturb  the  foliage  as  little  as  possible.  Of  course, 
you  will  get  some  nuts  and  twigs  with  the  leaves  anyway.  When 
the  nuts  are  all  off  the  tree,  the  men  toss  their  poles  to  the  next 
tree  and  then  gather  up  the  sheets,  one  man  at  each  end  of  each 
sheet  and,  lifting  them,  carry  them  to  the  next  tree  where  the  pro- 
cess is  repeated.  When  enough  nuts  are  in  sheets  to  fill  several 
lug  boxes,  the  boxes  are  placed  on  the  ground  side  by  side,  and  the 
sheets  are  emptied  of  their  burden.  These  boxes  are  then  stacked 
up  so  as  to  be  easily  seen,  and  the  teamster  gathers  them  up  and 
hauls  them  in  to  the  shed  where  they  are  run  through  the  huller 
and  then  placed  in  the  hoppers  ready  for  the  hand  sorting.     After 


POLLINIZING    THE    ALMOND 


505 


sorting  they  are  placed  on  trays  or  board  platforms  in  the  dry- 
yard  to  cure.  They  should  be  cured  until  the  kernel  will  break 
without  bending.  Then  they  are  ready  for  bleaching;  but  be  sure 
they  are  thoroughly  cured  before  bleaching  or  the  kernel  will 
absorb  the  sulphur  and  be  spoiled.  When  properly  cured,  any 
means  may  be  employed  which  will  thoroughly  dampen  the  shell 
but  not  penetrate  to  the  kernel  and  then  be  subjected  to  the  fumes 
of  burning  sulphur  for  a  period  of  30  minutes  to  one  or  two  hours 
owing  to  the  variety  and  condition  of  the  nut.  A  yellowish  white 
color  of  the  shell  is  demanded  by  the  trade.  Do  not  over-sulphur. 
When  sufficiently  bleached  they  are  removed  and  placed  in  the 
sun  f^:  a  few  hours  to  dry,  and  then  sacked  up  ready  for  market. 
My  ^^w'lt  plan  of  bleaching,  given  me  by  Mr.  Reed,  of  Suisun,  is 
as  folHl :  When  cured  we  place  the  nuts  about  one  inch  thick 
on  fruit  trays  and  run  them  into  a  division  of  the  sulphur  house 
which  has  been  connected  with  a  steam  boiler  (five  horse-power), 
and  low  pressure  steam  (20  pounds),  is  turned  into  the  house  for  a 
half  or  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  Then  they  are  removed  and 
quickly  run  in  another  division  which  has  a  sulphur  charge  ready 
fired  and  bleached  from  40  minutes  to  an  hour,  when  they  are  re- 
moved and  immediately  sacked.  The  same  help  will  bleach  twice 
as  many  in  a  day  with  steam  as  without  it.  Be  careful  not  to  use 
high  pressure  steam  or  you  will  cook  the  nuts." 

Pollination  and  Late  Blooming. — The  advantage  of  cross  pol- 
lination between  different  varieties  and  the  surer  bearing  of  late 
blooming  varieties  are  related  subjects  which  are  worthy  of  close 
attention.  Mr.  J.  P.  Dargitz,  whose  harvesting  method  has  just 
been  given,  has  pointed  out  that,  according  to  his  observation  as 
a  rule  all  the  paper-shells  are  deficient  in  pollen,  and  will  not 
bear  well  if  planted  alqne  and  he  concludes  that  the  only  two  which 
warrant  planting  in  his  section  are  the  Nonpareil  and  the  Ne  Plus 
Ultra.  The  latter  is  not  a  very  good  nut,  and  needs  much  more 
moisture  than  the  other.  The  Nonpareil  will  give  good  results  if 
planted  with  some  other  variety  as  pollenizer.  It  is  one  of  the  very 
best  of  nuts  and  is  well  worth  planting.  Mr.  Dargitz  regards  the 
Texas  Prolific  the  very  best  pollenizer,  and  when  planted  in  alter- 
nate double  rows  with  the  Nonpareil  will  cause  it  to  set  fruit  freely 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Nonpareil  begins  blooming  two  weeks 
earlier  than  the  Texas  but  still  has  bloom  to  catch  the  Texas  pol- 
len when  it  is  ready. 

This  late  blooming  of  the  Texas  places  it  in  the  same  class 
for  surety  with  Drake's  Seedling.  Both  nuts  are  medium'  soft 
shell  and  small  but  are  being  largely  chosen  because  of  sure  bear-, 
ing  and  large  product.  As  to  the  relative  return  per  sack,  Mr.  Dar- 
gitz says : 


506 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


The  Nonpareil  at  14  cents  per  pound,  the  Drake  Seedling  at  11  cents  per 
pound,  and  the  Texas  Prolific  at  10  cents  per  pound,  will  each  bring  about 
$10.50  per  standard  sack  the  I  XL  at  13  cents  per  pound  about  $9  per  sack,  and 
the  Ne  Plus  Ultra  at  12  cents  per  pound  about  $8.50  per  sack. 

Varieties  of  the  Almond. — Almonds  should  bear  well  every 
year,  hull' easily,  have  clean,  thin,  soft  shells,  and  a  smooth,  bright, 
and  plump  kernel.  Almonds  with  long,  single  kernels  are  pre- 
ferred in  general  to  those  which  have  double  ones.  These  are  the 
characters  which  ruled  in  the  selection  of  new  varieties  by  the  pio- 
neer propagator  of  new  almonds,  A.  T.  Hatch,  formerly  of  Sui- 
sun.  In  1878  Mr.  Hatch  planted  out  about  two  thousand  five  hun- 
dred seedling  almond  trees  grown  from  bitter  almond  seed.  He 
afterward  budded  all  the  seedlings  but  about  three  hundred,  which 
were  left  to  bearing  age  unbudded.  The  fruit  of  these  seedlings 
was  of  all  degrees  of  excellence.  A  few  of  the  best  of  them  were 
selected  for  propagation  and  naming,  and  they  constitute  the  chief 
part  of  the  acreage  which  is  now  bearing  almonds,  but  other  late 
bloomers  and  surer  bearers  are  being  preferred  in  current  planting. 

Excellent  seedling  almonds  have  also  been  produced  by  other 
growers.    The  following  list  includes  the  sorts  most  widely  grown : 

IXL. — Tree  a  sturdy,  rather  upright  grower,  with  large  leaves;  nuts  large 
with,  as  a  rule,  single  kernels;  hulls  easily,  no  machine  being  needed,  nor  is  any 
bleaching  necessary;  shell  soft,  but  perfect;  largely  discarded  for  shy  bearing, 
but  desirable  in  some  places. 

Ne  Plus  Ultra. — Large  and  very  long  in  shape;  heavy  and  regular  bearer; 
soft  shell;  hull  free. 

Nonpareil. — First  called  Extra.  Of  a  weeping  style  of  growth;  smaller  foliage 
than  the  IXL,  but  still  forms  a  beautiful  tree.  An  extraordinarily  heavy  and 
regular  bearer,  with  very  thin  shell,  of  the  Paper  Shell  type.  Ripens  early  and 
can  be  gathered  before  other  varieties  are  ready. 

Lewellings  ProliUc. — Originated  with  the  late  Mr.  John  Lewelling;  "tree  a 
great  bearer;  of  drooping  habit;  nut  large  and  good;  soft  shell;  hull  free." — 
Leonard  Coates. 

Harriott's  Seedling  (or  Commercial). — From  Visalia,  where  it  is  a  surer 
cropper  than  elsewhere;  shell  softer  than  the  Languedoc;  nut  long,  of  peculiar 
shape,  quite  large;  kernel  sweet. 

King's  Soft  Shell. — Originated  in  San  Jose;  shell  very  thin  and  soft;  regular 
and  abundant  bearer. 

Princess. — The  finest  of  the  Paper  Shell  class;  long,  oval,  kernel  large,  white 
and  sweet. 

Languedoc. — Nut  large;  shell  thin;  kernel  sweet;  condemned  for  irregular 
bearing. 

Paper  Shell. — Medium  size;  shell  very  tender,  easily  broken  between  the 
finger  and  thumb;   kernel  large,  white  and  sweet. 

Drake's  Seedling. — Originated  with  Mr.  Drake,  of  Suisun,  of  the  Languedoc 
class;  very  prolific,  and  a  regular,  abundant  bearer.     A  late  blooming  variety. 

Golden  State. — Originated  by  Webster  Treat.  A  large  soft-shell,  somewhat 
longer  than  the  Languedoc,  with  a  full,  smooth-skinned  meat;  parts  from  the 
hull  readily.     An  early  variety,  but  in  less  favor  than  formerly. 

Peerless. — Resembling  IXL.  Popular  in  Yolo  county  for  regular  and  heavy 
bearing. 


THE    CHESTNUT 


507 


Texas  Prolific.— Brought  from  Texas  by  Robert  Williamson,  of  W.  R.  Strong 
&  Co.,  of  Sacramento,  about  1891,  as  a  seedling  originated  at  Dallas,  and  the 
only  almond  which  would  bear  there.  Planted  at  Acampo  by  Robert  Adams, 
who  had  charge -of  the  company's  nurseries  at  that  place;  fully  discussed  by 
J.  P.  Dargitz,  of  Acampo,  and  described  by  the  introducer  as  resembling  Lan- 
guedoc  in  tree  and  nut,  but  with  softer  shell,  which  is  filled  with  very  sweet 
kernel.  Blooms  two  weeks  later  than  Drake.  Mr.  Dargitz  reports  fifteen 
years  without  failure  to  bear  and  usually  prolifically. 

Jordan  Almond. — This  long,  hard-shelled  almond,  notable  because  of  its  long, 
slim  kernel  for  "salted  almonds"  and  imported  at  high  cost  for  that  purpose,  has 
been  introduced  both  through  government  distribution  and  private  enterprise, 
notably  that  of  the  late  John  Rock,  of  the  California  Nursery  Co.,  of  Niles. 
Too  little  has  yet  been  seen  to  determine  the  value  of  the  variety  in  local 
production. 


THE  CHESTNUT 

The  chestnut  is  not  yet  produced  in  large  amount  in  Califor- 
nia, and  certain  quantities  of  the  nuts  are  annually  imported,  the 
American,  Italian,  or  Spanish  and  Japanese  all  being  found  in  the 
San  Francisco  markets.  Of  chestnuts  grown  in  California,  the 
Italian  predominates,  and  the  Japanese  is  more  common  than  the 
American,  which  is  slow  of  growth  and  late  in  fruiting,  as  com- 
pared with  the  other  kinds.  Judging  the  success  of  the  Italian,  it 
may  be  said  that  a  large  area  of  California  is  well  suited  for  the 
growth  of  the  chestnut,  as  there  are  bearing  trees  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  State.  The  chestnut  succeeds  on  heavy,  clayey  soil, 
even  if  it  be  quite  rocky. 

Chestnut  trees  are  readily  grown  from  the  seed,  and  thus  grown 
come  into  bearing  in  from  six  to  eight  years,  though  the  Japanese 
sometimes  bears  sooner.  The  growth  of  chestnuts  from  the  seed 
is  described  in  Chapter  VIII.  In  growing  from  seed  of  the  im- 
proved varieties,  there  is  a  tendency  toward  reversion,  and  budding 
and  grafting  may  be  resorted  to;  and  can  be  done  by  the  methods 
described  in  the  chapter  on  the  fig.  The  chestnut  can  also  be 
grafted  with  the  ordinary  cleft  graft.  Buds  or  scions  should  be 
taken  from  trees  which  are  fruiting  satisfactorily,  and  in  this  way 
seedlings  which  have  a  tendency  to  bear  empty  burs  can  be  turned 
to  good  account.  Chestnuts  can  ..be  grown  in  the  nursery  until 
several  years  old,  providing  they  are  lifted  at  the  end  of  the  first 
year,  the  taproot  cut  ofif,  and  the  trees  reset,  giving  them  rather 
more  room  than  during  their  first  year's  growth.  In  permanent 
plantings  the  trees  should  have  plenty  of  room,  as  they  ultimately 
attain  great  size.  Trees  at  Grass  Valley,  Nevada  county,  when 
about  twenty  years  old,  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  of  trunk,  and 
forty  feet  high,  and  reported  to  bear  a  barrel  of  nuts  to  the  tree 
regularly.  Felix  Gillet,  of  Nevada  City,  has  for  many  years  made 
a  specialty  of  propagating  a  large  collection  of  the  improved  French 
varieties  of  the  chestnut,  known  as  Marrons,  which  were  distrib- 
uted to  some  extent.     The  chestnut  chiefly  grown  is  the  Italian 


508 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


but  it  has  not  attained  any  considerable  product  as  yet.  The  chest- 
nut, aside  from  its  desirability  as  an  orchard  tree,  can  be  com- 
mended as  a  tree  for  hillsides  or  a  shade  tree  for  waysides  or  pas- 
tures, and  should  be  more  widely  planted  in  California.  The  chief 
product  is  in  the  foothill  district  east  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley. 

THE  FILBERT 

The  best  English  cob-nuts  have  been  quite  widely  tried  in  Cal- 
ifornia without  successful  results.  Improved  Spanish  and  French 
varieties  of  the  filbert  were  early  introduced  by  Felix  Gillet,  of 
Nevada  City,  and  have  been  favorably  reported  by  him  as  to  growth 
and  bearing.  A  few  other  growers  in  foot-hill  situations  have  re- 
ported success,  ^but  as  a  rule  disappointment  has  attended  ven- 
tures with  the  filbert.  The  most  favorable  regions  lor  farther  ex- 
periment are  apparently  the  north  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range,  and 
other  cooler  and  moister  situations,  as  well  as  at  an  elevation  on 
the  Sierra  foot-hills  where  Mr.  Gillet  found  them  satisfactory. 

THE  PEANUT 

During  the  last  few  years  the  peanut  product  of  California  has 
notably  increased,  and  the  crop  is  a  popular  one  in  some  parts  of 
the  San  Joaquin  Valley  and  southern  California.  The  nuts  are 
considerably  grown  between  the  rows  in  young  orchards  and  vine- 
yards, as  well  as  upon  ground  wholly  given  to  them.  The  follow- 
ing explicit  directions  are  given  by  R.  M,  Hargrave,  a  grower  in 
Orange  County.  Some  slight  modifications  in  practice  may  be 
needed,  according  to  locality,  as,  for  example,  in  time  of  planting, 
which  is  usually  a  little  earlier  than  the  date  given : 

Planting. — The  best  time  to  plant  peanuts  is  about  the  middle  of  May,  say, 
lOth  to  15th,  in  rows  about  three  to  four  feet  apart  and  sixteen  to  twenty 
inches  the  other  way,  and  not  cover  too  deep — three  or  four  inches.  Peanuts 
planted  the  middle  of  May  ripen  evenly  and  are  of  uniform  size.  Very  early 
peanuts  ripen  unevenly,  and  the  first  nuts  that  set  on  get  so  ripe  they  turn 
to  a  pink  color,  and  if  the  land  is  a  little  §andy  the  stems  get  soft,  lose  their 
strength,  and  will  not  lift  the  nuts  from  the  ground. 

It  takes  about  thirty  pounds  of  the  California  or  White  Virginia,  and  fifty 
pounds  of  the  Tennessee  Reds  to  plant  an  acre.  Tennessee  peanuts  can  be 
planted  much  closer  in  the  rows.  The  California  peanut  is  the  best  to  plant,  as 
it  yields  three  or  four  tivnts  as  much  as  the  Tennessee  Reds  do,  and  has  more 
ready  sale. 

The  Quality  of  Land. — Peanuts  require  a  rich  sandy  soil  loam  that  is  known  as 
upland.  Damp  land  gives  the  nuts  a  straw  color,  and  they  are  not  as  good 
probably  as  those  raised  on  higher  land.  They  require  no  irrigation,  except 
on  very  sandy  land,  where  some  have  found  it  profitable ;  but,  as  a  usual  thing, 
when  irrigated  the  ground  is  liable  to  get  hard,  making  the  nuts  crooked, 
ill-shaped,  and  many  times  coloring  them. 

Cultivation. — Peanuts  should  be  cultivated  about  the  same  as  corn,  not 
allowing  any  weeds  to  grow  in  them,  keeping  the  ground  loose  and  mellow, 
and  when  the  spikes  begin  to  form,  they  should  not  be  disturbed.     If  they  are, 


PEANUT    AND    PECAN 


509 


it  causes  the  nuts  to  blight  or  not  fill  out.     The  blooms  do  not  require  to  be 
covered. 

Harvesting. — Peanuts  should  be  harvested  when  ripe,  and  not  allowed  to 
stand  too  long,  in  hopes  that  the  last  ones  set  out  will  fill  out  and  ripen,  as 
you  lose  more  than  you  gain.  The  little  ones  spoil .  the  sale  of  the  crop,  and 
many  are  left  in  the  ground  that  get  over-ripe.  Peanuts  should  be  cut  or 
plowed  out  and  thrown  into  windrows,  nuts  down,  and  let  lie  a  week  or  ten 
days,  and  then  sacked,  as  the  best  nuts  are  cured  in  that  way,  and  they  do  not 
mold  so  badly,  and  cure  a  better  color.  They  must  not  be  allowed  to  get  wet. 
The  tops  are  good  feed  if  stored  away  in  a  shed  for  winter  use.  All  kinds  of 
stock  like  them,  and  small  nuts  can  be  left  on  the  vines.  The>  make  the  best 
chicken  feed.  An  average  yield  is  about  twenty-five  to  thirty  sacks  to  the  acre, 
forty  pounds  to  a  sack,  but  many  have  raised  fifty  sacks,  with  extra  care  and 
good  land  well  adapted  to  peanuts. 

THE  PECAN 

The  pecan,  by  rapid  growth  early  fruiting,  and  <^eneral  thrift, 
seems  to  be  the  member  of  the  hickory  family  best  fitted  for  Cali- 
fornia conditions.  A  tree  grown  from  a  nut  planted  by  J.  R.  Wolf- 
skill,  on  Putah  Creek,  in  1878  was,  when  twenty-five  years  old, 
over  fifty  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  grow- 
ing luxuriantly  and  bearing  freely.  Still  older  trees,  also  very  sat- 
isfactory in  growth  and  bearing,  are  to  be  seen  at  Chico  and  Visa- 
lia.  The  pecan,  though  grown  for  thirty  years  by  different  parties 
around  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  either  does  not  bear  or  keeps  the 
nuts  hanging  on  until  sometimes  they  sprout  on  the  tree.  The 
wider  extremes  in  temperature  or  in  humidity  in  the  interior  seem 
to  teach  the  tree  better  habits  of  growth,  and  rest  and  moist  low- 
lands in  the  great  valleys  seem  best  for  pecan  planting.  As  yet, 
California  has  no  marketable  product  of  pecans  but  the  total  num- 
ber of  trees  in  the  state  is  insignificant. 

Pecan  trees  grow  readily  from  the  nuts  if  these  are  fresh.  Plant- 
ers should  secure  nuts  of  selected  varieties  (for  there  is  a  great  dif- 
ference in  size  and  quality)  direct  from  growers  in  the  southern 
States,  and  plant  as  soon  as  received,  in  the  early  winter,  or  if 
conditions  are  not  favorable  for  planting,  the  nuts  should  be  stored 
as  described  in  Chapter  VIII.  Nuts  planted  in  good  nursery 
ground  in  rows  as  there  suggested,  and  covered  about  two  inches 
or  a  little  deeper  in  dry,  loose  soil,  and  then  mulched  to  retain  mois- 
ture, will  germinate  freely.  The  trees  should  be  transplanted  to 
permanent  place  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  and  then  usually  the 
taproot  can  be  retained,  as  some  growers  deem  very  desirable ;  if 
the  trees  are  to  be  put  in  permanent  place  later  they  should  be 
transplanted  in  the  nursery  and  the  taproot  cut  off.  The  nuts  can, 
of  course,  be  planted  at  once  in  permanent  place  if  one  will  take 
the  extra  trouble  necessary  to  properly  care  for  them. 


510  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

THE  PISTACHIO 

The  pistachio  nut  (Pistachia  vera)  was  introduced  a  number  of 
years  ago  but  no  results  have  been  reported.  The  species  upon 
its  own  root  makes  a  low  shrub  and  is  slow  of  growth.  We  have 
also  imported  the  Pistachia  terebinthus,  from  which  is  derived  the 
"chio  turpentine,"  the  stock  the  true  pistachio  is  grafted  upon  in 
Europe  and  which  is  growing  thriftily  at  several  points  in  the 
State.  The  pistachio  needs  more  time  to  declare  its  California 
career. 

THE  ENGLISH  OR  PERSIAN  WALNUT 

The  nut  which  is  signified  in  California  when  the  term  walnut 
is  used,  is  the  English  walnut  or  Madeira  nut  (Juglans  regia)  and 
its  many  varieties.  This  tree  makes  a  grand  growth  in  California. 
Specimens  are  seen  here  and  there,  which,  at  about  twenty  years 
of  age  are  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet  in  height,  with  a  spread  of 
branches  of  forty  to  sixty  feet,  and  in  some  cases  bearing  four  to 
eight  hundred  pounds  of  nuts.  Much  larger  and  older  trees  can 
be  found  in  the  coast  and  interior  valleys  of  central  California 
where  the  nut  was  first  planted,  although,  as  has  already  been 
stated,  the  nut  has  thus  far  been  produced  in  large  quantities  only 
in  regions  adjacent  to  the  coast  in  southern  California.  The  equa- 
ble temperature  and  rnoisture  of  the  southern  coast  seems  to  speci- 
ally favor  the  nut,  but  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  success  can 
only  be  attained  in  such  situations.  A  number  of  French  varieties, 
which  have  been  widely  enough  distributed  to  test  their  growth, 
have  been  found  to  thrive  in  many  situations  where  the  old  Los 
Angeles  variety  is  a  failure,  and  there  is  at  present  quite  a  disposi- 
tion to  larger  plantings  of  the  walnut  in  all  California  valleys, 
either  as  a  sole  occupant  of  the  land  or  as  border  trees  around  fruit 
orchards.  At  the  South  the  walnut  area  has  largely  increased  in 
those  situations  where  the  tree  shows  most  satisfactory  bearing 
qualities,  and  newer  varieties  of  California  origin,  like  the  Im- 
proved Soft  Shell,  constitute  most  of  the  present  area.  In  all  un- 
tried places,  or  in  all  places  where  the  old  Los  Angeles  Walnut  has 
failed,  trial  should  be  made  of  the  hardy  French  varieties,  which 
will  be  described  farther  on.  Recently  considerable  planting  has 
been  done  in  the  coast  and  interior  valleys  and  foot-hills  of  central 
California  upon  the  quite  fully  demonstrated  success  of  these  va- 
rieties. It  is,  however,  very  desirable  to  secure  satisfactory  depth 
and  retentiveness,  without  excess  of  water,  in  the  soil.  The  wal- 
nut abhors  drouth  as  well  as  standing  water. 

Soils  for  the  Walnut. — The  walnut  makes  most  rapid  growth 
upon  a  deep,  rich,  moist,  loamy  soil,  and  shows  its  appreciation  of 
good  things  of  the  earth  as  do  other  fruit  trees,  and  yet  it  attains 
satisfactory  size  and  bearing  in  less  favorable  situations.    Thriving 


ROOTS    FOR    THE    ENGLISH    WALNUT 


511 


trees  can  be  found  in  the  clays  and  decomposed  granite  soils  of  the 
foot-hills,  as  well  as  in  the  valley  silts  and  loams.  Adequate  mois- 
ture must,  however,  be  had,  and  the  walnut  can  not  be  commended 
for  dry,  neglected  places  nor  for  soils  which  overlie  leachy  subsoils 
described  on  page  36. 

Propagation. — The  walnut  tree  grows  readily  from  nuts  treated 
as  described  in  Chapter  VIII.  In  the  main  the  use  of  seedlings 
has  hitherto  prevailed,  and  the  nut  has  been  looked  upon  as  com- 
ing sufficiently  true  from  seed.  Recently,  however,  this  has  changed 
rapidly,  and  grafting  to  secure  a  high,  uniform  grade  and  to  secure 
[    fruitfulness  in  spite  of  the  blight  is  commanding  wide  attention. 

Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by  using  the  California 
black  as  a  stock  for  the  English  walnut,  and  in  that  case  budding 
or  grafting  must  be  resorted  to.  Many  instances  of  the  success 
of  the  English  walnut  on  our  native  stock  might  be  cited,  but  the 
most  notable  tree  known  to  the  writer  is  to  be  seen  on  the  grounds 
of  John  R.  Wolfskin,  on  Putah  Creek,  in  Solano  County.  He  put 
in  a  bud  in  1875  and  the  tree  has  reached  immense  size  and  large 
product.  Since  then  many  large  native  black  walnuts  have  been 
top-grafted  with  the  English  walnut  with  notable  success,  not  only 
in  orchards,  but  along  highways  where  the  native  black  walnut  has 
been  planted  for  shade  and  ornament. 

Mr.  F.  S.  Leib,  of  San  Jose,  who  has  given  much  attention  to 
stocks  for  the  English  walnut  believes  that  the  cross  of  the  Cali- 
fornia black  and  the  Eastern  black  walnuts  and  the  California  black 
walnut  straight  afford  the  best  seedlings  for  roots  for  the  English 
walnut,  but  advises  close  selection  to  secure  the  best  growth.  This 
is  his  prescription : 

"The  Royal  hybrid  (every  cross  between  the  native  Eastern 
black  walnut  and  the  native  California  black  walnut  is  called  a 
Royal  hybrid),  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  most  magnificent  growing  tree 
in  the  walnut  line,  and  I  believe  that  in  the  future  some  Royal  hy- 
brids can,  by  persistent  selection,  be  sufficiently  fixed  to  furnish 
the  strongest  possible  roots  of  substantial  uniformity  on  which  to 
graft.  At  present  I  know  of  only  one  tree,  picked  out  from  many 
hundreds,  which  is  sufficiently  fixed  to  grow  a  fair  percentage  of 
seedlings  equal  to  itself.  Only  from  one  to  two  per  cent  of  the 
seedlings  of  most  Royal  hybrids  is  equal  to  the  parent,  and  the  per- 
centage of  even  the  best  straight  California  is  only  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  per  cent,  and  the  poorest  give  less  than  one  per  cent. 

At  present,  we,  by  a  system  of  sprouting,  are  able  to  eliminate 
four-fifths  of  the  weakest  growing  nuts,  and  we  plant  the  remaining 
fifth  in  the  nursery.  Twenty-five  per  cent  of  such  remaining  nuts 
from  our  selected  trees  of  Royal  hybrid  blood,  and  fifteen  to  twenty 
per  cent  from  our  selected  California  trees,  grow  three  to  four  feet 
the  first  year.    The  three  to  four  foot  seedlings  in  the  nursery  are 


512 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Eleven  Nuts  on  Two-Year  Grafts  on  Three- 
Year  California  Root. 


grafted  when  one  year  old,  and  the  remaining  smaller  trees  are  left 
for  another  year;  and  for  this  reason  a  small  per  cent  make  a  dis- 
proportionately large  growth  of  root  compared  to  its  moderate  top 
the  first  year,  and  make  an  immense  growth  of  top  the  second  year. 
All  Paradox  hybrids  (English  walnut  crossed  with  California 
black)  make  a  large  root  and  but  a  moderate  top  the  first  year,  as 
do  many  seedlings  from  the  Royal  hybrid,  and  as  do  very,  very  few 
from  the  straight  California.  These  few  trees,  which  make  good 
the  second  year,  three  or  four  per  cent,  possibly,  of  the  trees  left 
to  grow  another  year  in  the  nursery,  are  grafted  at  the  end  of  the 
second  year,  and  the  balance  thrown  away  as  unworthy  to  be  grafted 


BUDDING    WALNUTS 


513 


and  given  a  chance  in  orchard  form ;  for  a  tree  which  is  to  have  in 
the  orchard  from  sixteen  hundred  to  thirty-six  hundred  square  feet, 
can  not  be  too  good,  either  as  to  root  or  top. 

Budding  the  Walnut. — In  working  on  the  native  California 
seedling  stocks,  Mr.  Clowes,  of  Stockton,  buds  by  the  common 
method,  removing  the  wood  from  the  inside  of  the  plate  of  bark,  as 
advised  for  the  orange.    Twig  buds  as  used  with  the  olive  are  also 


Four  months'  growth  of  Walnut  Grafts — J.  B.  Neff,  Anaheim. 

successful,  and  ring  budding  works  well  on  shoots  of  a  year's 
growth,  which  have  at  least  attained  the  thickness  of  the  middle 
finger.  Mr.  Gillet  advises  that  the  buds  should  be  set  at  the  base 
of  these  shoots  where  the  wood  is  perfectly  round.  The  bandage 
should  pass  above  and  below  the  bud  so  that  the  bark  under  it  may 
be  pressed  down  close  upon  the  stock,  and  this  is  more  surely  gained 
by  shaving  ofif  the  base  of  the  leaf  stem,  below  the  bud,  about  to  the 
point  where  it  would  separate  when  the  leaf  naturally  falls  ofif. 
Mr.   A.   W.   Keith,  of   Selma,   has   hit   upon   a  very   interesting 


514 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Yearling  seedling   Black  Walnuts   grown   on   moist,  subirrigated  land. 

method  of  preparing  walnut  buds.  In  taking  a  fresh  bud  from  the 
new  growth  of  the  walnut  he  found  the  large  leaf  stem  a  serious 
impediment  in  firmly  placing  a  shield  bud  upon  the  cambium  of 
the  stock  and  binding  it  there.  Shaving  it  away  with  a  knife  left  too 
much  exposed  tissue.  If  the  leaf  stem  would  drop  oflF  as  it  does 
when  mature  and  leave  a  healed-over  scar,  the  result  would  be  a 
flat  surface  with  only  the  bud  protruding,  and  this  could  be  easily 
bound  in  place  so  as  to  exclude  the  air.     He  tried  cutting  off  the 


BUDDING    WALNUTS  5J^5 

compound  leaf,  leaving  a  stub  of  an  inch  or  so,  and  was  delighted 
to  find  that  a  stub  thus  left  became  dry  and  parted  from  the  stem 
just  as  a  mature  leaf  does  in  the  autumn.  By  cutting  off  the  leaves 
in  this  way  about  August  15,  the  stubs  part  readily  before  Septem- 
ber 1,  and  then  he  takes  ofif  clean,  flat  buds  and  uses  them  just  as 
he  does  in  budding  the  peach,  except  that  he  leaves  no  wood  behind 
the  bud.  He  takes  rather  a  large  shield  and  puts  it  under  the  bark 
of  the  stock  through  a  "T"  cut,  then  wraps  well  with  a  strip  of 
cheese  cloth  and  waxes  over  the  cloth  with  ordinary  grafting  wax. 
The  wrapping  is  applied  so  as  to  cover  most  of  the  bark  slit,  every- 
thing beyond  being  waxed  over.  The  bud  is  then  allowed  to  remain 
dormant  until  the  following  spring. 

Mr.  Pennington  of  Vacaville  has  been  very  successful  in  bud- 
ding by  cutting  buds  in  the  regular  shield  form,  about  1^4  inches 
long,  cut  from  branches  ^  to  ^  inch  in  diameter,  so  as  to  get  wide 
buds  with  but  little  wood  left  in  them.  He  also  prefers  to  have 
stocks  large,  and  considers  a  stock  1^  inches  in  diameter  not  too 
large.  He  uses  ordinary  budding  twine  for  tying,  but  does  not  use 
wax  to  cover  the  incisions.  He  says  it  is  best  to  put  off  budding  as 
late  as  it  is  possible  to  get  a  good  flow  of  sap,  as  then  the  weather  is 
likely  to  be  cooler,  which  is  an  important  factor,  and  the  growing 
season  is  about  finished,  which  will  allow  the  twine  to  be  left  in 
place  all  winter,  which  he  considers  advisable. 

Buds  are  more  apt  to  succeed  w^hen  pushed  upward  from  the 
cross-cut  than  downward  from  it.  The  cuts  w^ould  then  be  an 
inverted  ''T."  No  preparation  of  the  budding  wood  is  made,  except 
that  mature  buds  are  taken.  About  90  per  cent  of  the  buds  placed 
are  said  to  grow. 

Grafting  the  Walnut. — Grafting  into  black  walnut  seedling  root 
can  also  be  well  done  by  a  triangular  cut  into  the  edge  of  the  root 
stump,  as  described  for  grafting  into  grape-vine  stumps  in  Chapter 
XXVI.  In  the  case  of  the  walnut,  close  binding  with  a  wax  band  is 
desirable. 

Large  walnut  trees  can  be  worked  over  either  by  budding  or 
grafting.  If  by  budding,  the  large  limbs  are  cut  back  in  the  winter, 
and  in  autumn  following,  buds  are  put  in,  as  just  described,  on  as 
many  of  the  new  shoots  as  may  be  desired. 

In  grafting,  the  common  cleft  graft  is  used  with  a  degree  of 
success  particularly  when  the  split  is  not  made  through  the  pitch, 
but  at  one  side ;  the  scion  should  be  whittled  so  as  to  show  as  little 
pith  as  possible.  This  is  done  by  cutting  down  to  a  point  at  one 
side  and  not  in  the  center  of  the  scion.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
cover  all  exposed  surfaces. 

Grafting  over  is  desirable  either  for  substituting  a  better  variety 
of  English  walnut,  or  for  working  over  a  California  black  walnut  into 
an  English  variety,  and  as  much  attention  is  now  being  paid  to 


51g  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

blight  resistant,  interest  is  sharpened  in  grafting  methods.  Mr. 
J.  B.  Neff,  of  Anaheim,  who  has  looked  into  the  subject  deeply  and 
worked  over  many  old  trees  gives  the  following  practical  sugges- 
tions on  this  work : 


Walnut  grafting  by  modified  cleft  graft. 

If  the  trees  are  from  three  to  five  inches  in  diameter  they  may  be  cut  off 
at  about  four  feet  above  the  ground  and  below  the  branches,  then  four  or  five 
scions  may  be  placed  in  one  stock,  or  three  or  four  of  the  branches  may  be  cut 
back  to  within  lo  to  24  inches  of  the  trunk  and  two  to  three  scions  placed  in 
each.     All  the  other  branches  should  be  removed   from  the  trunk. 

Old  trees  of  from  12  to  20  years  should  have  the  branches  cut  at  places 
where  they  are  from  three  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  five  to  eight 
stubs  left,  which  will  be  from  three  to  six  feet  in  length  and  should  have  as 
many  as  six  scions  in  the  large  stubs,  the  other  branches  being  removed  before 
the  scions  are  put  in  place. 

In  sawing  large  branches  it  is  necessary  to  make  two  cuts,  the  first  being 
some  distance  above  or  outside  the  final  cut,  to  prevent  splitting  the  stub,  or  the 
trunk,  when  the  severed  part  falls. 

The  scions  should  always  be  of  solid,  mature  wood,  that  is,  with  as  small 
pith  as  can  be  had  readily,  and  must  have  good  living  buds.  Each  scion  should 
be  about  one-quarter  inch  in  diameter  and  have  at  least  two  buds.  The  growth 
having  buds  close  together  is  best,  as  shorter  scions  can  be  used. 

To  receive  the  scions  use  a  heavy  butcher  knife  and  mallet  to  split  the  stubs, 
placing  the  knife  across  the  stub  as  if  a  chip  one-half  to  five-eighths-inch  thick 
was  to  be  taken  off.  Then  depress  the  handle  of  the  knife  to  an  angle  of  30  to 
45  degrees  and  split  the  edge  down  to  2^  to  3  inches,  allowing  the  knife  to 
reach  the  farther  side  of  the  stub,  but  not  making  the  split  entirely  across  the 
stub.  Open  the  cleft  with  an  iron  wedge  ^  to  -yg-inch  wide  and  thickest  on  one 
edge,  placing  the  thickest  edge  toward  the  outside. 


GRAFTING    WALNUTS 


517 


Trim  the  cleft  in  the  stub  with  a  sharp  knife  so  it  will  be  smooth.  Then 
cut  the  scion  so  as  to  fit  perfectly  and  place  it  so  the  inner  bark  (tne  cambium 
layer)  of  both  will  be  on  the  same  line,  or  at  least  will  cross  twice,  then  remove 
the  wedge  and  put  hot  .wax  over  all  the  cuts  on  both  stock  and  scion  at  once. 

The  scions  should  be  examined  frequently  and  any  excessive  flow  of  sap 
wiped  off,  and  the  stub  re-covered  with  wax  as  soon  as  dry.  Excessive  flow 
of  sap  for  several  weeks  will  cause  the  loss  of  the  scions,  as  the  callus  can 
not  form  in  water.  This  may  be  controlled  by  boring  one-fourth  inch  holes 
in  the  body  of  the  tree  near  the  ground.  Three  or  four  holes  four  inches  deep 
will  be  sufficient  to  control  the  flow  of  the  largest  trees.  No  damage  is  done 
to  the  body  of  the  tree,  as  the  holes  soon  grow  over. 


Side  graft  made  with  a  saw-cut. 
Enlargement  can  be  prevented  by  slitting  the  bark  below  it. 


The  last  two  wax  formulas  on  page  85  are  largely  used  in  wal- 
nut grafting.  For  grafting  in  the  stems  of  seedlings  or  in  the 
smaller  branches  of  young  trees  a  side  graft  as  described  on  page 
87  is  successfully  used  as  are  also  several  styles  of  cleft  grafting. 
One  which  is  used  by  Mr.  R.  Wiltz  and  others  at  San  Jose  consist 
in  splitting  a  short  stub  of  a  small  branch  which  has  been  cut  about 
four  inches  from  its  attachment  to  a  larger  branch  of  stem.  In  this 
case  the  split  can  only  extend  to  the  closely  knit  wood  in  the  crotch 
and  the  scion  is  pushed  down  strongly  to  the  bottom  of  such  a  split 
and  it  is  held  tightly.  The  two  pieces  of  the  deep  split  are  not  cut 
away  but  are  allowed  to  protect  the  short  scion  which  is  between 
them  and  if  buds  start  on  these  pieces  they  are  allowed  to  grow  a 
little  to  keep  the  stock  from  dying  back.  When  the  scion  starts 
well  they  are  removed. 

A  method  of  side  grafting  (so  called  because  the  stock  is  not  cut 
across  but  a  cleft  made  in  the  side  of  it)  has  been  very  successfully, 
practiced  by  Mr.  Weinshank,  of  Whittier,  both  with  nursery  seeds 
lings  and  on  branches  of  large  trees.     His  work  has  shown  eighths 


518 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


to  ninety  per  cent  successful  in  the  nursery  and  even  more  on 
branches  of  large  trees.  The  following  is  a  condensed  description 
of  the  method : 

The  scion  is  prepared  as  for  a  whip  graft  (page  87),  cutting  a 
cross  obliquely  and  making  another  cut  right  straight  down  with 
the  grain  in  the  scion.  Then,  instead  of  cutting  the  stock  completely 
across  like  the  scion,  just  simply  make  a  little  cut  on  the  side.  Do 
not  cut  into  the  pith  of  the  wood  at  all.  Then,  place  the  two 
together  by  pushing  the  tongue  of  the  scion  (made  by  the  cut  on 
its  shorter  side)  into  the  lip  cut  in  the  stock;  tie  with  a  string,  and 
wax  over.  The  same  method  on  larger  trees  is  performed  exactly 
in  the  same  way,  except  that  the  lip  of  course  on  the  larger  limbs, 
which  are  three  or  four  inches  through,  would  be  considerably 
larger,  and  the  scion  instead  of  being  placed  directly  in  the  middle 
of  the  lip,  or  in  the  center,  would  be  placed  on  the  side  so  as  to  have 


Split  Grafting  the  Walnut  by  Mr.  Geo.  Payne,  of  Santa  Clara. 


PLANTING    THE    WALNUT 


519 


the  cambium  of  the  scion  connecting  with  the  cambium  on  the  stock 
at  least  on  one  side.  Three  or  four,  or  sometimes  five  scions  are  put 
on  a  large  limb,  and  in  most  cases  three  or  four  scions  would  grow. 
After  the  scion  has  reached  a  certain  stage  of  growth,  this  string  will 
commence  to  bind,  and  must  be  cut  down  right  over  where  the 
scion  is.  The  wax  on  either  side  still  tend  to  hold  the  string,  but 
as  the  wood  gradually  grows,  the  strings  will  draw  apart,  and  it 
will  not  bind  it  as  it  would  if  the  string  was  not  cut. 


One-year  Franquette  Graft  on  one-year  Selected 
Hybrid  Root. 

Planting  Walnut  Orchards. — There  is  much  difference  in  prac- 
tice in  planting  out  walnut  trees  in  permanent  place.  Some  advo- 
cate the  use  of  trees  two  or  three  years  from  the  seed,  getting  as 
much  of  the  tap-root  as  possible ;  others  allow  the  tree  to  remain 
in  nursery  until  it  throws  out  laterals,  which  is  usually  done  the 
fourth  or  fifth  year.  Two-year-old  trees  are  generally  preferred, 
but  walnut  trees  of  many  times  that  age  can  be  successfully  trans- 
planted if  the  work  is  carefully  done.  Walnut  trees  are  usually  set 
forty  feet  in  squares,  though  some  give  the  large-growing  varieties 
fifty  feet.     Planting  in  hexagonals  at  forty-five  feet  distance  gives 


520 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


A  thrifty  young  English  Walnut. 


very  satisfactory  results.  Some  growers  plant  in  squares  at  thirty 
feet  distance,  intending  to  remove  alternate  trees  as  they  crowd 
each  other,  first  cutting  back,  for  a  time,  the  trees  which  are  finallv 
to  be  removed. 

Intercultures  with  the  Walnuts. — In  the  southern  walnut 
regions  it  is  common  to  grow  beans,  scjuashes,  etc.,  between  the 
rows  of  trees  until  the  latter  reach  bearing  age ;  root  crops  which 
attract  gophers  should  be  avoided.  Inter-planting  of  smaller,  early- 
fruiting  trees  is  also  practiced  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Pruning  the  Walnut. — The  walnut  is  usually  headed  higher  than 
ordinary  orchard  trees,  but  preference  is  now  given  to  starting  the 
first  branch  at  about  four  feet  from  the  ground  instead  of  six  feet  as 
formerly.  All  the  pruning  needed  is  in  shaping  the  tree  as  described 
for  the  fig.  Upward  trend  of  the  branches  should  be  secured,  some- 
times by  cutting  out  the  shoots  which  grow  downward,  sometimes 
by  tying  them  up  for  a  time  to  the  central  stem  until  they  are  stiff 


HARVESTING    WALNUTS  521 

enough  to  retain  this  position.  Placing  branches  on  the  stem 
according  to  the  principles  advanced  in  Chapter  XII,  should  be 
borne  in  mind.  The  stem  should  be  protected  from  sunburn  until 
the  foliage  accomplishes  this.  Whenever  shoots  are  killed  back  by 
sunburn  or  by  frost,  they  should  be  cut  off  cleanly  below  the  black 
mark  which  shows  how  far  the  injury  has  extended.  If  this  is  done, 
the  die-back  down  the  branch  is  usually  prevented. 

Bloom  and  Bearing  of  the  Walnut. — The  walnut  has  its  stam- 
inate  and  pistillate  blooms  separate,  but  both  occur  on  the  same 
tree.  Successful  fruiting  depends  upon  the  appearance  of  these  two 
forms  of  bloom,  without  too  great  interval  of  time,  and  although 
there  seems  to  be  quite  a  retention  of  vitality,  the  lack  of  bearing  of 
some  varieties  has  been  found  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  catkins 
disappear  too  long  before  the  pistillate  bloom  was  sufficiently  de- 
veloped to  receive  the  pollen. 

The  bearing  age  of  the  walnut  depends  upon  the  variety.  Some 
of  the  French  varieties  are  very  precocious  and  have  borne  fruit  in 
nursery  row  at  two  and  three  years  old,  but  the  pistillate  blooms 
were  then  fertilized  from  catkins  growing  on  older  trees.  The 
practical  bearing  age  of  the  seedling  English  walnut  in  this  State 
may  be  rated  at  six  to  eight  years,  according  to  the  variety.  Trees 
grafted  with  scions  from  bearing  trees  fruit  much  sooner. 

Harvesting  Walnuts. — Gathering  walnuts  is  done  in  different 
ways ;  some  gather  them  from  the  ground  at  intervals  during  the 
months  of  September  and  October;  others  use  poles  and  clean  the 
trees  at  one  operation ;  some  go  over  the  ground  three  times ;  first, 
picking  up  what  have  fallen ;  second,  picking  up  what  have  fallen 
and  striking  the  limbs  lightly  to  dislodge  others  which  are  ripest; 
third,  picking  up  again  and  then  knocking  off  all  that  remain  on  the 
trees.  In  this  way  gathering  lasts  a  month  or  six  weeks.  Walnuts, 
after  gathering,  are  usually  treated  as  described  by  F.  E.  Kellogg, 
of  Santa  Barbara  County : 

As  fast  as  gathered  the  nuts  are  placed  in  slat-bottomed  trays,  6x3  feet,  by 
six  inches  deep,  about  fifty  pounds  in  a  tray,  being  thoroughly  shaken  up  once 
or  twice  a  day.  If  the  weather  is  very  hot,  they  should  be  dried  in  the  shade. 
When  the  nuts  are  dry  they  are  passed  through  an  inclined  revolving  grader, 
making  about  twelve  revolutions  per  minute,  having  a  one-inch  mesh  wire 
screen,  and  all  that  fall  through  this  are  called  "seconds."  The  lower  end  of 
the  grader  dips  into  a  vat  of  water,  thoroughly  wetting  the  huts  and  washing 
them  to  a  certain  extent — entirely  sufficient  for  paper  shells  and  soft  shells, 
and  usually  enough  for  hard  shells.  A  system  of  buckets  attached  to  the  drum 
of  the  grader  then  elevates  the  nuts  to  a  chute,  which  discharges  them  into  a 
large  box  4x4x8  feet  high,  with  an  inclined  slat  bottom  two  and  one-half  feet 
above  the  ground.  While  in  this  box,  they  are  subjected  to  the  fumes  of 
sulphur  for  twenty  to  thirty  minues  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  color. 
The  second  grade  walnuts  are  also  put  through  the  washing  and  sulphuring 
process.  The  nuts  are  next  drawn  off  from  the  bleachers  into  the  drying  trays, 
piled  one  on  top  of  the  other,  to  prevent  the  sun  from  shining  directly  on 
the  nuts,  and  remain  there  for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  until  the  nuts  are  thor- 
oughly dried'  off.     The  trays  are  then  emptied  into  a  hopper,  from  which  the 


522 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


nuts  are  drawn  oflf  into  bags  containing  something  over  one  hundred  pounds 
each;  the  bags  are  securely  sewed  up  and  stamped  with  the  producer's  brand, 
and  the  nuts  are  ready  for  shipment. 

Col.  A.  S.  Heath,  of  Carpinteria,  uses  a  moist  bleach  and  a  drier 
afterward,  as  follows: 

When  the  nuts  leave  the  rotary  washer  they  are  entirely  free  of  hulls  and 
clean.  They  are  taken  to  the  bleaching  boxes,  and  here  subjected  to  the  very 
minimum  amount  of  sulphur  necessary,  and  cold  steam,  being  in  the  bleachers 
about  one  hour.  From  the  bleachers  they  are  taken  to  the  steam  drier.  In 
the  drier  are  lOO  drawers,  each  capable  of  holding  40  to  50  pounds  of  walnuts. 
These  drawers  have  wire  bottoms  to  allow  the  heat  to  pass  through  them.  In 
the  basement  beneath  the  drier  Mr.  Heath  has  some  modern  furnaces  con- 
structed, and  during  the  course  of  the  drying  about  130  degrees  of  heat  is 
maintained.  The  nuts  are  kept  under  this  heat  for  eight  hours.  During  the 
drying  it  is  possible  to  watch  the  progress  by  pulling  out  drawers  for  inspection. 

Dipping  Instead  of  Sulphuring. — Sulphuring  often  injures  the 
flavor  of  the  kernel  and  dipping  is  coming  into  wide  use.  The  fol- 
lowing formula  has  been  furnished  to  growers  by  the  University 
Experiment  Station: 

Six  pounds  bleaching  powder  (also  called  chloride  of  lime),  twelve  pounds 
sal-soda,  fifty  gallons  water.  Dissolve  the  bleaching  powder  in  about  four  gal- 
lons of  water,  stirring  till  dissolved.  Dissolve  the  sal-soda  in  about  four  gallons 
of  water.  Add  one  solution  to  the  other  and  stir  well;  let  the  carbonate  of 
lime  settle  to  the  bottom  and  draw  off  the  clear  liquor  and  add  water  to  make 
a  total  of  fifty  gallons.  Put  the  nuts  in  large  dipping  box  or  lath  crate,  immerse 
in  the  fluid,  and  then  add  one  and  one-fourth  pounds  of  fifty  per  cent  sulphuric 
acid  and  agitate  by  raising  and  lowering  the  dipping  box.  The  bleach  should 
be  reached  in  five  to  ten  seconds,  and  the  nuts  are  then  washed  in  clear  water 
and  put  out  to  dry.  Of  course  to  employ  this  process  cheaply,  specially  con- 
trived dipping  appliances  are  used.  The  same  liquor  can  be  used  with  new 
batches  of  nuts  so  long  as  the  proper  effect  is  produced,  and  small  additions 
of  acid  will  prolong  the  efficiency  of  the  liquor. 

Since  the  foregoing  method  was  published  certain  California 
courts  have  decided  that  the  process  is  covered  by  a  patent  pre- 
viously issued  and  controlled  by  the  Anderson-Barngrover  Co.,  of 
San  Jose,  who  demand  a  royalty  for  its  use.  The  walnut  growers 
employed  Prof.  Stabler,  of  the  University  of  Southern  California,  in 
Los  Angeles,  to  devise  a  new  process  in  the  public  interest.  His 
early  results  indicate  that  by  running  an  electric  current  through  a 
four  per  cent  solution  of  common  salt  (four  pounds  of  salt  to  one 
hundred  pounds  of  water)  the  chlorine  is  set  free  from  the  soda 
and  becomes  available  for  bleaching.  It  is  possible  also  that  the 
electric  current  may  exert  bleaching  action  of  its  own. 

Varieties  of  the  Walnut. — Of  walnuts  of  California  origin  there 
are  two  classes,  which  are  called  "hard"  and  ''soft"  shell,  but  the 
accepted  commercial  product  is  largel}^  composed  of  the  soft-shell 
class.  Several  varieties  of  French  walnuts  are  now  being  widely 
distributed.  An  attempt  will  be  made  to  give  some  of  the  dis- 
tinctive points  of  each  variety  mentioned: 


VARIETIES    OF    ENGLISH    WALNUT 


523 


Common  English  Walnut;  Los  Angeles  Nut,  etc. — This  is  the  ordinary 
EngHsh  walnut  of  commerce.  It  was  planted  at  an  early  day  in  Los  Angeles 
county,  but  is  now  largely  replaced  by  the  Improved  Soft  Shell. 

Santa  Barbara  Soft  Shell;  Sexton's  Soft  Shell. — Originated  by  Joseph  Sex- 
tori,  who  gives  this  account  of  its  origin  and  characteristics :  "The  winter  of 
1867  I  bought  in  San  Francisco  a  large  sack  of  English  walnuts.  I  raised  about 
one  thousand  trees  that  season,  and  planted  two  hundred  of  them  the  following 
spring,  in  orchard  form,  at  Goleta.  Sixty  of  them  proved  to  be  the  soft-shell 
variety.  The  soft  shell  is  a  little  later  in  starting  in  the  spring  than  the  com- 
mon nut,  and  blooms  about  ten  days  later.  It  commences  to  fruit  at  six  years 
old  from  the  seed,  and  some  have  been  known  to  fruit  as  young  as  the  fourth 
year.  The  hard  shell  commences  to  fruit  about  the  ninth  year,  and  bears  full 
crops  alternate  years.  The  soft  shell  is  not  as  strong  a  grower  as  the  other 
walnut;  it  being  so  prolific,  retards  its  growth.  It  is  a  superior  nut;  the  kernel 
is  white.  The  shell  is  thin,  rendering  them  easily  broken  by  the  hand,  at  the 
same  time  strong  enough  to  bear  transportation  to  any  part  of  the  United 
States." 

Ford's  Improved  Soft  Shell. — G.  W.  Ford,  of  Santa  Ana,  propagated  an  "Im- 
proved Soft  Shell,"  gained  by  selection  from  the  variety  of  Joseph  Sexton, 
which  has  been  largely  planted. 

Santa  Rosa. — A  seedling  by  Luther  Burbank,  which  has  been  distributed 
quite  widely;  but  by  variation  in  its  seedling,  its  character  is  somewhat  ill- 
defined  and  the  name  is  applied  to  several  types,  some  of  which  are  less  desirable 
than  the  one  receiving  the  name. 

Proeparturiens. — Introduced  in  California  in  1871,  by  the  late  Felix  Gillet, 
of  Nevada  City,  and  afterward  by  other  parties,  and  widely  distributed.  Its 
chief  characteristic,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  early  bearing.  It  blooms  from  two 
to  four  weeks  later  than  the  common  Los  Angeles  seedling;  it  shows  both 
kinds  of  bloom  simultaneously,  and  has  the  characteristics  of  ripening  its  wood 
well,  and  is  a  good  nut,  but  it  has*  been  little  planted  recently  because  of  its 
disposition  to  run  to  small  sizes. 

Mayette. — This  variety  chiefly  constitutes  the  imported  Grenoble  walnuts. 
It  is  large,  roundish,  with  a  broad  base,  on  which  the  nut  will  sit  up;  shell  thin 
and  white;  kernel  full  and  rich;  a  good  bearer  and  late  bloomer;  local  Mayette 
seedlings  are  being  named;  one  is  the  "San  Jose,"  by  R.  Wiltz,  of  San  Jose — a 
fine  nut,  believed  to  be  blight  resistant. 

Concord. — Seedling  of  Cluster :  of  the  Mayette  type,  grown  by  Messrs. 
Westgate  and  Hutchinson  of  Concord  from  seedling  tree  by  Felix  Gillet.  Intro- 
duced by  Mr.  Leonard  Coates  in  1908.     Claimed  to  be  blight  resistant. 

Franquette. — This  French  variety  has  risen  to  great  favor  and  has  been 
largely  planted  upon  the  successful  experience  of  Mrs.  Emily  M.  Vrooman,  of 
Santa  Rosa,  and  the  extensive  effort  at  its  distribution  by  the  Oregon  Nursery 
Co.,  of  Salem,  Ore.  It  is  a  large,  elongate-oval  nut  with  shell  rather  thick 
and  kernel  of  high  quality.  It  is  a  late  bloomer,  and  escapes  blight  to  a  certain 
extent. 

Bijou  Seedlings. — Several  of  these  are  being  grown.  Willson's  Wonder, 
introduced  by  F.  C.  Willson,  of  Santa  Clara,  is  a  large,  smooth,  desirable  nut, 
and  the  tree  is  reported  an  early  and  prolific  bearer. 

Other  French  Varieties. — Other  French  varieties  introduced  by  Mr.  Gillet 
and  others  include  the  following:  The  Cluster,  which  fruits,  as  its  name  indi- 
cates, in  long  bunches,  sometimes  as  many  as  fifteen  in  a  bunch ;  otherwise  the 
tree  resembles  the  common  English  walnut.  The  Parisienne  is  a  beautiful  variety, 
the  nut  large,  broad,  and  shapely ;  the  tree  blooms  very  late.  All  the  foregoing 
varieties  and  the  Franquette,  Serotina,  Barthere  Mesange,  Gant  and  Chaberte, 
were  introduced  by  Mr.  Gillet  in  1871. 

Kaghazi. — A  variety  called  Kaghazi  was  grown  and  propagated  for  several 
years  by  the  late  James  Shinn,  of  Niles,  who  described  it  as  follows:    "Very 


524 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


much  larger  than  the  ordinary  kinds,  and  thinner  shelled.  The  tree  is  late 
in  putting  out  leaves  and  blossoms,  and  is,  therefore,  especially  good  for  places 
that  are  in  danger  of  late  frosts." 

Japanese  Walnut;  Juglans  Sieboldiana. — This  species,  native  of  the  north 
of  Japan,  was  introduced  to  California  about  i860,  and  a  tree  grown  from  seed 
planted  about  that  time  is  growing  at  the  Tower  House,  in  Shasta  county. 
Recently  the  good  points  of  the  tree  have  been  more  widely  recognized.  The 
following  excellent  description  is  by  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa  Rosa :  "This 
species  is  found  growing  wild  in  the  mountains  of  northern  Japan,  and  is, 
without  doubt,  as  hardy  as  an  oak.  The  leaves  are  of  immense  size,  and  a 
charming  shade  of  green.  The  nuts,  which  are  produced  in  extreme  abundance, 
grow  in  clusters  of  fifteen  or  twenty,  have  a  shell  thicker  than  the  English 
walnut,  but  not  as  thick  as  the  black  walnut,  very  much  resembling  pecan  nuts. 
The  meat  is  sweet,  of  the  very  best  quality,  flavor  like  butternut,  but  less  oily, 
and  much  superior.  The  trees  grow  with  great  vigor,  assume  a  very  handsome 
form,  need  no  pruning,  mature  early,  bear  young,  and  are  more  regular  and 
productive  than  the  English  walnut."  The  nut  has  an  exceedingly  hard  shell  and 
does  not  rate  commercially  with  the  popular  varieties  of  the  English  walnut. 


NEW    CALIFORNIA    VARIETIES 

Since  the  walnut  blight  invaded  the  commercial  orchards  and 
resisted  all  remedies  tried  against  it,  great  interest  has  arisen  in 
particular  trees  which  bore  well  in  spite  of  the  disease.  As  Cali- 
fornia has  such  a  large  acreage  of  seedling  trees  there  was  a  full 
opportunity  for  the  full  manifestation  of  such  resistance  and  a  wide 
field  in  which  to  exercise  the  art  of  selection.  The  result  is  that 
many  trees  were  found  which  are  profitable  even  when  the  blight  is 
worst,  and  such  trees  are  being  given  distinct  varietal  names.  The 
progress  of  this  work  should  be  watched  in  the  publications  of  the 
University  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley,  for  the  experts  at  its 
branch  laboratory  and  trial  grounds  in  the  walnut  region  of  Southern 
California,  at  Whittier,  Los  Angeles  county,  are  largely  engaged  in 
this  work.  Individual  growers  are  alert  at  selection  within  their 
own  orchards  and  the  prospect  is  that  a  general  escape  from  the 
blight  and  the  establishment  in  our  local  pomology  of  a  group  of 
especially  desirable  varieties  will  ere  long  be  attained. 


I 


PART    EIGHT:    FRUIT    PRESERVATION 


CHAPTER    XXXVIII 
FRUIT    CANNING,    CRYSTALLIZING,    AND    DRYING 

The  preservation  of  fruit  in  various  ways  for  home  use  and 
distant  shipment,  is  one  of  the  leading  industries  of  CaHfornia, 
employing  a  large  amount  of  capital  and  labor,  and  distributing  a 
vast  amount  of  money  among  our  people.  These  facts  can  be  best 
emphasized  by  statements  of  the  product  of  1906,  in  the  leading 
methods  of  preservation,  by  canning  and  drying. 

Canned   Fruit    Product  of  1908. 


Cases. 

Table  fruits,  2V^-lb.  cans,  24  per  case 4,227,248 

Pie  fruits,  1  -gal.  cans,  12  per  case 507,215 


Total,   11.3,631,512  2i^-lb.  cans,  or 4,734, 


The  relative  use  of  different  fruits  is  as  follows : 


Cases. 

Apples 37,700 

Apricots • 1,161,250 

Cherries,  black 40,725 

Cherries,  white   101,700 

Figs 1,052 

Grapes 45,545 

Nectarines 1,673 

Pears 640,550 

Peaches,  freestone  975,350 

Peaches,  clingstone  1,327,610 

Plums 239,825 

Quinces 65 

Strawberries 5,780 

Raspberries 5,950 

Blackberries 87,550 

Loganberries 2,380 

Currants 138 

Gooseberries 70 


525 


526  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

THE    CANNING    INDUSTRY 

California  stands  first  in  the  United  States  in  the  value  of  canned 
and  dried  fruits  produced  and  in  the  amount  of  money  as  wages  paid 
for  labor  in  fruit  canning  and  curing  establishments.  In  point  of 
capital  invested  therein  California  is  credited  by  the  United  States 
census  office  in  1905  with  a  total  of  ten  and  one  quarter  million 
dollars;  thus  standing  second  only  to  New  York,  which  has  ten 
and  one  half  millions.  The  style  and  capacity  of  the  establishments 
is  characteristically  Californian  because  California's  ten  millions 
are  invested  in  184  concerns,  while  New  York  has  565  concerns; 
only  a  quarter  of  a  million  more  value  in  three  times  as  many 
outfits. 

Fruit  canning  began  in  California  about  fifty  years  ago,  but  dur- 
ing the  last  three  decades  has  attained  its  greatness,  and  is  still 
promising  much  wider  extension.  The  process  is  simple,  and  yet 
is  attended  at  every  point,  from  the  purchase  of  the  fruit  to  the 
sale  of  the  product,  with  operations  which  require  experience,  wis- 
dom, and  good  judgment.  It  will  be  obviously  impossible  to 
give  in  print  a  guide  to  the  pursuit  of  such  an  industry.  The  prin- 
ciples involved  in  the  process  of  commercial  canning  are,  of  course, 
the  same  as  rule  in  the  old  kitchen  processes,  but  to  secure  uniform- 
ity and  cheapness  of  product  a  vast  number  of  manipulations  and 
labor-saving  appliances  have  been  devised.  These  begin  with  the 
manufacture  of  cans  and  attend  the  product  to  the  end,  and  the 
realization  of  the  commercial  and  uniform  production  which  they 
assure  involves  the  employment  of  large  capital  and  the  keenest 
business  ability.  The  canning  interest  has,  therefore,  segregated 
itself  more  and  more  widely  from  the  growing  interest.  Orchard 
canning  on  a  small  scale  which  was  once  thought  feasible  has  passed 
out  of  sight  except  as  it  is  seen  to  lie  in  the  foundations  of  a  few 
of  the  smaller  canneries  which  have  been  built  upon  it.  It  seems 
clear  now  that  as  a  rule  the  fruit  grower's  duty  to  the  canning 
interest  ceases  with  the  production  of  acceptable  fruit  unless  indi- 
viduals or  associations  can  command  capital  enough  to  enter  the 
field  on  equal  vantage  with*  the  large  commercial  canneries. 
Capital  is  flowing  toward  the  business ;  the  field  for  the  product 
seems  to  be  constantly  expanding,  and  canning  centers  are  multi- 
plying throughout  the  State  wherever  ample  supplies  of  good  fruits 
and  vegetables  are  available. 

Varieties  for  Canning. — The  table  previously  given  showing  the 
fruits  which  enter  in  various  amounts  into  the  canned  product  gives 
a  general  idea  of  what  fruits  should  be  planted  to  minister  to  the 
canner's  demand.  As  to  varieties,  it  is  not  easy  to  make  a  general 
prescription,  because  the  choice  differs  somewhat  with  different 
localities.  It  is  a  good  idea  for  the  new  planter  to  consult  with 
owners  of  adjacent  bearing  orchards  and  to  secure  from  the  nearest 
canneries  lists  of  varieties  which  are  acceptable  to  them. 


CANDIED    OR    GLACE    FRUITS  527 

CRYSTALLIZED    FRUITS 

Progress  is  being  continually  made  in  the  production  of  candied, 
crystallized,  or  glace  fruits,  but  the  product  is  not  a  large  one. 
Special  establishments  are  now  doing  this  work  in  Los  Angeles, 
San  Jose,  and  San  Francisco.  They  have  processes  which  are  the 
result  of  considerable  experimentation,  and  they  do  not  make  them 
public.  To  others  the  way  lies  open  to  similar  experimentation. 
The  general  theory  and  an  outline  of  practice  as  given  by  J.  J. 
Pratt,  an  experienced  processor,  is  as  follows : 

The  theory  is  to  extract  the  juice  from  the  fruit,  and  replace  it  with  sugar 
syrup,  which,  upon  hardening,  preserves  the  fruit  from  decay,  and  at  the  same 
tirne  retains  the  natural  shape  of  the  fruit.  All  kinds  of  fruit  are  capable  of 
being  preserved  under  this  process.  Though  the  method  is  very  simple,  there  is 
a  certain  skill  required  that  is  acquired  only  by  practice.  The  several  successive 
steps  in  the  process  are  about  as  follows: 

First,  the  same  care  in  selecting  and  grading  the  fruit  should  be  taken  as 
for  canning;  that  is,  the  fruit  should  all  be  of  one  size,  and  as  near  the  same 
ripeness  as  possible.  The  exact  degree  of  ripeness  is  of  great  importance, 
which  is  at  that  stage  when  fruit  is  best  for  canning;  peaches,  pears,  etc.,  are 
pared  and  cut  in  halves,  as  for  canning;  plums,  cherries,  are.,  are  pitted.  The 
fruit,  having  thus  been  carefully  prepared,  is  put  into  a  basket,  or  a  bucket 
with  a  perforated  bottom,  and  immersed  in  boiling  water.  The  object  of  this 
is  to  dilute  and  extract  the  juice  of  the  fruit.  The  length  of  time  the  fruit 
is  immersed  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  process.  If  left  too  long,  it  is 
overcooked,  and  becomes  soft;  if  not  immersed  long  enough,  the  Juice  is  not 
sufficiently  extracted,  which  prevents  a  perfect  absorption  of  the  sugar. 

After  the  fruit  has  been  thus  scalded  and  allowed  to  cool,  it  can  again  be 
assorted  as  to  softness.  The  next  step  is  the  syrup,  which  is  made  of  white 
sugar  and  water.  The  softer  the  fruit,  the  heavier  the  syrup  required.  Ordi- 
narily about  seventy  degrees.  Balling's  saccharometer,  is  about  the  proper  weight 
for  the  syrup.      . 

The  fruit  is  then  placed  in  earthen  pans,  and  covered  with  the  syrup,  where 
it  is  left  to  remain  about  a  week.  The  sugar  enters  the  fruit  and  displaces 
what  juice   remained  after  the  scalding  process. 

The  fruit  now  requires  careful  watching,  as  fermentation  will  soon  take 
place,  and  when  this  has  reached  a  certain  stage,  the  fruit  and  syrup  are  heated 
to  a  boiling  degree,  which  checks  the  fermentation.  This  heating  process  should 
be  repeated  as  often  as  necessary  for  about  six  weeks. 

The  fruit  is  then  taken  out  of  the  syrup,  and  washed  in  clean  water,  and 
it  is  then  ready  to  be  either  glaced  or  crystallized,  as  the  operator  may  wish. 
If  glaced,  the  fruit  is  dipped  in  thick  sugar  syrup  and  left  to  harden  quickly  in 
the  open  air.  If  it  is  to  be  crystallized,  dip  in  the  same  kind  of  syrup,  but 
allow  to  cool  and  harden  slowly,  thus  causing  the  sugar  which  covers  the  fruit 
to  crystallize.  The  fruit  is  now  ready  for  boxing  and  shipping.  Fruit  thus 
prepared  will  keep  in  any  climate  and  stand  transportation. 

Thus  far  the  crystallized  fruit  produced  in  California  has  sold 
well.  There  is  a  considerable  importation  of  French  fruit  to  the 
United  States,  which  may  be  displaced  by  the  California  product, 
and  the  business  commends  itself  to  those  who  have  ingenuity, 
patience,  and  capital  enough  to  enable  them  to  experiment  and  wait 
for  future  success.  The  California  producer  has  the  advantage  of 
an  abundance  of  very  fine  fruit  at  a  low  price,  but  he  carries  a  handi- 
cap in  the  high  cost  of  transportation  and  of  labor. 


528  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

CALIFORNIA    DRIED    FRUIT    INDUSTRY 

A  special  census  of  the  fruit-preserving  manufactures  of 
United  States  in  1905  shows  not  only  that  California  stands  first 
in  the  dried  fruit  industry,  but  that  the  product  (excluding  raisins) 
was  in  that  year  valued  at  about  fourteen  million  dollars  and  was 
over  eighty-eight  per  cent  of  the  whole  national  product.  An 
adjacent  tabulation  compiled  from  the  records  of  the  California 
State  Board  of  Trade  gives  interesting  details  of  this  product  for  a 
number  of  years. 

As  suggested  on  page  21  it  is  the  function  of  the  sunshine  and 
dry  air  of  California  not  only  to  bring  vigorous  growth  to  the  tree 
and  vine  and  carry  the  fruit  of  both  to  fulness  of  size,  beauty  and 
quality,  but  to  continue  its  beneficent  action  until  the  fruit,  which 
is  not  required  by  the  trade  in  fresh  ripeness,  is  given  imperishable 
form,  in  which  its  beauty,  flavors,  aromas  and  nutritive  qualities 
remain  available  to  delight  and  nourish  mankind  until  the  following 
year's  sunshine  wins  from  the  earth  another  supply  of  fresh  ripe- 
ness. There  are  many  parts  of  the  earth  where  good  fruit  is  grown : 
there  are  few  where  conditions  producing  such  fruit  continue  to 
accomplish  its  preservation,  as  they  do  in  California,  and  this 
climatic  endowment  of  the  State  yields  an  annual  income  of  some- 
thing like  twenty  millions  of  dollars,  as  the  years  run. 

Product  of  California  Cured  Fruits  in  Tons — 1900  to  1908. 


Year  Peaches  Apricots  Apples 

Pears 

Plums 

Nec- 

Grapes Figs 

Prunes 

Raisins 

tarines 

1900 

17,170 

14,000 

3,150 

7,275 

1,950 

435 

240 

2,000 

87,000 

47,167 

1901 

14,755 

7,776 

3,225 

3,290 

1.725 

317 

180 

3,260 

40,000 

37,125 

1902 

25,210 

18.762 

4,875 

2.625 

1,280 

455 

188 

3.625 

98,500 

54,375 

1903 

16,075 

10,500 

1,800 

2,325 

1,435 

317 

205 

3.000 

82,500 

60,000 

1904 

11,500 

88.500 

1,500 

1,750 

1,150 

210 

170 

2.850 

67,500 

37,500 

1905 

17,500 

19,250 

3,250 

1,750 

930 

185 

193 

3,625 

37,500 

43,750 

1906 

11,250 

3,250 

2,750 

3,500 

1,100 

170 

200 

3,375 

90,000 

47,500 

1907 

12.000 

1,500 

1,500 

500 

750 

137 

188 

3,000 

40,000 

60,000 

1908 

22,500 

19,000 

3,000 

1.200 
24,215 

1,000 

350 

2,576 

286 

1.500 

3,064 

341 

3,000 

25.000 

60,000 

Totals... 

147,960 

102.538 

25,050 

11,320 

27,735 

568.000 

447,417 

Averages 

16.440 

11,393 

2.772 

2,691 

1,257 

3,082 

63,111 

49,735 

In  connection  with  this  notable  factor  of  our  horticultural' en- 
dowment, certain  facts  of  its  utilization  and  its  significance  should 
be  clearly  understood  not  only  by  those  who  actually  employ  it  in 
their  business,  but  by  those  who  desire  to  properly  appreciate  the 
industrial  resources  of  the  State. 

First.  Cured  fruits  in  California  are  a  primary  and  not  a  second- 
ary or  by-product.     It  is  true,  of  course,  that  curing  fruit  does,  to 


I) 


CURED    FRUIT    NOT    A    BY-PRODUCT 


529 


a  limited  extent,  save  from  loss  fruit  which  shippers  and  canners  are 
not  at  the  time  paying  profitable  prices  for,  and  it  is  true  also  that 
the  recourse  to  curing  frees  growers  from  helpless  dependence  upon 
fresh  fruit  buyers.  But  this  does  not  mean  that  curing  is  a  way 
of  getting  something  from  refuse  fruit,  not  suited  for  other  purposes. 
It  should  be  taken  as  evidence  that,  for  the  most  part,  grades  of 
fruit  which  are  cured  are  the  same  which  are  also  available  for 
higher  uses  when  prices  are  right.  It  is  very  important  in  many 
ways  to  have  it  clearly  understood  that,  except  to  an  insignificant 
extent,  California  fruit  drying  is  not  undertaken  to  save  wastes  or 
to  get  something  from  fruit  which  is  not  suited  to  higher  uses. 

Second.  As  our  cured  fruits  are  a  primary  and  not  a  by-product, 
it  becomes  intelligible  why  such  free  investment  is  made  in  acres  of 
well-made  trays ;  in  tramways  and  turntables  for  their  movement 
from  the  shelter  of  convenient  cutting  or  dipping  and  spreading 
houses;  in  capacious  apartments  and  mechanical  devices  for  giving 
the  cut  fruit  its  bath  in  sulphur  fumes  to  preserve  natural  colors  and 
to  prevent  fermentation  and  insect  invasion ;  in  the  carefully  pre- 
pared drying  floors ;  in  well-fitted  packing  houses.  Such  investment 
has  reached  millions  of  dollars  in  the  aggregate,  and  the  standing  of 
cured  fruits  as  primary  products  is  the  justification  of  such  outlay. 

Third.  The  provision  of  such  equipment  is  not  alone  evidence 
of  the  standing  of  the  industry;  it  constitutes  an  obligation  upon 
producers  to  put  out  a  product  which  shall  be  true  to  its  opportunity 
as  a  primary  product,  and  not  merely  a  makeshift  to  prevent  loss  or 
waste.  Thirty  years  ago  California  dried  fruit  was  a  makeshift,  and 
a  disgracefully  poor  one.  As  enterprise  and  investment  proceeded 
it  was  soon  seen  that  style  and  quality  alone  could  requite  them. 
Next  it  was  discerned  that  fruit  for  curing,  to  command  profitable 
prices,  must  be  as  good  as  fruit  for  any  other  high  purpose,  as  has 
been  suggested.  It  was  then  believed  that  to  secure  handsome 
cured  fruit  which  should  only  be  relieved  of  its  excess  of  water  and 
still  retain  color,  flavor  and  winning  beauty,  could  only  be  produced 
in  machine-evaporators  with  artificial  heat,  and  a  few  years  were 
given  to  invention,  purchase  and  rejection  of  all  such  devices  except 
as  occasional  refuges  when  the  California  climate  forgets  itself. 
When  the  demonstration  came  that  with  proper  pre-treatment 
California  sunshine  and  dry  air  would  produce  notably  fine  evap- 
orated fruits  without  houses  and  furnaces,  cured  fruits  entered  upon 
their  career  as  primary  products,  and  planting  to  produce  them 
began. 

Fourth.  The  obligations  upon  producers,  to  make  their  output 
worthy  of  such  standing,  extend  to  the  whole  process  of  growing 
and  curing.  The  fruit  must  be  well  grown,  and  fruit  for  curing 
should  have  size  and  quality  which  make  it  first  class  for  other  pur- 


530  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

poses,  with  the  added  excellence  of  being  somewhat  more  mature, 
because  it  is  not  required  to  stand  hauling  and  shipment.  It  should, 
however,  be  carefully  handled  to  escape  bruising,  because  discolora- 
tions  are  blemishes.  It  must  be  cleanly  cut  for  removal  of  pit  or 
core,  because  trimness,  neatness  and  shapeliness  are  all  essential 
to  beauty.  Before  it  reaches  exposure  to  the  protecting  fumes  of 
sulphur,  it  must  be  often  saved  from  darkening  by  handling  in 
water,  when  the  nature  of  the  fruit  is  such  as  to  require  it.  It  must 
be  carefully  and  evenly  spread  upon  the  trays,  especially  if  it  be  a 
cut  fruit,  so  that  no  interference  can  prevent  each  piece  from  reach- 
ing its  best  estate.  Sulphuring  must  be  adequate,  and  yet  not  ex- 
cessive, for  sulphuring  is  a  protecting  and  not  a  resurrecting  pro- 
cess; it  is  not  to  improve  bad  fruit,  but  to  keep  good  fruit  from 
becoming  bad.  The  fruit  must  be  sufficiently  dried  and  yet  not 
over-dried,  and  during  the  process  must  be  protected  from  dust 
by  the  situation  and  character  of  the  ground  used,  even  if  such  pro- 
tection costs  trouble  and  outlay. 

Although  the  sun  drying  of  fruit  may  be  a  simple  process,  so 
many  little  arts,  methods  and  appliances  are  continually  being  intro- 
duced to  facilitate  work  or  improve  the  product,  that  one  can  learn 
much  by  visiting  the  different  fruit  regions  during  the  drying  sea- 
son. Such  a  course  is  commended  to  growers  who  contemplate 
large  drying  operations,  for  suggestions  of  great  economic  import- 
ance can  be  secured.  The  notes  of  practice  which  can  be  given  in 
this  connection  must  be  brief  and  general. 


& 


Trays  for  Drying. — The  greater  part  of  the  fruit,  including 
raisins,  is  placed  upon  trays  for  exposure  to  the  sun.  There  is  great 
variation  in  the  size  of  the  trays.  The  common  small  tray  is  made 
of  one-half-inch  sugar-pine  lumber  two  feet  wide  and  three  feet  long, 
the  boards  forming  it  being  held  together  by  nailing  to  a  cleat  on 
each  end,  one  by  one  and  a  quarter  inches,  and  a  lath  or  narrow 
piece  of  half-inch  stuff  is  nailed  over  the  ends  of  the  boards,  thus 
stiffening  the  tray  and  aiding  to  prevent  warping.  A  cross-section 
of  such  a  tray  is  shown  at  A. 

A  large  tray  which  is  used  by  some  growers  is  four  feet  square, 
and  is  made  of  slats  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  one  and  a 
half  inches  wide,  the  slats  being  nailed  to  three  cross  slats  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  thick  and  three  inches  wide,  and  the  ends  nailed 


ARRANGEMENTS  FOR  FRUIT  DRYING  53j^ 

to  a  narrow  strip  one-half  inch  thick  by  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
wide  on  the  other  side.  A  cross-section  of  this  tray  is  shown  at  B. 
Since  large  drying  yards  have  been  supplied  with  tramways  and 
trucks  for  moving  the  fruit  instead  of  hand  carriage,  larger  trays, 
three  feet  by  six  or  three  feet  by  eight,  have  been  largely  employed 
These  tramways  lead  from  the  cutting  sheds  to  the  sulphur  boxes 
and  thence  to  various  parts  of  the  large  drying  grounds,  making  it 
possible  to  handle  large  amounts  of  fruit  at  a  minimum  cost. 

Protecting  Fruit  from  Dew. — In  the  interior  there  is  seldom  any 
deposit  of  dew  in  the  drying  season,  but  occasionally  there  are  early 
rains  before  the  drying  season  is  over.  The  fruit  is  then  protected 
by  piling  the  trays  one  upon  another,  in  which  operation  the  thick 
cleats  serve  a  good  purpose.  In  dewy  regions  the  trays  are  piled  at 
night,  or  cloth  or  paper  is  sometimes  stretched  over  the  fruit,  thus 
reducing  the  discoloration  resulting  from  deposits  of  moisture  upon 
it. 

Drying  Floors. — For  the  most  part  the  trays  are  laid  directly  on 
the  ground,  but  sometimes  a  staging  of  posts  and  rails  is  built  to 
support  them,  about  twenty  inches  from  the  ground.  The  drying 
trays  are  sometimes  distributed  through  the  orchard  or  vineyard, 
thus  drying  the  fruit  with  as  little  carrying  as  possible.  Others 
clear  off  a  large  space  outside  the  plantation  and  spread  the  trays 
where  full  sunshine  can  be  obtained.  Drying  spaces  should  be 
selected  at  a  distance  from  traveled  roads,  to  prevent  the  deposit  of 
dust  on  the  fruit. 

Spaces  used  for  drying  are  often  idle  the  rest  of  the  year  and  are 
weed-covered  and  unsightly  during  the  rainy  season,  or  are  culti- 
vated for  grain-hay  which  loosens  the  surface  and  deepens  the  dust. 
When  one  has  water  for  irrigation  it  is  often  practicable  to  reduce 
dust  and  secure  an  amount  of  desirable  feed  or  hay  by  putting  the 
piece  down  in  alfalfa.  Mr.  P.  F.  Gannon  of  Yolo  county  proceeded 
in  this  way.  He  lowered  the  tramway  tracks  to  the  ground  level, 
and  turned  up  a  furrow  on  the  sides  to  hold  the  water  from  flooding 
the  adjacent  ground.  In  the  fall,  after  the  fruit-drying  was  over, 
he  flooded  the  space,  which  is  a  little  over  half  an  acre  (125  by  225 
feet).  Then  it  was  disked  both  ways  and  leveled  and  harrowed 
and  planted  to  alfalfa  before  the  rains.  The  land  was  moist  at  the 
time  and  the  seed  came  up  and  the  plants  grew  more  or  less  through 
the  winter.  In  April  he  cut  the  first  crop.  Just  before  the  space 
is  needed  for  a  drying  yard,  make  another  cutting,  about  June  20, 
cutting  it  down  close  and  raking  it  clean.  The  yard  is  then  ready 
for  the  trays  and  fruit.  When  the  drying  season  is  over  the  yard 
is  cleared,  and  the  space  then  is  as  clean  as  a  clay  floor,  from  being 
used  so  much.  In  three  weeks  the  top  of  the  ground  is  green  all 
over,  and  before  the  rains  come  there  is  another  cutting  crop,  mak- 
ing three  crops  a  year,  a  ton  at  each  cutting.    So  something  is  made 


coo  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

from  the  space  and  the  dust  problem  is  solved,  which  means  clean 
fruit  and  better  prices. 

Grading. — It  is  of  great  advantage  in  drying  to  have  all  the  fruit 
on  a  tray  of  approximately  the  same  size,  and  grading  before  cutting 
is  advisable.  Machines  are  now  made  which  accomplish  this  very 
cheaply  and  quickly.* 

Cutting-Sheds. — Shelter  of  some  kind  is  always  provided  for  the 
fruit-cutters.  Sometimes  it  is  only  a  temporary  bower  made  of 
poles  and  beams,  upon  which  tree  branches  are  spread  as  a  thatch ; 
sometimes  open-side  sheds  with  boarded  roof,  and  sometimes  a 
finished  fruit-house  is  built,  two  stories  high,  the  lower  story  open- 
ing with  large  doors  on  the  north  side,  and  with  a  large  loft  above, 
where  the  dried  fruit  can  be  sweated,  packed,  and  stored  for  sale. 
The  climate  is  such  that  almost  any  shelter  which  suits  the  taste 
and  purse  of  the  producer  will  answer  the  purpose. 

Sulphuring. — The  regulations  promulgated  under  the  pure  food 
law  enacted  by  Congress  in  1906  established  an  arbitrary  limit  to 
the  percentage  of  sulphur  compounds  in  evaporated  fruits,  which 
was  shown  by  producers  to  be  destructive  to  their  industry,  and 
otherwise  unwarranted  and  unreasonable.  As  a  result  of  their  pro- 
test the  enforcement  of  such  regulations  was  indefinitely  postponed, 
pending  the  results  of  scientific  investigation  which  began  in  1908. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  California  producer  it  must  be 
held  that  before  the  employment  of  the  sulphur  process,  California 
cured  fruits  were  suitable  only  to  the  lowest  culinary  uses.  They 
were  of  undesirable  color,  devoid  of  natural  flavor,  offensive  by  con- 
tent of  insect  life.  They  had  no  value  which  would  induce  produc- 
tion and  discernible  future.  Placing  the  trays  of  freshly  cut  fruit 
in  boxes  or  small  ''houses,"  with  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur, 
made  it  possible  to  preserve  its  natural  color  and  flavor  during  the 
evaporation  of  its  surplus  moisture  in  the  clear  sunshine  and  dry 
air  of  the  California  summer.  It  also  prevented  souring,  which 
with  some  fruits  is  otherwise  not  preventable  in  such  open  air  dry- 
ing, and  it  protected  the  fruit  from  insect  attack  during  the  drying 
process.  By  the  use  of  sulphur  and  by  no  other  agency  has  it  been 
possible  to  lift  the  production  of  cured  fruits  of  certain  kinds  from 
a  low-value  haphazard  by-product  to  a  primary  product  for  which 
Californians  have  planted  orchards,  constructed  packing  houses  and 
made  a  name  in  the  world's  markets. 

The  action  of  sulphuring  is  not  alone  to  protect  the  fruit,  it 
facilitates  evaporation  so  that  about  one-half  less  time  is  required 
therefor.  Not  the  least  important  bearing  of  this  fact  is  the  feas- 
ibility of  curing  fruits  in  larger-  pieces.  The  grand  half-peaches, 
half-apricots,  half-pears  of  the  California  cured  fruits  are  the  direct 

*  See  under  "plums  and  prunes,"  page  538. 


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^3^  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

result  of  the  sulphur  process.  Without  it  the  fruit  must  be  cut  in 
small  sections  or  ribbons,  which  in  cooking  break  down  into  an 
uninviting  mass,  while,  with  the  sulphuring,  it  is  ordinary  practice 
to  produce  the  splendid  halves  with  their  natural  color  so  preserved 
that  they  lie  in  cut  glass  dishes  in  suggestive  semblance  to  the  finest 
product  of  the  canners,  and  are  secured  at  a  fraction  of  the  cost. 
There  are  various  contrivances  for  the  application  of  sulphur 
fumes  to  the  freshly-cut  fruit.  Some  are  small  for  hand  carriage 
of  trays;  some  are  large  and  the  trays  are  wheeled  into  them  upon 
trucks.  The  most  common  is  a  bottomless  cabinet  about  five  or  six 
feet  high,  of  a  width  equal  to  the  length  of  the  tray  and  a  depth  a 
little  more  than  the  width  of  the  tray.  The  cabinet  has  a  door  the 
whole  width  of  one  side,  and  on  the  sides  within  cleats  are  nailed 
so  that  the  trays  of  fruit  slip  in  like  drawers  into  a  bureau.  Some 
push  in  the  trays  so  that  the  bottom  one  leaves  a  little  space  at  the 
back,  the  next  a  little  space  at  the  front,  and  so  on,  that  the  fumes 
may  be  forced  by  the  draft  to  pass  between  the  trays  back  and 
forward.  The  essentials  seem  to  be  open  holes  or  dampers  in  the 
bottom  and  top  of  the  cabinet  so  that  the  fumes  from  the  sulphur 
burning  at  the  bottom  may  be  thoroughly  distributed  through  the 
interior,  and  then  all  openings  are  tightly  closed.  To  secure  a  tight 
chamber  the  door  has  its  edge  felted  and  the  cabinet  is  made  of 
matched  lumber.  The  sulphur  is  usually  put  on  a  shovel  or  iron 
pot,  and  it  is  ignited  by  a  hot  coal,  or  a  hot  iron,  or  it  is  thrown  on 
paper  of  which  the  edges  are  set  on  fire,  or  a  little  alcohol  is  put  on 
the  sulphur  and  lighted,  etc.  The  sulphur  is  usually  burned  in  a  pit 
in  the  ground  under  the  cabinet.  The  application  of  sulphur  must 
be  watchfully  and  carefully  made,  and  the  exposure  of  the  fruit 
should  only  be  long  enough  to  accomplish  the  end  desired.  The 
exposure  required  differs  with  different  fruits,  and  with  the  same 
fruits  in  different  conditions,  as  must  be  learned  by  experience. 

Grading  and  Cleaning. — After  the  fruit  is  sufficiently  dried  (and 
it  is  impossible  to  describe  how  this  point  may  be  recognized  excepi 
by  the  experienced  touch),  it  is  gathered  from  the  trays  into  large 
boxes  and  taken  to  the  fruit  house.  Some  growers  put  it  mto  a 
revolving  drum  of  punctured  sheet  iron,  which  rubs  the  pieces 
together  and  separates  it  from  dust,  etc.,  which  falls  out  through 
the  apertures  as  the  drum  revolves.  Others  empty  the  fruit  upon  a 
large  wire-cloth  table  and  pick  it  over,  grading  it  according  to  size 
and  color,  and  at  the  same  time  the  dust  and  small  articles  of  foreign 
matter  fall  through  the  wire  cloth.  The  fanning  mill  for  cleaning 
grain  may  also  be  used  for  rapid  separation  of  dirt,  leaves,  etc.,  with 
proper  arrangement  of  metal  screens. 

Sweating. — All  fruit,  if  stored  in  mass  after  drying,  becomes 
moist.  This  action  should  take  place  before  packing.  To  facili- 
tate it,  the  fruit  is  put  in  piles  on  the  floor  of  the  fruit-house  and 


k 


DIPPING    AND    PACKING  rqk 


urned  occasionally  with  a  scoop  shovel;  or,  if  allowed  to  sweat  in 
boxes,  the  fruit  is  occasionally  poured  from  one  box  to  another. 
The  sweating  equalizes  the  moisture  throughout  the  mass.  Some 
large  producers  have  sweat-rooms  with  tight  walls,  which  pre- 
serve an  even  temperature.  No  fruit  should  be  packed  before  "go- 
ing through  the  sweat."  If  this  is  not  done,  discoloration  and  in- 
jury will  result. 

Dipping  Before  Packing. — All  fruits  except  prunes  can  be  packed 
in  good  condition  without  dipping,  provided  the  fruit  is  not  over- 
dried.  Efforts  should  be  made  to  take  up  the  fruit  when  it  is 
just  sufficiently  cured  to  prevent  subsequent  fermentation.  If  taken 
from  the  trays  in  the  heat  of  the  day  and  covered  so  that  the  fruit 
moth  can  not  reach  it  there  is  little  danger  of  worms.  The  high- 
est grades  of  fruit  are  made  in  this  way.  If,  however,  the  fruit 
has  been  overdried  or  neglected,  it  can  be  dipped  in  boiling  water 
to  kill  eggs  of  vermin  and  to  make  the  fruit  a  little  more  pliable 
for  the  press.  The  dipping  should  be  done  quickly,  and  the  fruit 
allowed  to  drain  and  then  lie  in  a  dark  room,  carefully  covered, 
for  twenty-four  hours  before  packing. 

Packing. — To  open  well,  packages  of  dried  fruit  should  be 
"faced."  The  many  fine  arts  of  paper  lining,  etc.,  must  be  learned 
by  observation.  Flatten  some  fair  specimens  of  the  fruit  to  be 
packed  (and  reference  is  especially  made  to  such  fruits  as  apri- 
cots, peaches  and  nectarines)  by  running  them  through  a  clothes' 
wringer  or  similar  pair  of  rollers  set  to  flatten  but  not  crush  the 
fruit.  Do  not  face  with  better  fruit  than  the  package  is  to  contain. 
It  is  a  fraud  which  will  not  in  the  end  be  profitable.  Lay  the  flat- 
tened fruit  (cup  side  down)  neatly  in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  Fill 
the  box  until  it  reaches  the  amount  the  box  is  to  contain,  and  then 
apply  the  press  until  the  bottom  can  be  nailed  on.  Invert  the  box 
and  put  on  the  label  or  brand ;  the  bottom  then  becomes  the  top. 

Many  different  kinds  of  boxes  are  used.  A  very  good  size  is 
made  of  seasoned  pine,  six  inches  deep  by  nine  inches  wide  by  fif- 
teen inches  long,  inside  measurements,  and  it  will  hold  twenty-five 
pounds  of  fruit. 


METHODS  WITH   DIFFERENT   FRUITS 

As  already  intimated,  it  will  be  impossible  to  enter  minutely 
into  the  operations  of  drying  and  packing  on  a  commercial  scale, 
or  even  to  notice  all  the  small  and  ingenious  arts  by  which  the  work 
is  facilitated.  Any  one  who  contemplates  production  on  a  large 
scale  should  personally  visit  leading  regions  and  inform  himself 
by  inquiry  and  observation.  Such  an  education  will  save  mistakes, 
which  may  cost  many  times  more  than  the  expense  of  getting  it. 


536  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

California  producers  are  usually  quite  willing  to  show  visitors  the] 
methods  they  employ.     Though  this  is  the  better  way  of  proceed- 
ing, a  few  general  hints  will  be  given  of  methods  with  differenl 
fruits. 

Apples. — There  seems  little  use  of  drying  apples  unless  a  vei 
light-colored,  handsome  product  can  be  turned  out.  This  can  b< 
done  by  sulphuring  as  soon  as  cut,  and  sun  drying  in  a  dry  region, 
or  by  the  use  of  a  machine  evaporator  in  regions  of  greater  atmos- 
pheric humidity.  Recently  the  product  has  largely  increased  in 
such  large  producing  regions  as  the  Pajaro  valley,  and  new  labor 
saving  devices  are  being  continually  introduced. 

Apricots. — Apricots  for  drying  should  be  fully  ripe  but  not  soft 
enough  to  be  mushy.  By  the  use  of  sulphur  and  sun  heat,  an  amber- 
colored,  semitranslucent  fruit  is  obtained.  The  prevailing  method 
of  gathering  is  to  shake  down  the  fruit  upon  sheets,  but  the  best 
product  is  hand  picked.  *  Pit  the  fruit  by  a  clean  cut  completely 
around  in  the  suture;  do  not  cut  part  way  round  and  then  tear 
apart — a  clean-cut  edge  is  essential.  Put  on  the  trays  with  the 
skin  down,  or  with  the  cup  up,  as  it  is  sometimes  described;  sul- 
phur, and  then  put  in  the  sun.  About  three  days  of  interior-valley 
sunshine  will  finish  the  apricots.  Apricots  will  yield  on  the  aver- 
age one  pound  of  dried  fruit  to  five  pounds  of  fresh. 

Berries  and  Cherries. — These  fruits  are  only  dried  in  the  sun 
in  small  quantities  for  local  sale,  and  ordinary  farm-house  meth- 
ods are  employed. 

Figs.*  The  fruit  may  be  carefully  picked  from  the  tree  so  as 
to  secure  the  whole  of  the  stem,  when  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe,  as  is 
known  by  the  seaming  or  slight  shriveling  of  the  skin.  In  drying 
the  common  black  fig  from  large  trees,  however,  the  fruit  is  gen- 
erally gathered  from  the  ground,  which,  is  cleaned  and  smoothed 
before  the  crop  ripens.  In  drying  black  figs  the  fruit  is  placed  on- 
trays  and  in  most  cases  exposed  to  the  sun,  but  some  foot-hill 
growers  maintain  the  advantage  of  drying  in  the  shade.  The  figs 
should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  hard.  When  sufficiently  cured,  put 
in  sweat-boxes  for  several  days,  and  when  ready  to  pack  dip  in 
boiling  salt  water,  or,  as  is  the  practice  of  some  producers,  dip  in 
a  thin  syrup,  boiling  hot.  In  either  method  a  good,  pliable  condi- 
tion and  handsome  color  are  obtained.  In  drying  white  figs  many 
sulphur  the  fruit  from  fifteen  minutes  to  an  hour  before  putting 
out  on  the  trays.  Figs  which  dry  slowly  have  to  be  turned  several 
times  during  the  drying,  and  those  which  are  apt  to  run  juice  are 
placed  so  that  the  eye  is  raised  a  little  until  the  juice  is  thickened. 


*A  special  illustrated  account  of  handling  dried  figs  in  California  is  given  in  "The 
Smyrna  Fig  at  Home  and  Abroad,"  by  George  C.  Roeding-,  Fresno,  Cal. 


CURING    PEACHES    AND    PEARS 


537 


The  white  figs  are  also  put  in  sweat-boxes  and  dipped  in  hot  salt 
water  before  packing.  In  packing,  the  figs  are  often  flattened  and 
drawn  out  by  the  hand.  Such  manipulation  gives  the  fig  a  lighter  and 
more  translucent  appearance.  The  time  required  in  drying  figs  is 
usually  from  five  to  eight  or  ten  days,  according  to  location  and 
weather.  The  fruit  does  not  cure  evenly,  and  those  which  are  fin- 
ished (as  determined  by  sight  and  touch — to  be  learned  by  expe- 
rience) are  picked  from  the  trays,  and  others  given  more  time. 


A  California  Sunshine  Evaporator. 


Pears. — The  dried  pear  product  is  increasing,  and,  as  with  apples, 
only  a  light-colored  product  is  profitable.  These  are  made  by  sul- 
phuring and  sun  drying,  or  by  the  use  of  the  machine  drier.  For 
sun  drying  the  fruit  of  medium  size  is  halved,  the  large  fruit  being 
quartered. 

Peaches. — Peaches  are  sun  dried  in  much  the  same  way  as  apri- 
cots, already  described.     Take  the  fruit  when  it  is  fully  ripe,  but 


I53g  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

not  mushy;  cut  cleanly  all  around  to  ex^tract  the  pit  and  put  on  trays 
cup  side  up ;  get  into  the  sulphur  box  as  soon  as  possible  after  cut- 
ting. Peaches  are  dried  both  peeled  and  unpeeled,  but  drying  with- 
out peeling  is  chiefly  done.  Peeling  is  done  with  the  small  paring 
machines  or  with  a  knife.  Peeling  with  lye  has  been  generally 
abandoned  because  of  discoloration  of  the  fruit  after  packing,  al- 
though it  can  be  successfully  done  by  frequently  changing  the  lye 
and  using  ample  quantities  of  fresh  water  for  rinsing  after  dipping. 

Clingstone  peaches  are  successfully  handled  with  curved  knives 
and  spoon-shaped  pitters  in  conjunction  with  ordinary  fruit  knives. 
Different  styles  are  carried  at  the  general  stores  in  the  fruit  dis- 
tricts, and  individuals  differ  widely  in  their  preferences. 

The  weight  of  dried  peaches  which  can  be  obtained  from  a  cer- 
tain weight  of  fresh  fruit,  depends  upon  the  variety;  some  varieties 
yield  at  least  a  third  more  than  others,  and  clings  yield  more  than 
freestones  as  a  rule.  Dry-fleshed  peaches,  like  the  Muir,  yield  one 
pound  dry  from  four  or  five  pounds  fresh,  while  other  more  juicy 
fruit  may  require  six  or  seven  pounds. 

Nectarines. — Nectarines  are  handled  like  peaches;  the  produc- 
tion of  translucent  amber  fruit  in  the  sun  depends  upon  the  skillful 
use  of  sulphur. 

Plums  and  Prunes. — Our  pitted  plums,  which  are  an  acid  fruit, 
are  meeting  with  more  favor  than  formerly,  and  the  product  is  in- 
creasing. Pitting  is  done  by  hand  or  by  the  use  of  foot-power 
"pitters."  More  rapid  and  capacious  machines  are  being  brought 
out  by  inventors. 

Prunes  are  one  of  our  greatest  and  most  promising  products. 
Several  varieties  which  dry  sweet  with  the  pit  in  are  used  in 
making  prunes,  as  already  stated  in  Chapter  XXIII,  but  the  pre- 
vailing variety  is  the  Prune  d'Agen. 

Prunes  are  gathered  by  shaking  from  the  trees,  usually  upon 
sheets  spread  beneath.  Several  gatherings  are  made  by  light-  shak- 
ings which  cause  only  the  ripe  specimens  to  fall. 

Prunes  are  usually  graded  before  drying,  and  various  home- 
made contrivances  are  employed.  Some  use  inclined  planes  of 
adjustable  slats,  the  grader  being  thus  available  for  other  fruits  than 
prunes ;  the  large  fruit  rolls  along  into  receptacles  at  the  bottom, 
while  the  small  fruit  falls  through  into  other  receptacles.  Other 
grading  devices  are  made  with  wire  screens  or  riddles  of  different 
sizes  of  mesh.  Some  of  them  work  on  the  principle  of  a  fanning 
mill,  three  to  four  riddles,  placed  above  one  another,  each  wuth  a 
slight  incline  and  a  spout  on  the  side  where  each  grade 
drops  into  a  box.  Some  have  a  long  riddle,  say  twelve 
feet     long,     with    three    different     sizes    of    wire     screen     on     it. 


THE    CALIFORNIA    WAY    WITH    PRUNES 


539 


This  riddle  is  hung  upon  four  ropes  with  an  incline ;  the  prunes  are 
thrown  in  the  higher  end,  and  by  shaking  it  they  roll  down  and 
fall  through  the  holes  into  boxes  underneath.  The  first  piece  of 
screen  should  be  small,  to  let  only  stems  and  dirt  through,  and  no 
prunes.  This  long  hanging  screen  is  also  used  to  grade  prunes 
after  drying.  There  are  now  several  excellent  manufactured  fruit 
graders  on  sale  in  this  State.  Their  work  is  very  satisfactory, 
and  they  have  largely  displaced  home-made  contrivances. 

The  next  step  in  the  process  ia  dipping  in  lye  to  thin  and  crack 
the  skin,  which  facilitates  the  escape  of  moisture  in  the  drying  pro- 
cess. In  the  large  caldron  lye  is  made  with  one  pound  of  con- 
centrated lye  to  each  twenty  gallons  of  water,  and  kept  boiling 
hot.  The  fruit  is  put  into  wire  baskets  or  galvanized  pails  with 
perforated  sides  and  bottoms,  and  dipped  in  the  boiling  lye  for  about 
a  minute,  or  until  the  skin  has  a  wrinkled  appearance,  then  the 
basket  is  plunged  into  clean  cold  water  to  rinse  off  the  lye.  This 
rinsing  water  must  be  frequently  changed,  for  it  soon  becomes  very 
alkaline.  Some  begin  with  a  stronger  lye  solution,  one  pound  to 
ten  gallons  of  water,  claiming  that  a  very  short  dip  in  stronger  lye 
is  better  than  long  exposure  in  a  weaker  solution.  After  this  dip- 
ping, the  prunes  are  placed  on  trays.  In  the  sun  the  prune  dries 
sufficiently  in  from  one  to  two  weeks,  according  to  the  situation 
and  weather. 

A  process  of  puncturing  the  skin  of  the  prunes  by  causing  them 
to  roll  over  needle  points  has  also  been  employed  to  some  extent. 
There  are  now  manufactured  very  capacious  appliances  for  contin- 
uous dipping,  rinsing,  puncturing  and  spreading  on  the  trays  so  that 
the  fruit  is  handled  in  large  quantities  at  a  minimum  cost.  In  no 
branch  of  our  fruit  industry  perhaps  has  there  been  greater  advance 
in  labor-saving  devices  than  in  prune  handling. 

When  sufficiently  dried  the  prunes  are  put  through  the  "sweat," 
which  takes  from  several  days  to  two  or  three  weeks,  and  then 
are  ready  for  grading,  finishing,  and  packing.  In  grading,  the 
prunes  are  separated  by  the  use  of  a  grader,  as  already  described, 
into  a  number  of  grades,  the  largest,  forty  prunes  to  the  pound,  and 
so  on,  fifty,  sixty,  etc.,  to  the  smallest,  which  may  run  one  hundred 
or  more  to  the  pound.  Finishing  consists  in  exposing  to  steam, 
in  dipping  in  clear  hot  water,  or  hot  sugar  syrup,  or  in  dipping  in 
boiled  juice  of  ripe  prunes,  or  peaches  or  apples,  etc.  Although 
there  is  a  great  variety  of  materials  used  for  ''glossing"  prunes  by 
different  producers,  the  prevailing  practice  is  to  rely  upon  hot 
water,  to  which  pure  glycerine  is  added  at  the  rate  of  one  pound 
to  twenty  gallons.  Some  growers  also  add  a  little  brine  (having 
first  dissolved  the  salt  and  skimmed  off  the  impurities).  This  final 
hot  dip  kills  insect  eggs,  and  the  fruit,  after  drying  off  away  from 
the  access  of  insects,  should  be  packed  tightly  in  boxes. 


540  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

The  following  explicit  hints  on  the  curing  of  prunes  are  based 
upon  wide  experience  and  observation  in  the  Santa  Clara  valley  : 

Be  sure  to  allow  the  prunes  to  obtain  all  of  the  sugar  they  can  from  the 
trees  by  hanging  until  they  drop  of  their  own  accord.  Do  not  pick  up  until 
prunes  are  soft  to  the  touch.  These  two  rules  are  productive  of  nice  black 
prunes.  They  may  not  be  black  when  gathered  in  the  bins  but  will  color  with 
age,  without  any  foreign  coloring  matter. 

Do  not  keep  prunes  in  boxes  over  night.  They  go  through  a  sweat,  and  do 
not  make  a  first  quality  of  dried  fruit,  and  take  much  longer  to  dry.  It  is  better 
to  let  the  prunes  lie  on  the  ground  under  the  tree  for  several  days  than  to 
let  the  picked  prunes  lie  in  the  boxes  over  one  night. 

The  dipping  fluid  must  be  kept  at  the  boiling  point  and  no  prunes  put  in 
unless  it  is  boiling.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  how  strong  the  lye  is,  but  how  hot 
is  the  water.  On  the  trays  prunes  will  either  dry  or  ferment.  Unless  the  dip 
is  hot  enough  the  prune  will  not  immediately  commence  to  dry,  but  will,  in  a 
few  days,  become  a  chocolate  color  and  refuse  to  dry,  sometimes  a  few  on  a 
tray,  often  half  and  sometimes  nearly  all.  If  the  water  is  at  the  boiling  point 
all  through  the  dip,  two  pounds  of  lye  to  the  lOO  gallons  of  water  may  be 
sufficient.  If  the  water  is  not  boiling,  ten  pounds  of  lye  to  the  lOO  gallons  of 
water  may  be  required. 

Weather  conditions  govern  the  time  prunes  should  remain  on  the  tray. 
Grasp  a  handful  of  prunes  and  give  them  a  gentle  squeeze  and  open  the  hana 
quickly,  if  the  prunes  separate  they  are  ready  to  stack  the  trays  and  the  fruit 
should  be  placed  in  the  bin  before  it  rattles  on  the  trays. 

When  the  prunes  are  sufficiently  dry  put  them  in  a  dry  place  where  it  will 
not  rain  on  them,  but  do  not  prevent  the  air  from  getting  to  them.  Let  the 
wind  have  free  access  until  the  rains  set  in,  then  close  doors  and  make  the 
house  as  snug  as  you  can.  In  making  bins,  be  sure  the  boards  are  dry  and 
the  bins  well  above  ground,  or  you  will  have  trouble.  Do  not  let  prunes 
get  damaged  by  rain. 

For  dipping  before  packing,  some  use  a  brine  dip — about  five  pounds  of  salt 
to  100  gallons  of  water  is  about  right.  This  salt  dip  can  be  used  more  safely 
for  prunes  than  for  peaches  or  other  pitted  fruit,  as  in  some  instances  it  has 
attracted  moisture  and  caused  mold.  As  to  the  respective  results  of  a  salt 
solution  and  glycerine  solution,  the  salt  seems  to  be  a  cleansing  process,  which 
leaves  the  skin  of  the  fruit  in  a  bright,  clear  condition  and  brings  out  the  blue 
bloom,  which  is  desirable.  The  glycerine  is  more  of  a  syrupy  or  glossy  nature, 
and  on  prunes  that  are  inclined  to  be  reddish  this  solution  can  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage. A  common  method  of  treating  prunes  is  to  use  the  small  prunes  and 
suspend  them  in  the  steam-heated  tank  of  the  Anderson  dipper,  where  they 
can  not  come  in  contact  with  the  steam  (which  causes  the  skin  and  meat  ol 
the  prune  to  turn  dark),  dissolve  out  the  juice,  thus  forming  a  dip  liquor,  and 
this  is  quite  extensively  used. 

Raisins. — The  varieties  of  grapes  used  for  raisins  are  described 
in  Chapter  XXVIII.  The  production  of  raisins  has  reached  such 
an  extent,  and  employs  so  much  skill  and  capital,  that  the  processes 
employed  to  facilitate  the  curing  and  packing  are  so  various  that 
a  description  of  them  can  not  be  attempted.  Besides,  an  excellent 
special  treatise  has  been  written  on  this  subject.*  However,  in 
beginning  the  commercial  production  of  raisins,  one  should  visit 
the  raisin  farms  and  packing-houses  during  the  harvest.  The  fol- 
lowing description  by  T.  C.  White,  of  Fresno,  gives  an  outline  of 
practise  in  the  vineyard  : 

In  Fresno  picking  commences  about  the  first  of  September,  although  there 
have  been  seasons  when  it  occurred  as  early  as  the  20th  of  August.    The  grapes 


CURING    RAISINS 


541 


under  no  circumstances  should  be  picked  for  raisins  until  they  are  ripe.  There 
are  three  ways  by  which  to  ascertain  this  fact :  First,  by  the  color,  which 
should  be  a  light  amber;  second,  by  the  taste;  and  third,  by  the  saccharometer, 
which  is  by  far  the  most  accurate.  A  grape  may  be  ripe,  and  not  have  the 
proper  color,  when  grown  entirely  in  the  shade.  The  juice  of  the  grape  should 
contain  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent  saccharine,  to, produce  a  good  raisin. 

The  method  of  drying  is  with  trays  placed  upon  the  ground.  The  almost 
entire  absence  of  dew  in  our  locality  greatly  facilitates  this  method.  The  trays 
are  usually  twenty-four  by  twenty-six  inches,  which  hold  about  twenty  pounds 
of  fruit,  and  should  produce  from  six  to  seven  pounds  of  raisins.  The  product 
of  a  vineyard  depends  largely  upon  its  age  and  favorable  conditions,  varying 
from  two  to  nine  tons  of  grapes  per  acre. 

The  trays  are  distributed  along  the  sides  of  the  roads,  from  which  they  are 
taken  by  the  pickers  as  they  are  needed.  As  the  grapes  are  picked  from  the 
vines,  all  imperfect  berries,  sticks,  and  dead  leaves  are  removed  from  the 
bunches,  which  are  then  placed  upon  the  trays,  right  side  up.  A  cluster  has 
what  is  called  a  right  and  a  wrong  side,  the  wrong  side  having  more  of  the 
stems  exposed  than  the  right  side.  Great  care  should  be  used  in  picking,  so 
as  to  handle  the  bunches  only  by  the  stem.  If  the  berries  come  in  contact 
with  the  hands,  some  of  the  bloom  will  be  removed,  which  will  injure  the 
appearance  of  the  raisins.  The  trays  are  placed,  after  filling,  between  the  vines, 
one  end  being  elevated  so  that  the  grapes  may  receive  the  more  direct  rays 
of  the  sun. 

Too  rapid  drying  is  not  desirable.  The  grapes  are  left  upon  the  trays  until 
about  two-thirds  dry,  which,  with  us,  will  be  from  six  to  eight  days.  They  are 
then  turned.  This  is  accomplished  by  placing  an  empty  tray  on  top  of  the 
one  filled  with  partially-dried  raisins,  and  turning  them  both  over.  Then  take 
off  the  upper  or  original  tray,  and  you  have  the  raisins  turned  without  han- 
dling or  damage.  After  turning,  curing  will  proceed  more  rapidly,  and  fre- 
quently is  completed  in  four  or  five  days.  During  this  time  they  should  be 
carefully  watched  to  prevent  any  from  becoming  too  dry.  When  it  is  found 
they  are  dry  enough,  the  trays  are  gathered  and  stacked  one  upon  another  as 
high  as  convenient  for  the  sorting  which  follows.  This  protects  them  from  the 
sun  and  prevents  overdrying.  Stacking  should  be  attended  to  early  in  the 
morning,  while  the  stems  and  berries  are  slightly  moist  and  cool  from  the  night 
air,  as  they  will  retain  this  moisture  after  being  transferred  to  the  sweat-boxes, 
and  assist  in  quickening  the  sweating  process. 

As  the  raisins  are  taken  off  the  trays,  some  of  the  berries  on  the  bunch 
will  be  dry  enough  and  a  few  will  not  be  sufficiently  cured.  To  remove  the 
moist  ones  would  destroy  the  appearance  of  the  cluster,  and  to  leave  them  out 
longer  would  shrivel  the  dry  ones,  hence  the  sweat-box.  The  moisture  is  dif- 
fused through  the  box,  some  being  absorbed  by  the  dry  raisins,  and  the  stems 
also  taking  their  share  are  thus  rendered  tough  and  pliable  and  easily  manipu- 
lated when  ready  for  packing. 

Sorting  and  grading  require  great  care  and  judgment,  and  although  a  tedious 
process,  it  greatly  facilitates  rapid  packing.  The  sweat-box  is  a  little  larger 
than  the  tray  and  about  eight  inches  deep,  and  contains  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  pounds  of  raisins.  Heavy  manila  paper  is  used  in  the  sweat- 
boxes,  one  sheet  being  placed  in  the  bottom,  and  three  or  four  more  at  equal 
distance  as  the  filling  progresses.  The  object  of  the  paper  is  to  prevent  the 
tangling  of  the  stems  and  consequent  breaking  of  the  bunches  when  removed  for 
packing. 

The  sorters  have  three  sweat-boxes,  one  for  the  first,  second  and  third  quali- 
ties, as  the  grade  will  justify.  The  bunches  should  be  handled  by  the  stem  and 
placed  carefully  in  the  sweat-boxes  to  avoid  breaking  the  stems,  thereby  de- 
stroying the  symmetry  of  the  clusters.  Any  found  to  be  too  damp  are  returned 
to  the  trays  and  left  a  day  or  two  longer  in  the  sun.  To  ascertain  if  the  fruit 
is  perfectly  cured,  take  a  raisin  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  and  roll  it 
gently  until  softened,  when  either  jelly  or  water  will  exude  from  the  stem 
end — if  water,  it  requires  further  drying.  When  the  boxes  are  filled,  they  are 
taken  to  the  equalizer.  This  should  be  built  of  brick  or  adobe,  and  as  near  air- 
tight as  possible,  but  provided  with  windows  to  allow  ventilation  when  necessary. 
The  windows  should  have  shutters  to  keep  it  dark.    The  filled  boxes  are  placed 


542  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

one  exactly  above  another  to  a  convenient  height,  and  should  remain  from  ten 
to  twenty  days  or  more,  when  they  will  have  passed  through  the  sweating 
process.  When  the  raisins  are  sufficiently  equalized,  the  sweat-boxes  are  re- 
moved to  the  packing-room,  which  is  provided  with  tables,  presses,  scales,  etc. 

The  foregoing  relates  to  the  preparation  of  the  standard  clusters. 
Loose  raisins  are  now  being  produced  in  increasing  quantities. 
Loose  Muscatels  are  prepared  by  being  put  through  the  stemmer 
and  grader.  The  stemmer  removes  the  berries  from  the  stems, 
and  the  grader,  by  separating  according  to  size,  determines  the 
grade.  During  the  last  few  years  the  seeding  of  raisins  has  in- 
creased rapidly,  and  large  establishments  for  this  work,  with  very 
ingenious  machinery,  have  been  erected.  Seeded  raisins  constitute 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  product. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  dipped  raisins  are  also  made  of  the 
Sultana  and  Thompson  seedless  grapes  and  of  loose  or  inferior 
Muscatels.  A  lye  dip  of  about  one  pound  of  potash  to  twelve  gal- 
lons of  water  is  used,  and  the  solution  is  kept  boiling  hot.  The 
ripe  fruit  is  dipped  for  an  instant,  then  plunged  in  fresh  water  for 
a  thorough  rinsing,  and  then  placed  on  the  trays.  During  warm, 
dry  weather  in  the  interior,  the  raisins  are  dried  in  the  shade  b}' 
leaving  the  trays  in  piles,  but  if  cooler,  moister  weather  prevails, 
the  trays  must  be  spread  out.  The  product  is  a  handsome  amber 
color. 

An  oil  dip  has  been  profitably  used  with  Thompson's  Seedless: 

One  quart  olive  oil;  ^  pound  Greenbank  soda  and  3  quarts 
water  are  made  into  an  emulsion,  and  then  reduced  with  10  gal- 
lons water  in  the  dipping  tank,  adding  more  soda  to  get  lye-strength 
enough  to  cut  the  skins,  and  more  soda  has  to  be  added  from  time 
to  time  to  keep  up  the  strength.  The  grapes  are  dipped  in  this 
solution  and  sulphured  to  the  proper  color. 

GRAPE  SYRUP 

The  manufacture  of  grape  syrup,  which  was  formerly  of  con- 
siderable prominence  as  a  means  of  disposing  of  wine  grapes,  has 
recently  received  less  attention  because  of  low  prices  in  competi- 
tion with  the  vast  amount  of  syrup  available  for  the  sugar  refin- 
eries. 

MACHINE  EVAPORATION 

Although  California  summer  conditions  of  adequate  heat  and 
dry  air  favor  open-air  evaporation  to  such  an  extent  that  nearly 
all  our  product  of  cured  fruit  is  secured  in  that  way,  there  are 
some  parts  of  the  State  where  artificial  heat  would  be  a  safer  re- 
course and  there  are  late  fruits  which  sometimes  collide  with  early 
rains  in  a  way  to  cause  losses  even  in  our  best  sun-curing  regions. 


5^4  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

It  is  interesting,  therefore,  to  describe  a  machine  evaporator  con- 
structed upon  true  principles  and  having  a  capacity  sufficiently  large 
to  encourage  its  use.  Mr.  L.  W.  Parsons  of  Campbell,  Santa  Clara 
county,  has  given  most  of  his  life  to  the  design  and  construction  of 
fruit  evaporators,  and  secured  patents  thereupon  which  have  ex- 
pired and  are  now  public  property.  In  the  Pacific  Rural  Press  of 
June  19  and  26,  1909,  he  gave  his  conclusions  on  the  desirability 
of  machine  evaporation  and  a  design  for  the  construction  of  an 
evaporator  which  embodied  all  his  best  work  in  this  line.  The  ac- 
companying drawings  and  description  are  from  Mr.  Parson's  writ- 
ings : 

A  fruit  drying  chamber  capable  of  holding  about  two  tons  is  about  as  large 
as  one  heater  can  well  handle.  Wire  trays  two  feet  wide  by  five  feet  long 
are  as  large  as  one  strong  man  can  conveniently  handle;  he  might  prefer  them 
shorter;  in  fact,  if  the  smaller  tray  would  give  a  drier  with  sufficient  capacity 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  owner,  he  could  make  the  trays  two  by  four  feet, 
with  a  narrower  furnace,  to  correspond.  Where  two  men  are  always  avail- 
able, trays  three  by  six  feet  have  been  found  to  work  well. 

A  drier  five  feet  wide  and  twenty-four  feet  long,  having  ten  trays  in  its 
length  and  twelve  trays  high,  holds  120  trays  2  by  5  feet,  or  a  total  drying 
surface  of  1,200  square  feet,  which  at  the  rate  of  3  pounds  per  foot  give  a 
total  of  3,600  pounds  at  one  time :  that  is,  it  would  take  that  much  gross 
weight  of  fruit  before  cutting  to  fill  the  trays.  Large  fruit  would  amount  to 
more,  and  small  fruit  or  culls  might  not  go  above  two  pounds  to  the  foot. 

By  making  the  drier  one  or  two  trays  longer  and  higher,  and  a  foot  or  so 
wider,  the  capacity  may  be  materially  increased.  But  if  much  more  capacity  is 
desired,  it  would  be  better  to  build  another  drier,  or  several  of  them,  alongside 
of  it,  which  would  work  satisfactorily. 

The  fruit  drying  chamber  rests  on  top  of  the  hot  air  chamber,  which  is 
surrounded  by  brick  or  cement  walls  about  eight  inches  thick,  and  is  as  long 
and  wide  as  the  fruit  chamber  above.  The  height  of  these  walls  depends  on 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  heater  enclosed  by  them.  The  furnace  is  a  very  im- 
portant factor:  it  must  be  strong,  not  easily  burned  out,  smoke-tight  in  all 
rts  joints  and  flues,  with  caps  or  covers  so  placed  to  facilitate  cleaning  out 
soot  and  ashes.  There  must  be  room  between  the  sides  of  the  furnace  and 
the.  side  walls  to  allow  for  circulation  of  the  air  to  be  heated. 

Fresh  air  enters  this  hot  air  chamber  through  openings  about  a  foot  square  . 
at  the  bottom  in   front  between  the  furnace  and  the  side  walls ;    passes   along 
on  the  sides  and  top  of  furnace  and  flues  until  it  reaches  the  back  end  of  the 
hot  air  chamber,  where  it  passes  up  through  an  opening  into  the  fruit  chamber 
above. 

The  next,  and  perhaps  the  most  critical,  part  in  the  construction,  is  the 
sheet  iron  floor  which  covers  the  furnace  and  flues  and  separates  them  from 
the  fruit  chamber  above.  This  iron  floor  is  made  of  either  black  or  galvanized 
iron,  not  thinner  than  No.  24;  thicker  would  be  better.  It  rests  on  rods  or 
bars  of  angle  or  T  iron  stretched  from  wall  to  wall,  with  ends  built  into  the 
walls.  These  rods  are  spaced  about  two  feet  apart.  The  sheets  of  iron  should 
be  riveted  or  bolted  together.  The  edges  of  this  iron  floor  should  project  into 
and  be  imbedded  in  the  brick  walls  in  front  and  along  the  two  side  walls  as 
far  back  as  the  floor  goes  to  the  other  end  of  the  drier.  Cover  this  floor 
with  an  inch  or  so  of  sand  or  fine  earth,  so  as  to  stop  up  all  cracks.  At  the 
back  end  of  drier  this  iron  floor  is  cut  short  one  foot,  allowing  an  opening  of 
one  by  about  five  feet  to  allow  the  hot  air  from  the  heater  below  the  iron 
floor  to  pass  up  into  the  fruit  chamber  above.  This  floor  must  be  made  tight 
everywhere,  so  no  hot  air  can  possibly  leak  upward  and  scorch  the  fruit  or  the 
woodwork  above. 

The  brick  walls  should  be  built  about  eighteen  incheg  above  the  iron  floor, 
so  that  the  wooden  frame  which  rests  on  top  will  be  safe  from  burning. 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    BUILDING    EVAPORATOR  545 

The  furnace  may  be  about  four  feet  high  by  three  feet  wide,  with  an  ash 
pit  in  the  bottom  part,  and  six  or  eight  or  more  feet  long.  This  will  handle 
four-foot  cordwood  conveniently  and  make  a  liberal  combustion  chamber  for 
the  flames.  It  may  be  a  cylinder  or  shaped  like  a  boiler,  or  have  brick  walls, 
with  a  cast  iron  arch  on  top.  Or  it  may  be  a  big  wrought  iron  box  made  of 
quarter-inch  boiler  iron,  braced  with  angle  iron  to  prevent  warping. 

A  smoke  pipe  one  foot  in  diameter  connects  with  the  back  end  of  the  fur- 
nace, passes  horizontally  to  near  the  back  end  of  the  drier,  then  by  a  short 
elbow  doubles  back,  coming  to  the  front  over  the  top  of  the  furnace,  and  then, 
by  an  elbow,  to  right  or  left  through  the  side  brick  wall  to  connect  with  the 
pipe  inside  of  the  ventilator  shaft  or  flue. 

If  the  furnace  is  four  feet  high  and  the  pipe  above  it  one  foot  thick,  allow 
six  inches  space  between  the  top  of  the  furnace  and  the  pipe  and  between 
the  pipe  and  the  sheet-iron  floor  above  it;  then  add  the  eighteen  inches  of  brick 
wall  above  the  iron  floor ;  we  get  a  total  height  of  seven  and  a  half  feet  from 
the  ground  to  top  of  wall. 

But  only  the  furnace  needs  to  be  as  deep  as  this,  and  it  can  be  placed  in  a 
pit  at  one  end  of  the  drier.  The  brick  walls  back  of  the  furnace  do  not  need 
to  go  so  far  down  by  perhaps  two  feet.  The  smoke  pipe  leaving  the  furnace 
close  to  its  top  can  rest  on  a  brick  lying  on  top  of  the  ground,  so  the  part  of 
the  heating  chamber  holding  the  long  flues  may  be  shallower,  thus  saving 
some  expense  in  masonry.  The  top  of  the  brick  wall  should  be  level  all  the 
way  around  and  even  with  the  floor  of  the  house,  so  the  operator  can  easily 
handle  the  trays  on  the  upper  track.  Do  not  insert  woodwork  of  any  kind  into 
the  brickword. 

Lay  2x4  inch  sills  on  top  of  the  brick  walls  all  around  the  four  sides.  Cut 
your  upright  studding  of  2x4  joists  six  and  a  half  feet  high,  spaced  two  feet 
apart,  and  nail  a  2:^4  plate  on  top.  This  is  for  the  two  long  sides.  The  ends 
of  the  drying  chamber  are  to  be  supplied  with  close-fitting  doors.  Nail  sur- 
faced matched  lumber  on  the  inner  face  of  the  studding.  These  boards  had 
better  be  of  redwood,  so  as  not  to  gum  up  the  trays  with  pitch. 

These  two  side  walls  should  be  perfectly  straight,  plumb  and  level  and  at 
equal  distance  apart  at  all  points,  so  the  trays  will  work  true  and  not  bind  or 
slip  off  the  tracks.  Nail  to  these  walls  tracks  or  slides  made  of  strips  one 
and  one-half  inches  square.  Fasten  to  these  tracks  wheels,  known  to  the  hard- 
ware men  as  "sash  rollers,"  one  inch  in  diameter  and  spaced  ten  inches  apart 
along  the  track.  Cut  a  little  notch  in  the  edge  of  the  track,  so  the  wheel  can 
turn  freely,  with  the  big  side  of  the  wheel  upward.  Put  twelve  of  these  tracks 
on  each  wall,  spaced  six  inches  apart,  beginning  six  inches  from  the  ceiling  to 
the  top  of  the  first  track,  then  six  inches  to  top  of  next  track,  etc.  One  strong 
16  penny  wire  nail  driven  into  each  stud  will  hold  these  tracks  securely.  Fasten 
the  wheels  with  screws  to  the  track  on  a  work  bench  before  nailing  them  to 
the   walls. 

Nail  matched  lumber  on  top  of  the  plates  from  side  to  side  for  a  ceiling. 
This  wooden  shell  will  have  to  be  braced  from  the  outside  so  it  can  stand 
up  firmly  with  its  load  of  fruit. 

The  ventilator  or  exhaust  flue  should  be  about  two  by  three  feet  inside 
and  extend  about  twenty  feet  above  the  top  of  the  drier.  Build  it  against  the 
side  o"f  the  drier,  resting  on  top  of  the  brick  wall,  close  to  the  front  end  of 
the  drier. 

The  smoke  pipe  must  be  carried  by  a  suitable  elbow  from  its  position  above 
the  furnace  through  the  side  brick  wall  to  a  point  under  the  center  of  the 
ventilator,  thence  up  through  it  to  the  top.  A  sheet-iron  weather  cap  on  top 
should  protect  the  ventilator  and  smoke  pipe.  Make  the  bottom  of  the  ven- 
tilator where  smoke  pipe  enters,  air  tight  to  ensure  good  draft.  Provide  caps 
or  covers  at  the  elbows  to  facilitate  cleaning  out  the  soot. 

On  the  side  of  the  drying  chamber,  at  the  bottom,  cut  a  hole  into  the  ven- 
tilator for  the  passage  of  the  damp  air  from  the  fruit  into  the  ventilator.  This 
opening  should  be  the  shape  of  a  right  angled  triangle,  in  such  position  as 
though  the  bottom  cover  of  the  side  wall  were  being  cut  off.  The  bottom  and 
perpendicular  side  of  opening  are  to  be  three  feet  long.  The  lower  tracks  go 
past  this  opening  to  carry  trays  to  the  door.  Some  kind  of  a  small  guide 
rail  should  be  placed  to  prevent  the  corners  of  the  trays  from  striking  against 
the  edge  of  opening.     The  trays  are  to  be  one-half  inch  shorter  than  the  drier 


546  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

is  wide  inside,  so  as  to  move  freely  without  danger  of  being  bound.  Two 
or  three  rods  of  half-inch  iron  provided  with  screws  and  nuts  should  pass 
through  from  side  to  side  of  drying  chamber  about  half  way  from  top  to 
bottom,  to  prevent  the  walls  of  the  drier  from  warping  or  bulging,  or  else 
the  trays  will  drop  off  the  tracks. 

Make  four  sides  of  the  trays  of  stuff  one  and  a  half  inches  square,  notched 
r.t  the  corners  of  trays.  Tack  on  No.  3  mesh  galvanized  wire  cloth.  Over 
this  nail  strips  one  inch  thick  by  one  and  a  half  inches  wide  for  runners  to 
roll  over  the  wheels.  Nail  a  similar  strip  across  the  middle  of  the  tray  to 
prevent  the  wire  cloth  from  sagging.  From  twenty-five  to  fifty  extra  trays  will 
be  found  convenient  in  operating  the  drier.  The  wire  cloth  is  two  feet  wide. 
Make  the  tray  frames  two  feet  one  inch  wide.  With  average  prices  for  labor 
and  material  this  drien  can  be  built  in  a  substantial  manner  for  about  $500. 

To  Operate  the  Drier. — Get  started  right  by  taking  all  day  in  grad- 
ually filling  the  drier,  so  that  by  night  time  the  first  trays  will  be  within  a  few 
hours  of  being  finished.  Start  a  good  fire  before  putting  in  the  fruit,  so  as 
to  burn  out  the  oily  smells  of  the  new  ironwork.  Use  the  eight  lower  tracks 
for  the  fresh  fruit.  Put  eight  trays  in  at  a  time,  one  tray  on  each  of  the  eight 
lower  tracks  about  every  ^ty-five  minutes,  starting  them  at  the  front  end 
oyer  the  furnace  and  pushing  along.  After  ten  lots  have  been  so  placed  the 
eight  lower  tracks  will  be  full.  Then  take  out  one  tray  from  each  track  at  the 
back  end  and  put  them  in  on  the  upper  four  tracks,  two  trays  on  a  track,  to 
be  gradually  pushed  along  from  time  to  time,  as  often  as  fresh  trays  are  put 
in  at  the  front,  until  the  machine  is  full  and  the  dryest  trays  will  be  at  the 
front  end  on  the  upper  four  tracks.  The  fresh,  wet  fruit  will  in  this  way  have 
its  vapor  drawn  out  through  the  ventilator  close  by,  without  wetting  the  fruit 
which  is  partly  dry. 

As  the  fruit  gets  dryer  it  is  moved  into  dryer  and  warmer  air  at  the  back 
end.  But  this  fresh  air  right  from  the  heater  below  is  180  degrees  hot  and 
unsafe  for  fruit  to  finish  in,  so  it  is  started  back  on  the  upper  tracks'  to  finish 
in  a  milder  temperature,  with  enough  vapor  in  the  air  to  allow  tne  iruit  to 
finish  gradually  without  danger  of  scorching,  turning  out  the  fruit  in  a  soft  and 
flexible  condition,  evenly  cured  and  right  in  color.  This  process  is  peculiar  to 
this  evaporator  and  yields  the  best  results  in  quality  of  work  done. 

If  fruit  is  rushed  too  fast  through  the  drier  it  will  get  back  to  the  front 
and  top  too  soon  and  will  be  too  wet  to  dry  readily  in  the  lower  temperature. 

If  the  beginner  gets  caught  this  way,  it  will  be  better,  after  waiting  a  little, 
to  take  it  out,  and,  if  still  too  wet,  carry  it  back  to  the  other  end  and  put 
in  on  the  upper  four  tracks  again  to  gradually  go  forward  again.  After  a  little 
experience  he  will  learn  how  and  when  to  move  the  fruit. 

As  to  variations  of  heat  in  different  parts  of  the  drier  and  the  effects  thereof, 
it  may  be  added  that  the  thermometer  hanging  in  the  current  of  air  just  as  it 
strikes  the  fruit  may  register  190  degrees  and  do  no  harm,  for  the  fruit  at  that 
end  of  the  drier  has  enough  moisture  to  save  it.  The  air  cools  rapidly,  and 
when  it  reaches  the  other  end  of  the  drier  where  the  fruit  on  the  top  tracks 
is  nearly  dry,  the  temperature  will  be  about  40  degrees  cooler.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  points  in  this  evaporator,  finishing  the  fruit  in  a  lower 
temperature  and  yet  with  but  Httle  moisture  in  the  air. 

Wood  or  coal  fires  will  fluctuate  in  heat,  and  a  careless  operator  might  allow 
the  temperature  to  get  to  200  or  210  degrees,  but  if^  it  does  not  last  more  than 
a  few  minutes,  and  as  the  fruit  is  not  too  near  being  finished  at  the  exposed 
end,  no  harm  is  done.  A  thermometer  resting  on  the  tray  at  the  back  end 
lying  between  the  fruit  will  show  about  10  degrees  lower  temperature  than  when 
hanging  clear  in  the  draft  at  that  point. 

While  drying  the  trays  should  not  touch  the  ends  of  the  drier,  but  be  pushed 
back  about  a  foot  and  a  half  from  the  doors  to  allow  room  for  free  circulation 
of  air  at  the  back  end  of  drier  and  down  at  the  front  end.  It  takes  sixteen 
to  twenty-four  hours  to  dry  the  fruit,  according  to  kind  and  size.  Apples  are 
dried  in  six  to  eight  hours. 

The  furnace  may  be  made  to  use  any  fuel.  An  oil  burner  is  the  best,  because 
the  heat  can  be  kept  steadily  at  the  maximum. 


PART    NINE:    FRUIT    PROTECTION 


CHAPTER    XXXIX 
CALIFORNIA     METHODS     WITH     INJURIOUS     INSECTS 

The  California  climate,  which  so  favors  tree  and  vine  by  a  long, 
mild,  growing  season  also  enables  some  insects  to  multiply  much 
more  rapidly  than  they  do  in  wintry  climes;  some  having  several 
distinct  broods,  others  carrying  on  the  work  of  reproduction  and 
destruction  of  plants  nearly  the  year  round.  The  difficulties  of  the 
problem  of  the  control  of  injurious  insects  are  constantly  being 
increased  because  new  pests,  in  spite  of  the  most  careful  efforts  to 
keep  them  outside  our  boundaries,  occasionally  find  their  way  into 
our  orchards  and  vineyards.  Furthermore  native  species,  feeding, 
unnoticed  perhaps,  upon  wild  growths  have  found,  in  certain  in- 
stances, that  cultivated  plants  offer  to  them  most  satisfactory  food 
and  then  suddenly  become  a  factor  in  the  horticulturists'  problem. 

Undoubtedly  parasitic  and  predaceous  insects  preying  upon  the 
injurious  species  found  in  the  fruit  plantations  are  of  assistance,  in 
greater  or  lesser  measure,  in  reducing  the  pests,  and  this  service 
is  being  promoted  by  the  introduction  of  beneficial  insects  from 
other  parts  of  the  world.  There  are  many  of  our  native  species  of 
insects,  also  syrphus  and  ichneumon  flies,  lady  birds,  etc.,  that  arc 
valuable  in  this  regard.  Other  factors  also,  such  as  untoward  weath- 
er-conditions at  the  time  of  hatching,  bacterial  and  fungous  diseases 
of  insects,  etc.,  assist  the  horticulturist  in  his  warfare  against  inju- 
rious insects.  It  is  also  a  fact  that  California  conditions  have  de- 
manded and  favored  the  development  of  ways  and  means  for  the 
suppression  of  orchard  and  vineyard  pests,  and  methods  and  ap- 
pliances have  been  invented  which  have  demonstrated  notable  effi- 
ciency and  value. 

While  the  literature  upon  the  subject  of  insect  pests  in  California 
is  quite  extensive,  much  of  it  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  general 
reader.  Nevertheless  there  are  a  number  of  publications  which 
should  be  secured  and  studied  by  every  fruit  grower.  These  are 
the  bulletins  and  reports  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of 
the  University  of  California,  at  Berkeley;  of  the  State   Board  of 

*I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  W.  T.  Clarke,  assistant  professor  of  Horticulture  of  the 
University  of  California,  Berkeley,  for  careful  revision  and  extension  of  this  chapter, 

547 


548  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Horticulture,  at  Sacramento ;  and  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  at  Washington.  A 
most  useful  addition  to  the  horticulturist's  library  will  be  found  in 
Kellogg's  "American  Insects,"  published  by  Henry  Holt  and  Com- 
pany, New  York.  This  excellent  work  of  Professor  Vernon  Kel- 
iog&»  of  Stanford  University,  is  particularly  valuable  because  of  its 
California  observations  and  point  of  view.  Furthermore  as  the 
study  of  the  pests  and  the  invention  of  means  for  their  destruc- 
tion are  continually  progressing  one  can  only  keep  himself  up 
to  date  and  enable  himself  to  profit  by  improvements,  by  diligent 
reading  of  California  periodicals  devoted  to  practical  horticulture. 

CLASSES  OF  INSECTS 

In  order  to  arrange  injurious  insects  in  classes  in  a  popular 
way,  the  grouping  here  will  be  based  upon  the  character  of  the 
work  they  do.  This  arrangement  has  been  followed  by  other  writ- 
ers and  is  perhaps  better  than  attempting  to  group  the  insects  which 
prey  upon  any  single  tree  or  plant,  because  injurious  insects  seldom 
restrict  themselves  to  a  single  food  plant.  Therefore  the  group- 
ing will  be  as  follows : 

(1)  Insects  destroying  foliage; 

.(2)  Insects  upon  the  bark  or  upon  the  surface  of  leaf  and  fruit ; 

(3)  Insects  boring  into  the  twig,  stem  or  root; 

(4)  Insects  boring  into  the  pulp  of  fruits. 

INSECTS  DESTROYING  FOLIAGE 

Cut  Worms  and  Army  Worms.* — These  are  the  larvae  of  Noc- 
tuid  moths,  which  often  become  abundant  over  limited  areas  and 
do  much  damage  to  trees  and  plants.  Cut  worms  and  Army  worms 
are  terms  applied  tO  the  same  insects  in  California.  In  ordinary 
years  they  are  not  present  in  sufficient  numbers  to  cause  much  con- 
cern, and  in  such  years  they  are  known  simply  as  cut  worms.  When 
all  conditions  are  favorable,  however,  certain  species  develop  in 
enormous  numbers  and  having  exhausted  the  food  supply  where 
they  breed,  they  begin  to  migrate  or  march,  commonly  in  a  definite 
direction,  as  an  army  in  search  of  new  food.  When  they  thus  ap- 
pear in  such  large  numbers  and  take  on  the  migrating  habit  they 
are  called  army  worms. 

Some  of  the  caterpillars  have  the  habit  of  climbing  up  vines  and 
trees  and  eating  off  the  buds  in  the  early  spring.  These  are  called 
climbing  cut  worms.     Others  remain  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the 

*Adapted  from  Bulletin  192,  Agr.  Exp.  Station,  University  California,  Berkeley. 


CUT  WORMS  AND  ARMY  WORMS 


549 


ground  and  feed  by  cutting  off  the  plants  at  this  point.  They  are 
more  commonly  found  in  the  grass  lands,  but  very  frequently  at- 
tack cultivated  crops,  particularly  on  land  that  was  in  grass  the 
previous  year. 


Army  worm  (Heliophila  unipuncta). 


Of  the  methods  used  to  protect  trees  and  plants  from  cut  worms, 
poisoned  bait  is  probably  the  most  common.  This  consists  of  bran 
and  molasses  or  other  sweet  substance  poisoned  with  arsenic  and 
distributed  in  handfuls  about  the  plants.  The  proportions  are  as 
follows :  forty  pounds  of  bran,  two  gallons  of  cheap  molasses,  and 
five  pounds  of  arsenic.  Cheap  glycerine  may  be  used  to  prevent 
the  mixture  from  drying.  This  will  be  eaten  by  the  worms  in  prefer- 
ence, usually,  to  the  plants  which  it  is  desired  to  protect. 

Cut  worms  and  army  worms  may  also  be  captured  by  means  of 
traps.  Because  of  their  habit  of  feeding  at  night  and  remaining 
concealed  during  the  day,  pieces  of  boards  may  be  placed  on  the 
ground  around  the  growth  to  be  protected  and  these  may  be  turned 
over  during  the  day  and  the  worms  killed. 

In  case  of  outbreaks  of  army  worms  the  most  important  and 
successful  means  of  fighting  them  is  to  keep  them  out  of  the 
orchard  or  vineyard  entirely.  This  can  be  successfully  done  if  they 
are  discovered  in  time  or  if  already  in  one  portion  they  can  be 
kept  from  spreading  over  the  rest  of  the  property.  They  travel 
in  immense  numbers  in  a  definite  direction,  coming  generally  from 
an  adjoining  or  nearby  grain  field.  If  a  furrow  is  plowed  along 
the  side  of  the  place  to  be  protected  it  will  effectively  stop  their 
progress.     This  furrow  should  be  plowed  as  deep  as  possible,  with 


550 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


the  vertical  side  next  to  the  field  to  be  protected.  It  can  be  further 
trimmed  with  a  spade,  preferably  cutting  under  slightly,  making  a 
smooth  surface,  over  which  few  if  any,  of  the  worms  will  make 
their  way.  Above  this  shoulder  fine  pulverized  earth  should  slope 
as  abruptly  upward  as  possible.  If  any  of  the  worms  succeed  in 
climbing  up  over  the  smooth  surface  made  by  the  spade  they  will 
be  pretty  sure  to  fall  back  as  they  reach  this  fine  loose  earth  in  an 
attempt  to  ascend  over  the  projecting  shoulder.  Postholes  should 
be  dug  on  the  straight  edge  of  the  furrow  every  fifteen  or  twenty 


Moths  of  cut  worms. 


feet. 


The  worms  in  failing  to  scale  the  vertical  side  of  the  furrow 


will  crawl  along  in  the  bottom  and  fall  into  these  holes.  Here 
they  may  be  killed  by  pouring  in  a  little  crude  oil,  or  by  pouring  in 
a  little  distillate  and  dropping  in  a  match,  thus  burning  them,  or 
the  holes  filled  in  and  others  dug.  They  may  also  be  killed  in  the 
furrow  by  sprinkling  them  with  kerosene  or  by  pouring  a  strip 
of  crude  oil  along  the  furrow. 

Canker  Worms. — These  are  destructive  leaf-feeding  caterpillars, 
commonly  known  also  as  inch-  worms,  loopers  or  measuring  worms, 
because  of  the  peculiar  looping  gait  by  which  they  move  about. 
The  male  moths  are  slender  bodied  and  have  broad  thin  wings, 
while  the  females  are  wingless,  heavy-bodied  creatures. 

While  these  caterpillars  can  in  large  measure  be  controlled  by 
spraying  with  lead  arsenate  or  Paris  green,  it  is  by  far  the  best  to 


CANKER    WORMS 


551 


use  the  trap  method  of  control  and  avoid  having  them  upon  the 
trees  at  all.  The  trap  method  depends  for  its  success  upon  the  fact 
that  the  wingless  female  moth  upon  emerging  from  her  cocoon  in 
the  ground  immediately  crawls  up  the  trunk  of  the  nearby  tree  and 
places  her  eggs  upon  the  twigs.  By  trapping  the  females  on  their 
way  up  into  the  trees  no  eggs  can  be  placed  near  the  foliage  and 
the  caterpillars  hatching  from  them  can  do  no  damage.  The  traps 
are  made  thus:  Take  No.  16  or  No.  14  wire  cloth  in  strips  six 
inches  wide,  draw  and  tack  the  top  edge  close  to  the  trunk  of  the 
tree  over  a  bandage  of  cloth  which  is  put  on  first  to  make  the  joint 
tight.  The  lower  edge  should  flare  out  about  an  inch  from  the  tree 
all  around.  This  trap  will  need  rather  frequent  cleaning  while  the 
moths  are  active. 


Home  and  work  of  the  tent  caterpillar. 


Tent  Caterpillars. — Several  species  of  hairy  caterpillars  called 
"tent  caterpillars,"  or  "web  worms,"  from  their  spinning  covers  of 
cobweb-like  material,  under  which  they  take  shelter  in  large  col- 
onies; but  one,  at  least,  of  the  group  does  not  spin  a  web,  though 


552  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

it  lives  in  clusters  on  the  tree.  The  worms  can  be  killed  by  cutting 
off  and  burning  the  twig  holding  the  cluster  or  by  burning  the 
colonies  in  place  with  a  torch  on  the  end  of  a  pole,  or  by  spraying 
the  foliage  with  lead  arsenate  or  Paris  green.  The  pest  can  be 
reduced  while  pruning  by  carefully  collecting  and  burning  the  egg 
clusters,  which  encircle  the  twig. 

Red-Humped  Caterpillar. — Striped  caterpillars,  not  hairy,  but 
having  two  rows  of  black  spines  along  the  back,  also  living  in 
clusters ;  of  reddish  color  with  yellow  and  white  lines ;  a  short  dis- 
tance back  of  the  red  head  of  the  caterpillar  is  a  red  hump  on  which 
are  four  black  spines ;  black  spines  are  also  scattered  over  the  body, 
but  smaller  than  those  on  the  back.  Spray  with  lead  arsenate  or 
Paris  green,  or  cut  off  and  burn  colonies. 

Caterpillar  of  Tussock  Moth. — A  conspicuous  caterpillar  with 
four  short,  brush-like  tufts  on  its  back,  and  two  long,  black  plumes 
at  the  front,  and  one  at  the  rear  of  the  body — see  engraving.  This 
leaf-eater  is  found  on  apple,  pear,  plum,  and  sometimes  on  other 
fruit  trees,  also  on  the  walnut  and  oak.     The  caterpillars  are  pecu- 


The  tussock-moth  larva,  the  so-called  horned  caterpillar.     (Somewhat 

enlarged.) 

liarly  resistant  to  arsenical  sprays  and  can  not  be  successfully  con- 
trolled by  these.  The  larva  spins  a  cocoon  sometimes  in  the  fold 
of  a  leaf,  more  commonly  in  crotches  or  rough  places  on  the  bark, 
or  even  on  adjacent  buildings  or  fences,  and  the  female,  after 
emerging  from  the  cocoon,  deposits  her  eggs  upon  the  outside  of 
it.  The  engravings  show  caterpillars  and  their  peculiar  markings. 
The  insect  is  fortunately  very  freely  parasitized  in  the  egg  form  and 
prevented  from  wide  injury.  It  can  be  controlled  by  destroying  the 
egg  masses  during  pruning,  as  they  are  white  and  very  conspic- 
uous.* 


•^See  Bulletin  183,  University  of  California,  College  of  Agriculture. 


SLUGS    AND    BEETLES  55g 

Pear  and  Cherry  Slug. — A  small,  slimy,  dark-colored  worm,  with 
the  fore  part  of  the  body  notably  larger  than  the  rear  part,  eating 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  but  not  usually  making  holes 
through  them.  The  insect  can  be  checked  by  throwing  fine  road 
dust  or  air-slacked  lime  over  the  tree,  which  cakes  upon  the  slime 
of  the  worm  and  destroys  it.  On  a  large  scale  an  arsenate  of  lead 
or  Paris  green  spray  is  best. 

Saw-Fly  Worms. — There  are  several  larvae  of  saw-flies  which 
do  much  injury  to  pear  trees,  currants,  etc.,  by  eating  the  whole 
leaf  substance  except  the  larger  ribs.  The  worms  are  small,  not 
slimy  like  the  pear  slug,  the  one  infesting  the  pear  being  about  half 
an  inch  when  fully  grown.  Its  general  appearance  and  work  are 
shown  by  the  engravings.  The  most  available  remedy  is  an  arsen- 
ate of  lead  or  Paris  green  spray. 

Large  Caterpillars  on  Grape-vines.f — The  grape-vine  is  often 
seriously  injured  by  the  attacks  of  very  large  leaf-eating  worms  two 
inches  and  upwards  in  length,  sometimes  with  a  large  horn,  or 
spine,  sometimes  without.  They  are  larvae  of  several  species  of 
Sphinx  moths  or  hawk-moths.  The  worms  when  new  hatched  can 
be  killed  by  an  arsenical  spray  or  by  hand-picking.  The  numbers 
of  worms  can  be  reduced  by  killing  the  large  moths  which  are 
abundant  at  nightfall  on  beds  of  verbenas,  or  other  garden  flowers. 
These  worms  are  related  to  the  other  large  caterpillars  which  feed 
on  tobacco,  tomatoes,  etc. 

Leaf  Eating  Beetles. — There  are  many  beetles,  large  and  small, 
which  infest  grape  leaves.  They  can  all  be  reduced  by  the  use  of 
arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green,  or  those  which  drop  to  the  ground 
when  disturbed  may  be  collected  in  large  numbers  on  sheets  spread 
below. 

The  most  notable  of  these  because  of  its  evil  work  in  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  State,  and  because  the  grub  destroys  the  roots  of 
the  vine  causing  it  to  be  called  the  "grape  root  worm,"  and  the 
beetle  riddles  the  leaves  and  young  fruit.  It  is  Adoxus  vitis  and 
a  special  study  of  it  has  been  made  by  Professor  H.  J.  Quayle,  of  the 
University  Experiment  Station,  the  results  of  which  are  published 
in  Bulletin  195  of  the  station  and  remedies  suggested.  Our  pictures 
will  enable  the  reader  to  recognize  the  beetle  and  its  work.  The 
beetle  is  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length  and  is  black  or  brown. 

tSee  Bulletin  192,  University  of  California,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


554 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


INSECTS  UPON  BARK  OR  SURFACE  OF  LEAVES 
OR  FRUIT 

Leaf  Lice. — Leaves  of  fruit  trees,  especially  the  apple  and  plum, 
are  sometimes  almost  covered  with  lice  or  aphides  of  different 
colors,  from  light  green  to  black,  some  individuals  having  wings 
and  some  wingless.  Available  remedies  for  all  these  leaf  lice  are 
the  kerosene  emulsions  and  other  mixtures  which  will  be  given 
later  as  summer  washes  for  scale  insects,  with  a  spray  nozzle  which 
sends  spray  upwards,  so  as  to  reach  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves. 
Very  often  these  pests  are  apparently  cleared  out  by  lady-birds  and 
other  insects  which  devour  them.  The  engraving  shows  the  gen- 
eral form  of  the  aphis  tribe. 


Larvae  of  tussock-moth  feeding  on  apple  foliage  and  fruit. 

Thrips. — Very  minute  insects  infesting  buds,  leaves  and  blos- 
soms of  pears,  prunes,  cherries,  peaches  and  many  other  trees  and 
plants.  The  attack  on  leaves  and  buds  causes  them  to  wither  and 
fall  off.  Indeed  complete  defoliation  may  follow  their  attack.  When 
thrips  infest  fruit  blossoms  the  essential  parts  are  eaten  off  by  the 
insects  and  the  attacked  blossom  sets  no  fruit.  Much  damage  is 
done  by  the  insect  and  thorough  investigation  was  pursued  by  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
by  Mr.  Dudley  F.  Moulton,  who  in  1909  became  Deputy  Horticul- 
tural  Commissioner  of  California.      Mr.   Moulton's   publication  of 


THRIPS    AND    VINE    HOPPERS 


555 


his  results*  indicates  that  the  insect  is  capable  of  control  by  spring 
spraying  by  the  use  of  a  two  per  cent  distillate  emulsion  to  which 
Black  Leaf  Tobacco  Extract  is  added  at  the  rate  of  one  part  of 
extract  to  sixty  parts  of  emulsion.  This  spray  can  be  applied  with 
safety  to  opening  buds,  but  should  not  be  used  on  trees  in  full 
bloom,  and  its  use  can  be  resumed  immediately  after  the  blossoms 
have  fallen,  and  later  on  the  foliage  for  adults  and  larvae.  The  first 
application  should  properly  be  made  when  the  thrips  are  coming 
from  the  ground  in  maximum  numbers  and  before  the  cluster  buds 
are  too  far  advanced.  This  period  in  the  San  Jose  district  is  early 
in  March,  but  it  of  course  diflfers  for  the  several  varieties  of  fruits. 
An  effort  should  be  made  to  kill  all  adults  in  an  orchard  before 
March  15,  when  practically  all  thrips  are  out  of  the  ground  and 
when  egg-laying  on  the  stems  of  leaves  or  bloom  begins. 


M  ■  / 


Adult  of  the  grape  root-worm — greatly  enlarged. 

Vine  Hoppers. — Very  minute,  yellowish,  jumping  insects  in- 
festing grape-vines  very  early  in  the  season,  and  multiplying  rap- 
idly. The  vine  hopper  (often  called  incorrectly  the  vine  thrips)  is 
the  most  widely  distributed  and  most  uniformly  present  of  all  the 
grape  insects  occurring  in  the  State.  It  occurs  in  injurious  num- 
bers, however,  chiefly  in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys. 
It  is  also  present  in  the  coast  counties,  but  rarely  in  sufficient  num- 


"Bulletin  80,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


556 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


bers  to  do  much  injury.  Another  larger  species  (Tcttigonia  atro- 
punctata)  occurs  in  these  localities  and  sometimes  does  considerable 
injury  in  the  early  part  of  the  season.  The  principal  injury  caused 
by  this  insect  is  due  to  the  extraction  of  the  plant  juices.  These 
are  sucked  out  by  means  of  a  sharp  beak  or  proboscis,  which  is  in- 
serted into  the  plant  tissues. 

The  most  satisfactory  method  of  control  is  in  the  use  of  a 
hopper  cage  to  be  used  in  the  early  spring  when  the  young  shoots 
of  the  vine  are  about  four  or  five  inches  long. 


The  vine  hopper  cage. 


The  hopper  cage,  shown  in  an  adjacent  engraving,  consists  of  a 
framework  of  laths  over  which  is  tacked  a  double  layer  of  mos- 
quito wire  netting  or  a  single  20-mesh  wire  screen.  The  bottom 
consists  of  a  shallow  pan  or  tray  made  by  turning  up  about  an  inch 
of  the  edges  of  a  sheet  of  light  galvanized  iron.  One  entire  side 
of  the  cage  is  left  open,  and  there  is  a  V-shaped  opening  in  the 
tray  at  the  bottom  which  allows  the  cage  to  be  pushed  over  the 
vine.  The  base  of  the  V-shaped  opening  in  the  bottom  is  padded 
with  leather  and  the  vine  is  bumped  and  the  hoppers  jarred  oft, 
at  the  same  time  that  the  cage  is  being  swung  into  position.  The 
sides  of  the  cage  and  the  tray  at  the  bottom  are  smeared  with  crude 
oil,  and  the  hoppers  as  they  are  jarred  off  are  caught  in  the  oil. 


THE    GRAPE    ADOXUS 


557 


If  there  is  a  breeze  blowing  the  cage  can  be  operated  with  the 
open  side  facing  the  wind  and  practically  no  hoppers  will  escape. 
If,  however,  the  day  is  calm  and-warm  and  the  hoppers  are  parti- 
cularly active  a  curtain  can  readily  be  dropped  over  the  open  side 
as  the  cage  is  pushed  on  to  the  vine,  and  it  will  prevent  any  from 
escaping. 

The  V-shaped  opening  which  might  allow  hoppers  to  drop  to 
the  ground  in  front  of  the  vine  can  be  covered  with  canvas,  as  fol- 
lows :  Take  two  pieces  of  canvas  about  the  shape  of  the  opening 
and  a  little  wider.  Double  this  once  on  itself  and  between  the  two 
layers  sew  in  pieces  of  three-fourths  inch  rubber  tubing  trans- 
versely. These  are  then  firmly  tacked  on  the  sides  of  the  opening 
as  shown  in  the  engraving.  This  will  allow  the  cage  to  be  pushed 
in  on  the  vine  and  the  flexibility  of  the  tubing  will  bring  the  can- 
vas immediately  into  position  again.  This  with  the  curtain  in 
front,  shuts  of¥  all  possibility  of  escape. 

False  Chinch-Bugs. — Small,  grayish-brown  insects  (about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  long  when  fully  grown),  which  injure  the  vine 


Grape  leaf  showing  characteristic  work  of  the  adoxus  beetle. 


558 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


leaves.     They  drop  to  the  ground  when  the  vine  is  disturbed,  and 
may  be  caught  as  just  described  for  vine  hoppers. 

Grasshoppers. — These  pests  often  invade  orchard  and  vineyard, 
and  sometimes  kill  the  plants  outright  by  completely  defoliating 
them.  This'  plague  has  been  successfully  met  by  the  use  of  the 
arsenic  and  bran  remedy,  prepared  as  follows :  Forty  pounds  of 
bran,  two  gallons  of  cheap  syrup,  five  pounds  of  arsenic,  mixed  soft 
with  water;  a  tablespoonful  thrown  by  the  side  of  each  vine  or 
tree.  If  placed  on  shingles  about  the  vineyard,  much  of  the  poison 
not  eaten  may  be  afterward  gathered  up  and  saved.* 

Red  Spider  and  Other  Mites. — Very  minute  insects,  usually  dis- 
cernible only  with  the  aid  of  a  magnifier,  sometimes  destroy  the 
leaves,  causing  them  to  lose  their  color  and  health  by  their  inroads 
upon  the  leaf  surface.  The  red  spider  and  yellow  mite  are  con- 
spicuous examples;  they  infest  nearly  all  orchard  trees,  especially 
the  almond,  prune*,  and  plum.  The  eggs  of  the  red  spider  are  ruby- 
red  globules,  as  seen  with  the  magnifier,  and  are  deposited  in  vast 
numbers  upon  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and  leave  a  red  color  upon  the 
finger  if  it  is  rubbed  over  them.  The  eggs  are  very  hard  to  kill, 
and  treatment  is  most  effective  when  applied  in  the  spring  and 
summer  after  the  mites  are  hatched  out.  The  popular  remedy  is 
a  thorough  dusting  of  the  trees  with  sulphur.  On  a  large  scale  the 
sulphur  is  applied  in  a  cloud  by  means  of  a  modification  of  the 
broad-cast  barley  sower  or  with  the  sulphur  machines  specially 
made  for  this  purpose.  On  a  small  scale  it  may  be  applied  with  -x 
bellows  as  for  grape-vines,  or  shaken  from  a  cheese-cloth  bag  at 
the  end  of  a  pole.  Sulphur  sprays  have  been  found  most  effective 
in  controlling  the  red  spider.  The  ingredients  of  the  sulphur  sprays 
are  as  prepared  as  follows : 

Flour  Paste. — Take  one  pound  of  wheat  flour  to  one  gallon  of 
water.  Place  the  flour  in  a  box  with  a  screen  bottom  (common 
window  screening),  and  pour  the  water  through  it,  until  all  the 
flour  has  been  washed  into  the  receiving  vessel.  It  will  then  be 
finely  divided  and  free  from  lumps.  The  mixture  should  then  be 
brought  to  the  boiling  point,  being  stirred  constantly,  thus  form- 
ing a  thin  paste,  without  lumps. 

The  paste  is  conveniently  made  in  20-gallon  lots,  using  the  com- 
mon 25-gallon  kettles  so  often  found  on  California  ranches;  if 
large  kettles  are  not  available,  the  paste  can  be  boiled  in  less  water 
and  then  diluted  to  the  above  proportions  before  cooling.  The 
paste  should  be  strained  before  using. 

♦For  the  protection  of  nurseries,  orchards,  and  vineyards  it  is  often  necessary 
to  resort  to  various  devices  for  excluding  the  grasshopper,  or  for  destroying  them 
upon  adjoining  fields.  Publications  describing  such  devices  are  Bulletins  142,  170 
and  192,  University  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley. 


RED    SPIDER    SPRAYS 


559 


Sulfid  of  Potash  Stock  Solution. — Granulated,  or  powdered  con- 
centrated lye,  15  pounds;  sulphur,  18  pounds;  water  to  make  20 
gallons.     Stir  the  sulphur  and  lye  together  in  a  vessel  which  will 


Hawk  Moth  larva.     (Philampeles  achemon  Drury). 

allow  plenty  of  room  for  boiling.  When  well  mixed,  add  about 
one  pint  of  water,  placing  it  in  a  slight  hollow  in  the  mixture,  and 
stir  in  slowly.  The  mixture  will  soon  begin  to  melt  and  boil,  form- 
ing a  red  fluid ;  stir  until  the  boiling  ceases,  and  then  add  water  to 


Hawk  moth  (Philampeles  achemon  Drury). 


5gQ  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

make  20  gallons.     This  stock  solution  will  keep  for  awhile,  or  in- 
definitely when  protected  from  the  air. 

Preparation  of  the  Spray  Mixture  with  Sulfid  of 'I'otash. — Place 
10  to  15  pounds  of  sublimed  sulphur,  or  14  to  20  pounds  of  ground 
sulphur  in  the  spray  tank  with  4  gallons  of  flour  paste  and  1  to  2 
gallons  of  the  sulfid  of  potash  stock  solution ;  add  water  to  make 
100  gallons.  For  summer  or  spring  spraying  after  the  danger  of 
rains  is  over,  the  minimum  amount  of  sulphur  is  sufficient. 


Winged  male. 


Wingless  partheno-genetic  female.  Wingless  female. 

Forms  of  Aphids  or  Plant  Lice. 


Phylloxera. — This  pest  of  the  grape-vine  is  closely  allied  to 
the  aphides,  and  lives  both  upon  the  root  and  leaf,  though  in  this 
State  the  root  type  prevails  and  the  leaf  form  is  seldom  seen.  No 
remedy  has  yet  been  found  effectual,  but  escape  is  had  by  using 
roots  resisting  the  insects,  as  described  in  Chapter  XXVI.  The 
insects  are  recognized,  by  the  aid  of  a  magnifier,  as  minute  yellow 
lice,  chiefly  on  the  rootlets.  Full  account  of  the  insect  is  given  in 
Bulletin  192,  University  of  California  Experiment  Station. 


THE    SAN    JOSE    SCALE 


561 


The  Woolly  Aphis. — A  louse  of  dark  red  color,  occurring  in 
groups,  covered  with  a  woolly  substance  which  exudes  from  the 
bodies  of  the  insects.  The  woolly  aphis  is  an  almost  universal  pest 
of  the  apple,  though  as  shown  by  experience,  some  varieties  are 
practically  exempt  from  it.  As  the  pest  lives  both  upon  root  and 
top,  its  annihilation  is  impossible,  but  it  may  be  reduced  so  that 
the  fruitfulness  and  vigor  of  the  tree  are  not  impaired.  The  use 
of  wood  ashes  around  the  tree  close  to  the  trunk  has  been  benefi- 
cial. Removing  the 'earth  from  the  root-crown  and  applying  from 
two  to  five  pounds  of  tobacco  dust — a  refuse  from  cigar  factories — 
destroys  the  insects  at  this  point  and  prolongs  the  effective  life  of 
the  tree.  The  insect  on  the  branches  and  twigs  can  be  reduced  by 
spraying  with  the  summer  washes  soon  to  be  given  for  scale  in- 
sects, or  the  clusters  of  the  insect  can  be  touched  with  a  swab 
dipped  in  gasoline  or  benzine,  but  the  oil  should  not  be  allowed  to 
spread  upon  the  bark.  Lady-birds  often  clear  away  the  woolly 
aphis,  after  reproduction  has  fallen  below  the  normal,  from  the  tree 
above  ground.  Some  attention  is  being  given  to  trial  of  resistant 
roots  and  it  is  likely  that  such  roots  will  be  generally  used 
here  as  in  Australia.  How  such  trees  are  grown  is  described  on 
page  226. 

Scale  Insects. — This  is  a  large  group  of  pests  which  occasion 
greater  loss  and  trouble  to  our  fruit  growers  than  all  other  pests 
combined.  There*  are  many  species,  and  no  orchard  tree  is  exempt 
from  the  attacks  of  one  or  more  of  them,  though  some  trees  are 
apparently  more  popular  with  the  pests  than  others.  The  fruit 
grower  should  study  their  life  history  and  classification  as  laid 
down  in  the  works  on  entomology.  It  will  only  be  possible  in  this 
connection  to  introduce  a  few  engravings,  by  which  some  of  the 
most  prominent  pests  can  be  recognized,  and  to  give  some  of  the 
remedies  which  are  now  being  most  successfully  employed  against 
them. 

San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus). — This  was  formerly  one 
of  the  worst  and  most  widespread  of  the  species  of  scales  preying 
on  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  California,  but  at  present,  owing  to  the 
energetic  war  that  fruit  growers  have  had  to  wage  against  it,  has 
become  of  minor  importance,  and,  in  fact,  has  practically  disap- 
peared from  some  regions  where  it  was  formerly  most  injurious. 
The  work  of  this  species  is  generally  readily  distinguished  from 
other  species  of  scale  by  the  red  blotches  which  are  formed  wher- 
ever it  stings  any  part  of  the  tree — either,  branch,  leaf  or  fruit. 
These  red  blotches  are  more  pronounced  in  some  varieties  than  in 
others.  When  the  scales  are  present  in  large  numbers,  it  causes 
a  complete  discoloration  of  the  bark  clear  to  the  sap-wood.  This 
scale  has  its  preference  among  the  deciduous  fruits.  The  apricot 
and  certain  varieties  of  cherries  and  plums  are  but  little  affected. 


562 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Root   injury   by   Phylloxera   and   forms   of  insect. 

A  healthy  root;  b,  root  on  which  the  lice  are  working,  representing  the  knots  and 
swellings  caused  by  their  punctures;  c,  root  deserted  by  lice  and  beginning  to  decay; 
d,  d,  d,  show  how  the  lice  appear  on  the  larger  roots;  e,  the  nymph;  g,  winged 
female.     After  Riley. 

The  Greedy  Scale  (Aspidiotus  rapax). — This  species  affects  many 
kinds  of  trees,  deciduous  as  well  as  evergreens.  Scale,  about  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  length;  form,  ovoid;  color,  drab;  female, 
bright  yellow.  This  insect  is  found  in  many  places  along  the  coast. 
It  is  distinguishable  easily  from  the  Aspidiotus  perniciosus  by  its 
whitish-yellow  color,  contrasting  with  the  dark  color  of  the  latter. 
Generally  this  scale  has  only  one  brood  in  the  season,  and,  as  com- 
pared with  the  San  Jose  scale,  it  is  of  little  danger,  owing  to  its 
slow-breeding  propensities. 

Oyster  Shell  Scale  of  Apple  (Lepidosaphes  ulmi). — This  scale  af- 
fects the  apple  chiefly,  although  sometimes  the  pear  also.  Owing 
to  the  thickness  of  the  armor,  it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  the 
scales  to  exterminate.  It  is  easily  recognized  by  its  long  curved 
form. 

Rose  and  Berry  Scale  (Aulacaspis  rosce). — This  scale  has  such 
striking  forms  that  it  can  be  readily  recognized.     The  round  white 


VARIOUS    SCALE    INSECTS  rgo 

scale  is  that  of  the  female,  the  elongated  one  with  ridges  is  the 
male.  The  rose  scale  infests,  besides  roses,  various  fruit  bushes, 
especially  blackberries  and  raspberries.  Remedy :  For  raspberries 
and  blackberries  the  cutting  down  of  the  canes  to  the  ground  should 
be  adopted,  and  the  stumps  sprayed  or  washed  with  kerosene  emul- 
sion, recommended  under  the  head  of  general  remedies  for  scale 
insects. 

Oleander  Scale.  (Aspidiotus  hederac.) — This  scale  is  small,  flat, 
yellowish-white.  It  affects  a  great  many  trees,  especially  ever- 
greens. Lemon  trees  become  badly  affected,  and  the  fruit  is  some- 
times completely  covered.  The  olive  is  also  subject,  and  the  fruit 
of  the  olive  when  infested  does  not  mature  well,  and  wherever  a 
scale  is  found,  a  green  blotch  makes  its  appearance. 

Red  Scale  of  Orange  and  Lemon  (Chrysomphales  aurantii). — 
This  scale  affects  citrus  trees' in  both  the  coast  and  interior  regions. 
The  scale  fully  grown  is  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  or  a  little  more  in 
diameter,  center  yellow,  margin  light  brown.  The  appearance  of 
trees  infested  with  this  pest  is  very  striking,  very  much  resembling 
those  diseased  from  other  causes,  such  as  bad  drainage,  the  leaf 
presenting  a  mottled  appearance,  a  light  blotch  around  the  scale 
contrasting  with  the  natural  green  of  the  leaf.  The  branches  are 
but  little  troubled,  but  the  fruit,  like  the  leaf,  becomes  completely 
covered  with  the  insects.  An  orange  tree  infested  with  this  scale 
gradually  becomes  sickly  and  languishes. 

Other  Citrus  Tree  Scales. — Two  scales  more  recently  brought 
into  this  State  from  Florida  are  the  "purple  scale,"  Lepidosaphes 
beskii,  and  the  "long  scale,"  Lepidosaphes  gloverii.  The  red  and  pur- 
ple scales  of  citrus  trees  are  only  treated  successfully  by  fumiga- 
tion with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  This  treatment  is  an  elaborate 
one,  requiring  special  appliances  which  are  fully  illustrated  and 
described  in  Bulletins  122,  152  and  Circular  11,  which  can  be  had 
free  by  application  to  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  at  Ber- 
keley. 

The  Black  Scale  (Saissetia  olece). — This  scale  is  almost  a  uni- 
versal pest,  especially  in  regions  adjacent  to  the  coast,  though  it 
has  recently  demonstrated  its  ability  to  endure  interior  valley  con- 
ditions. It  affects  citrus  fruit  trees  and  some  deciduous  trees  as 
well,  and  a  fungus  growing  on  its  exudation  causes  the  black  smut, 
which  renders  tree  and  fruit  unsightly;  but  this  smut  accompanies 
other  scale  insects  as  well  as  this  one.  It  is  especially  trouble- 
some on  the  olive,  and  will  quickly  spread  to  ornamental  plants 
and  vines  in  the  garden.  It  is  a  very  difficult  scale  to  subdue.  On 
citrus  trees  the  fumigation  method  is  the  only  practical  recourse. 
On  deciduous  fruits  it  requires  both  winter  and  summer  spraying 


564 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


to  hold  it  in  check.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  immense  numbers 
are  killed  by  parasites,  and  perhaps  by  fungi  as  well,  it  is  still  a 
grievous  pest,  and  should  be  fought  unceasingly. 


The  black  scale  (Saissetia  oleae). 


Black  scale  in  mass  form. 


Soft  Orange  Scale  {Coccus  Hesperidum). — This  scale  is  a  pest 
of  citrus  trees  the  world  over.  The  scale  is  ovoid,  a  little  wider  at 
one  end  than  the  other;  length,  from  one-  twelfth  to  one-seventh  of 
an  inch ;  color,  dark  brown  on  convex  part,  and  a  lighter  brown  sur- 
rounding margin ;  it  has  two  indentations  on  each  side,  and  one  on 
posterior  end.  This  scale  prefers  to  collect  on  the  under  sides  of 
the  leaves  along  the  midrib,  the  upper  sides  being  covered  with 
smut.     It  fortunately  is  usually  held  in  check  by  natural  agencies. 

Brown  Apricot  Scale. — The  apricot  tree,  though  defying  the 
most  ruinous  scales  of  some  other  trees,  is  beset  by  certain  scales. 
The  black  scale  is  one  and  the  brown  apricot  scale  another.  The 
brown  apricot  scale  (Eulecaninm  Armeniacum)  is  boat-shaped;  when 
reaching  maturity,  wrinkled ;  the  color  is  a  shiny  brown,  darker  in 
the  center,  lighter  at  the  edges.  A  full-sized  scale  has  a  length  of 
a  quarter  of  an  inch,  and  a  width  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  This 
scale  attacks  nearly  all  kinds  of  deciduous  fruits,  but  especially  the 


VARIOUS    SCALE    INSECTS 


565 


prune  and  apricot.     It  is  a  very  hardy  scale,  and  the  remarks  about 
the  black  scale  apply  to  it  also. 


Brown  apricot  scale  (Eulecanium  armeniacum). 


Other  Lecaniums. — There  are  several  other  scales  on  fruit  trees : 
The  filbert  scale  (hemisphericum) ,  which  is  common  in  greenhouses 
and  occurs  to  limited  extent  on  citrus  trees;  the  frosted  scale 
(pruinosum),  very  large,  oval  and  convex,  covered  with  dense, 
whitish  bloom,  occurs  on  deciduous  fruit  trees. 


Hemispherical  scale  (Saissetia  hemispherical). 


Cottony  Cushion  Scale  or  Fluted  Scale  (Icerya  purchasi). — This 
promised  at  one  time  to  be  the  most  grievous  of  all  scales  in  its 
rapid  increase  and  wide  range  of  food  plants,  but  it  was  speedily 
reduced  by  an  Australian  ladybird,  Noviiis  (Vedalia)  cardinalis,  in- 
troduced by  Albert  Koebele,  with  such  success  that  specimens  were 
for  a  number  of  years  rarely  seen,  but  have  recently  become  abun- 
dant in  some  localities. 


566 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Mealy  Bugs. — Closely  allied  to  the  scales  are  the  mealy  bugs 
(species  of  dactylopius),  soft  and  of  a  pale  pink  color,  generally  cov- 
ered with  a  whitish  mealy  powder,  hence  the  name.  The  common 
species  is  found  in  nearly  every  greenhouse  in  the  world,  and  in 
California  climate  lives  in  the  open  air  on  many  kinds  of  plants,  and 
has  at  various  times  proved  quite  troublesome.     Unless  checked  by 


Frosty  scale  (Eulecanium  pruinosan). 

natural  enemies,  the  mealy  bugs  multiply  very  rapidly,  and  mass 
themselves  in  the  corners  of  the  leaves.  The  plants  turn  black  from 
the  fungus  growth  growing  on  the  honeydew,  and  the  bush  presents 
the  same  appearance  as  a  scale-infested  plant.  With  the  aid  of  a 
magnifier  the  appearance  of  the  mealy  bugs,  as  diflferent  from  scales 
can  be  readily  recognized. 


Physokermes  scale  on  cherry. 

Remedies  for  Scale  Insects. — Though  most  of  the  scale  insects 
are  attacked  by  parasitic  and  predaceous  insects,  as  already  stated, 
these  natural  agencies  have  generally  not  proved  rapid  enough  to 
cope  with  the  increase  of  the  scales,  and  insecticides  have  to  be 
employed  to  save  the  fruit  and  trees.  There  is  a  vast  number  of 
these  washes,  many  of  which  will  do  good  work  if  thoroughly 
applied,  which  is  usually  the  secret  of  success.  A  few  which  have 
proved  of  special  value  will  be  given  herewith : 


REMEDIES    FOR    INSECTS  507 

A  WINTER  WASH  FOR  DECIDUOUS  TREES  WHEN  LEAFLESS 

Lime  Salt  and  Sulphur  Remedy. — The  following  formula  has  been  used  with 
great  success  throughout  the  State : 

Lime  30  pounds 

Sulphur   20  pounds 

Salt  10  pounds 

Water ; 60  gallons 

For  preparing  the  wash  two  vats  or  boilers  are  necessary,  and  if  the  spraying 
is  to  be  done  on  a  large  scale,  one  of  these  at  least  should  hold  a  couple  of 
hundred  gallons.  If  but  a  small  number  of  trees  are  to  be  treated,  ordinary 
iron  kettles  will  answer  the  purpose.  Of  course,  the  preferable  way  of  cooking 
the  wash  is  by  means  of  live  steam. 

First  place  two  or  three  inches  of  water  in  the  boiler,  and  to  this  add  the 
sulphur,  which  has  previously  been  made  into  a  paste  by  mixing  with  hot 
water  in  order  to  remove  the  lumps,  or  sift  the  dry  sulphur  through  a  mos- 
quito wire-netting  and  stir  it  thoroughly.  Then  add  about  one-fourth  of  the 
lime,  and  when  the  violent  boiling  has  ceased  add  another  fourth,  and  so  on 
until  the  required  amount  of  lime  has  been  added.  Hot  water  should  be  added 
with  the  lime  as  needed,  so  as  to  make  the  mixture  of  a  creamy  consistency. 
Too  much  water  will  "drown"  the  lime,  while  on  the  other  hand  too  little  will 
cause  incomplete  slaking  of  the  lime.  In  this  way  the  heat  generated  by  the 
slaking  of  the  lime  is  taken  advantage  of,  and  by  adding  the  sulphur  first  plenty 
of  time  is  given  for  removing  the  lumps. 

By  the  time  the  lime  is  thoroughly  slaked  the  fire  should  continue  the  bon- 
ing, so  that  the  time  of  boiling  begins  with  the  addition  of  the  lime.  The  salt 
and  about  one-fourth  of  the  water  should  now  be  added,  and  the  whole  boiled 
from  one  to  two  hours,  keeping  it  frequently  stirred  in  the  meantime.  At  the 
end  of  this  period  screen  into  the  spray  tank  and  add  the  necessary  amount 
of  hot  water,  and  apply  to  the  trees  hot.  The  wash  when  properly  made  is  a 
heavy  reddish-brown  liquid,  very  caustic  and  having  a  strong  sulphur  odor. 
The  heavier  materials  settle  upon  standing,  leaving  a  lighter  liquid  both  in  color 
and  weight.  Stock  solutions  of  lime-sulphur  compound  are  now  being  furnished 
ready  for  dilution  by  California  manufacturers. 

WASHES   FOR   ALL   TREES    WHEN    IN   LEAF 

Kerosene  Emulsion. — Take  kerosene,  two  gallons ;  common  soap,  or  whale-oil 
soap,  one-half  pound;  water,  one  gallon.  Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water  and 
add  it  boiling  hot  to  the  kerosene.  Churn  the  mixture  by  means  of  a  force 
pump  and  spray  nozzle  for  five  or  ten  minutes.  The  emulsion,  if  perfect,  forms 
a  cream  which  thickens  on  cooling.  Dilute  before  using,  one  part  of  the  emul- 
sion with  nine  parts  of  cold  water.  To  obtain  this  emulsion  in  proper  form 
violent  agitation  is  necessary,  the  time  required  depending  upon  the  violence 
of  the  agitation  and  temperature  of  the  mixture.  Professor  Cook's  formula 
is  this:  "Dissolve  in  two  quarts  of  water  one-fourth  pound  of  hard  soap  by 
heating  to  the  boiling  point,  then  add  one  pint  of  kerosene  oil  and  stir  violently 
from  three  to  five  minutes."  This  is  best  done  by  use  of  the  force  pump.  This 
mixes  the  oil  permanently,  so  that  it  will  never  separate.  Add  seven  pints 
of  water  and  the  wash  is  ready  for  use. 

Resin  Soap. — Take  ten  pounds  of  resin,  one  and  one-half  pints  of  fish 
oil,  three  pounds  of  caustic  soda  (76  per  cent),  and  enough  water  to  make 
fifty  gallons.  Place  all  the  ingredients  together  in  the  boiler  with  water  enough 
to  cover  them  three  or  four  inches.  Boil  one-half  hour,  or  until  the  compound 
resembles  very  black  coffee.  Dilute  to  one-third  the  final  bulk  with  hot  water, 
or,  if  cold  water  is  used,  add  very  slowly  over  the  fire,  making  a  stock  mixture 
to  be  diluted  to  the  full  amount  as  used.  When  spraying,  the  mixture  should 
be  perfectly  fluid  and  without  sediment.  This  mixture  can  be  used  twice  or 
three  times  as  strong  on  deciduous  trees  when  dormant. 


568 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


A  common  outfit  in  California  for  cooking  the  lime,  sulphur  and  salt. 
INSECTS    BORING    IN    TWIG,    STEM,    OR    ROOT 


Peach  Twig-Borer  or  Peach  Worm.* — This  larva  is  probably 
the  most  serious  insect  pest  that  the  California  peach  grower  has 
had  to  contend  with.  The  creature  hibernates  as  a  young  larva  in 
burrows  in  the  crotches  of  the  tree. 

As  soon  as  the  tree  begins  to  grow  in  the  spring  the  larva  be- 
comes active,  eats  its  way  out  of  its  winter  home  and  bores  into  the 
new  growing  twigs  causing  them  to  wither  and  die.  Later  genera- 
tions of  the  worm  attack  the  fruit  and  from  the  two  forms  of  attack 
much  loss  may  accrue  to  the  orchardist. 

Destruction  of  the  larvae  in  their  winter  burrows  overcomes  all 
damage  from  these  pests.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  spraying 
with  the  lime-sulphur  compound  in  the  late  winter  or  very  early 
spring  when  the  buds  are  expanding.. 

The  Common  Borer. — An  insect  which  has  done  vast  injury  in 
this  State  is  the  ''flat-headed  apple  borer"  (chrysobothris  femorata). 
It  affects  chiefly  apples,  peaches  and  plums,  etc.,  which  have  been 
injured  by  sunburn.  It  is  a  pale-colored  grub  with  a  brown  head, 
the  forepart  of  the  body  being  greatly  flattened.  The  matured 
beetle  is  greenish  black  or  bronze  colored,  copper  colored  on  the 
under  side.  If  any  tree  receives  any  damage  to  the  bark,  either  by 
sunburn  or  other  causes,  the  borer  is  sure  to  find  it,  and  it  works 


*See  Bulletin  144,  University  of  California  Experiment  Station. 


THE    PEACH    WORM 


569 


itself  into  the  tree,  its  castings  being  the  only  guide  to  its  presence. 
The  best  remedy  is  prevention  by  protection  from  sunburn,  as  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  XL  Whenever  a  borer  is  removed,  the  debris 
and  dead  wood  should  be  entirely  cleaned  out  and  the  smooth  sur- 


Peach  twig  showing  winter  burrow,  naturaL  size. 

face  left,  taking  care  to  preserve  the  bark  as  much  as  possible.  Then 
the  wound  should  be  smeared  over  with  grafting  wax,  and  a  rag 
tied  about  it.  In  this  manner  young  trees  have  been  saved,  but  if 
seriously  attacked,  it  is  better  to  put  in  a  sound  tree  and  protect  it. 


Peach  worm  burrow  laid  open,  showing  how  the  worm  begins  its  spring 

work. 


Sun-Scald  Borer. — Another  borer  which  delights  in  sunburned 
trees  is  a  minute  beetle,  making  a  burrow  hardly  larger  than  a  pin- 
hole. It  is  known  as  the  sun-scald  beetle  (Xyloborus  xylographus). 
The  remedy,  as  in  the  former  case,  is  to  prevent  injury  to  the  bark, 
for  this  precedes  the  attack  of  the  beetle. 


570 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


The  Olive  Twig-Borer. — A  reddish  brown  beetle  boring  into 
twigs  of  olive  and  other  orchard  trees,  and  grape  canes,  at  the  axils 
of  the  leaves.  It  is  Polycaon  confertus,  and  it  breeds  in  decaying 
logs  and  stumps  and  old  grape-vines,  apparently  visiting  .the  fruit 
trees  merely  to  gratify  its  appetite.  Its  work  is  not  fatal  to  the  tree, 
but  unless  proper  pruning  and  attention  be  afterwards  given,  it  may 
spoil  the  shape  of  a  young  tree.  Remove  the  affected  branches 
below  the  burrows  of  the  beetle,  or  if  it  would  be  difficult  to  replace 
a  branch,  see  that  the  beetle  is  destroyed  and  the  entrance  to  the 
hole  stopped  up — this  to  prevent  decay  and  a  weak  branch  follow- 
ing. Spraying  with  ill-smelling  solutions  may  prevent  their  attack, 
but  the  insect  has  not  been  sufficiently  abundant  to  invite  serious 
effort  thus  far. 

Peach  Crown-Borer. — A  grub  boring  into  peach  trees  just  below 
the  ground  surface,  its  presence  being  shown  by  copious  gumming. 
The  insect,  which  has  become  quite  troublesome  in  Santa  Clara 
County,  resembles  the  Eastern  crown-borer  of  the  peach,  but  is  a 
distinct  species  (Sanninoidea  opalescens).  The  best  methods  of  sup- 
pressing this  insect  are  three.  A  preventive  treatment  consists  in 
coating  the  base  of  the  tree  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  and  a 


A  nearly  full-grown  larva  of  the  Peach-tree  Borer.  Magnified  four  diameters. 


foot  above  with  a  whitewash,  with  a  pint  of  coal  tar  to  each  five 
pounds  of  quicklime,  put  in  while  the  lime  is  slacking.  More 
recently  the  application  of  asphaltum  "grade  D"  has  been  made 
with  good  results.  This  should  be  done  in  April.  A  killing  treat- 
ment which  has  proved  effective  and  safe  to  the  tree  is  carbon 
bisulphide,  when  wisely  used.  Mr.  Ehrhorn  gives  these 
precautions : 

Carbon  bisulphide  should  not  be  applied  when  the  soil  is  wet  or  just  before 
a  rain,  nor  just  after  cutting  out  borers  and  putting  on  lime  and  other  pre- 
ventives. Avoid  putting  it  on  the  bark  of  the  tree.  Procure  a  machine  oiler 
which  will  hold  about  eight  ounces  of  carbon  bisulphide,  remove  the  soil  around 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  about  six  inches  wide  and  six  inches  deep,  being  sure 
to  detach  all  soil  adhering  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  After  this  is  done,  fill  in 
this  space  with  loose  soil  to  the  level  again.  Now  squirt  the  liquid  a  few  times 
from  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  away  from  the  bark  around  the  tree,  and 
cover  immediately  with   six   inches  of  soil.     Borers  have  been   killed  in   from 


VARIOUS    BORERS  57j^ 

twenty  hours  to  three  days;  after  they  are  found  to  be  dead,  the  soil  should  be 
removed  from  around  the  trees  so  that  any  remaining  fumes  of  bisulphide  can 
be  dissipated. 

The  method  in  most  general  use  is  known  as  the  "worming  process."  This 
consists  essentially  in  carefully  cutting  out  and  killing  the  individual  borers. 
Special  tools  have  been  devised  for  this  work.  A  full  description  of  these 
processes  can  be  found  in  Bulletin  143,  University  of  California,  College  of 
Agriculture. 

Strawberry  Root-Borer. — The  larva  of  another  clear-winged 
moth  (Aegeria  impropria),  boring  into  the  root  of  the  strawberry 
plants,  found  in  various  portions  of  the  State,  and  doing  considerable 
damage,  forcing  the  growers  to  resort  to  replanting  much  earlier 
than  otherwise  would  be  necessary.  Flooding  the  vines  has  a  great 
tendency  to  kill  out  the  worms,  and  if  the  water  was  retained,  say 
four  or  five  days  during  the  winter,  all  over  the  plants,  doubtless  all 
the  larvae  would  be  killed. 

Currant  and  Gooseberry  Borer. — A  white  worm  eating  out  the 
central  pith  of  currant  and  gooseberry  plants — the  larva  of  another 
clear-winged  moth  (Aegeria  tipuliformis).  Spraying  with  whale- 
oil  soap  after  the  crop  is  gathered,  pruning  out  and  burning  in  the 
fall  of  all  old  wood  which  can  be  spared,  will  reduce  the  evil. 

The  Raspberry  Cane  Borer. — This  intruder  is  one  of  the  family 
Tenthredinideae,  or  saw  flies.  The  very  small  maggot  or  larva  will 
be  found  by  peeling  the  bark  carefully.  This  larva  can  not  crawl, 
therefore  if  the  tips  be  cut  and  the  worm  is  taken  out  he  will  die. 
A  better  way  is  to  cut  all  tips,  as  fast  as  they  show  signs  of  wilting, 
and  burn  them.  Thorough  work  in  topping  is  absolutely  necessary, 
so  as  to  be  sure  that  none  of  the  worms  remain  to  produce  flies. 
Topping  causes  the  canes  to  throw  out  laterals,  thus  producing  more 
fruit.     The  canes  are  not  aflfected  after  July. 

INSECTS    DEVOURING   THE    PULP    OF    FRUITS 

The  Apple  Worm. — The  codlin  moth  (Carpocapsa  pomonella)  is 
one  of  the  great  pests  of  the  State.  It  preys  chiefly  upon  the  apple 
and  pear,  but  the  quince  and  other  large  fruits  are  sometimes  in- 
vaded by  it.  The  first  moths  appear  at  some  time  after  the  blossom- 
ing of  the  apple,  and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  young  fruit,  or  on 
adjacent  leaves.  The  young  worm  hatches  in  from  seven  to  ten 
days,  generally  seeks  the  eye  or  calyx,  and  eats  its  way  into  the 
fruit,  and  in  twenty  days  its  full  growth  is  attained,  and  it  goes  out 
through  the  side  of  the  apple,  and,  by  means  of  its  spinnaret,  reaches 
the  ground  or  some  large  branch.  If  landed  on  the  ground,  it 
usually  seeks  the  trunk,  which  it  ascends  and  soon  finds  a  hiding- 
place  under  the  loose  bark,  where  it  spins  its  cocoon,  and  in  eight 
or  ten  days  comes  forth  a  moth,  ready  to  lay  eggs  anew.    The  egg 


572 


CALIFORNIA    FHUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


is  laid  all  over  the  fruit,  and  especially  at  a  point  where  two  fruits 
touch.  Usually  we  have  in  this  State  two  broods,  at  least,  but  some- 
times three,  and,  naturally,  if  unchecked,  the  increase  from  the  first 
to  the  last  is  enormous.    The  worms  escaping-  from  the  fruit  in  the 


The  Codlin  moth — natural  size  and  greatly  enlarged. 

fall  hibernate  as  larvae  under  the  loose  bark  of  the  tree,  or  in  store- 
houses, or  in  any  available  dry  place. 

On  the  basis  of  long-  experience  in  the  Watsonville  district  Mr. 
W.  H.  Volck,  county  entomologist,  gives  the  following  outline  of 
operations  against  the  apple  worm : 


There  are  two  broods  in  a  season.  The  first  develops  from  worms  that 
have  wintered  over  in  protected  places  both  above  and  in  the  ground.  The 
moths  of  the  first  generation  begin  emerging  in  April,  but  very  few  eggs  are 
laid  before  the  middle  of  May.  In  this  locality  egg-laying  is  then  continuous 
until  the  last  of  June. 

The  full-grown  worms  of  the  first  generation  after  emerging  from  the  apples 
seek  some  hiding  place  where  they  may  rest  for  a  few  days,  transforming  into 
pupa  and  then  into  full-grown  moths. 

The  moths  of  the  second  generation  begin  laying  eggs  early  in  August 
and  may  continue  to  do  so  as  late  as  October  or  November.  It  is  the  worms 
of  the  second  generation  that  do  the  greatest  amount  of  damage. 

The  codling  moth  lays  its  eggs  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves  and  fruit.  The 
eggs  are  about  the  size  of  a  small  pin-head,  circular  and  flat.  The  color  varies 
from  white  to  pink  and  red.  These  eggs  are  easily  seen  when  the  observer 
knows  what  to  look  for. 

The  young  worms  hatch  from  the  eggs  about  ten  days  after  laying,  and 
then  begin  crawling  about  in  search  of  fruit  to  burrow  into.  This  short  period 
between  the  hatching  of  the  egg  and  the  entrance  into  the  apple  is  the  only 
time  that  spraying  operations  can  prove  effective.  It  is  clearly  impossible  to 
accomplish  anything  by  the  use  of  sprays  that  will  only  kill  by  contact,  for 
such  sprays  would  have  to  be  applied  nearly  every  day.  The  spraying  opera- 
tion must  then  leave  a  deposit  of  some  substance  on  the  fruit  that  will  kill 
the  worms  when  they  attempt  to  burrow  through  the  rind.  The  only  substance 
now  known  that  answers  these  requirements  are  the  compounds  of  arsenic. 


SPRAYING  FOR  THE  APPLE  WORM  c^O 

Arsenic  is,  however,  poisonous  to  plants  and  must  be  applied  with  caution. 
The  arsenic  compound  used  must  be  entirely  insoluble  in  water,  and  not  subject 
to  weathering,  in  order  that  it  shall  be  perfectly  safe.  The  wet  fogs  of  the 
Pajaro  valley  summers  give  arsenical  spray  compounds  a  very  severe  test  and 
it  has  been  found  that  only  the  best  quality  of  arsenate  of  lead  is  able  to  stand 
it.  Arsenate  of  lead  may  do  very  severe  burning,  however,  if  it  is  not  of  the 
proper  quality. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  a  large  percentage  of  the  worms  of  the  first 
generation  enter  at  the  blossom  ends  of  the  apples.  This  part  is  protected  or 
more  or  less  closed  over  by  the  leaves  of  the  calyx. 

The  calyx  cups  close  very  shortly  after  the  petals  fall,  and  so  it  is  advised 
by  the  best  authorities  to  spray  as  soon  after  the  falling  of  the  blossoms  as 
possible  in  order  to  leave  a  deposit  of  poison  there.  In  the  Pajaro  valley  and 
adjoining  sections  weather  conditions  often  prevent  spraying  at  this  time,  but 
where  possible  to  apply,  the  calyx  cup  spraying  is  advised. 

Good  results  have  been  obtained  by  spraying  in  the  early  part  of  May, 
which  is  considerably  after  the  calyx  cups  have  closed.  Spraying  at  this  time 
gives  much  the  same  efifect  as  the  calyx  cup  appltTdLion,  especially  where  it  is 
applied  with  proper  thoroughness.  This  early  spraying  is  applied  before  any 
worms  have  appeared  and  is  intended  merely  to  have  the  poison  in  readiness  for 
the  insects  when  they  do  come. 

The  first  codling  moth  spraying  should  contain  Bordeaux  Mixture  as  a  pre- 
caution  against   the   scab  : 

Bordeaux  Mixture — Copper  sulphate  3  pounds,  lime  4  pounds,  water  50 
gallons. 

Arsenate  of  Lead — Use  2^/^  to  3  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  each  50  gallons 
of  Bordeaux. 

The  Bordeaux  Mixture  should  be  prepared  first,  and  enough  space  left  in 
the  tank  to  allow  for  the  addition  of  the  arsenate  of  lead  and  the  water  required 
to  mix  it. 

The  second  spraying  should  be  applied  from  the  last  of  May  to  the  fir.st 
ten  days  in  June,  and  is  intended  to  augment  the  effect  of  the  first  spraying 
by  further  covering  the  rapidly  expanding  fruit. 

For  this  spraying  use  2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  water. 
No  Bordeaux  should  be  used  with  this  spraying,  for  the  previous  sprayings 
containing  Bordeaux  will  have  controlled  the  scab,  and  the  further  use  of  the 
fungicide  is  likely  to  russet  the  apples. 

Very  few  eggs  are  laid  during  July,  so  if  the  second  spraying  has  been 
applied  about  the  first  of  June  it  should  suffice  to  control  the  first  generation 
attack.  The  second  generation  worms  begin  to  appear  about  the  first  of  August, 
so  a  spraying  is  due  at  this  time. 

For  the  third  spraying,  use  2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of 
water. 

If  the  apples  are  to  remain  on  the  trees  through  September  they  should 
receive  another  spraying  about  the  first  of  this  month. 

For  the  fourth  spraying,  if  the  other  three  have  been  applied  according  to 
directions,  use  i^  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  water. 

The  schedule  of  sprayings  above  laid  out  should  control  the  codling  moth 
under  average  conditions,  and  even  where  the  insect  is  extremely  abundant 
should  yield  95  per  cent  clean  fruit. 

The  codling  moth  is  much  affected  by  weather  conditions,  and  if  there  is  a 
large  amount  of  cold  fog  during  the  summer  the  damage  will  be  much  reduced. 

The  Peach  Worm. — As  already  stated,  the  larva  of  the  peach 
moth,  which  early  in  the  spring  bores  into  the  twigs,  is  sometimes 
found  later  in  the  season  in  the  flesh  of  the  peach.  Hence  the  im- 
portance of  saving  the  fruit  by  proper  treatment  of  the  hibernating 
worms  which  emerge  as  the  blossom  buds  are  opening. 


^'74  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

The  Diabrotica. — A  light  green  beetle  with  twelve  spots  on  his 
back  (Diabrotica  soror),  is  sometimes  very  injurious  to  early  fruit, 
by  eating  into  it  when  ripe.  The  insect  also  eats  leaves  and  blos- 
soms. As  the  insect  attacks  the  fruit  just  as  it  is  ready  to  pick,  it 
is  impossible  to  apply  any  disagreeable  or  poisonous  spray.  Some- 
times the  insects  are  driven  away  by  dense  smoke  from  fires  in  and 
around  the  orchard. 

The  Dried  Fruit  Worm. — Dried  fruit  is  often  seriously  injured 
after  packing,  by  a  small  worm,  larva  of  a  moth  not  yet  determined. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  fruit  either  while  drying  or  while  in 
the  packing-house,  or  through  the  cloth  of  the  sacks,  or  seams  of 
the  package.  The  eggs  may  be  killed  on  the  fruit  before  packing, 
by  dipping  in  boiling  water,  or  by  heating  in  an  oven  and  after  that 
preventing  the  access  of  the  moth.  Infested  fruit  can  also  be  treated 
by  bisulphide  vapor,  the  method  being  the  same  as  described  for 
nursery  stock  below. 

ANTS  AND  YELLOW  JACKETS 

These  insects  are  often  of  serious  trouble  during  fruit  drying. 
Ants  are  most  effectually  disposed  of  by  slightly  opening  their  holes 
in  the  ground  by  thrusting  down  a  crowbar  and  pouring  in  a  couple 
of  ounces  of  carbon  bisulphide  and  closing  again  with  earth.  Yellow 
jackets  also  nest  in  the  ground  in  old  squirrel  or  gopher  holes,  and 
they  too  can  be  suffocated  with  carbon  bisulphide  or  by  pouring  in 
gasoline  or  kerosene  and  firing  it.  Hornets  which  nest  in  trees  are 
troublesome,  but  are  much  less  numerous  than  the  cave-dwelling 
species. 

To  destroy  yellow  jackets  by  trapping  and  poison  is  also  feas- 
ible.   W.  F.  Moyer,  of  Napa,  proceeds  in  this  way : 

Make  a  thin  fruit  syrup  by  mashing  the  boiling  ripe  fruit,  strain  it  and  add 
a  little  sugar.  Place  the  syrup  dishes  on  the  drying  ground  where  the  "jackets" 
are  thickest.  When  the  top  of  the  syrup  is  covered  with  drowned  and  drowning 
"jackets,"  scoop  them  out  with  the  hand,  and  crush  them  with  the  foot.  They 
won't  sting  unless  you  pinch  them.  As  the  syrup  evaporates  fill  up  the  dishes 
with  water.  If  a  day  or  two  should  elapse  when  no  fruit  is  cut,  be  sure  the 
traps  are  well  cared  for,  as  they  will  swarm  around  them  thicker  than  ever, 
especially  if  the  weather  is  hot.  For  dishes  to  place  the  syrup  in,  cut  kerosene 
cans  so  as  to  make  two  cans,  each  about  six  and  one-half  inches  deep. 

Poisoning  to  carry  destruction  to  the  young  brood  is  also  prac- 
ticable. Dr.  J.  H.  Miller,  of  San  Leandro,  saved  his  fruit  in  this 
way: 

I  bought  half  a  dozen  beef  livers,  five  pounds  of  arsenious  acid  and  several 
pounds  of  baling  wire.  Cutting  the  liver  into  pieces  as  large  as  a  man's  fist, 
I  put  them  into  a  hot  solution  of  arsenious  acid,  and,  bending  the  wire  into 
a  hook  at  each  end,  I  suspended  the  pieces  from  the  lower  limbs  of  trees  all 
around  my  drying-ground.     The  fruit  was  soon  deserted,  and  the  little  insects 


DISINFECTING    NURSERY    STOCK 


575 


busily  working  at  the  fragrant  liver.  The  insects  carried  pieces  of  the  liver 
to  their  nests,  and  besides  causing  the  death  of  those  that  had  been  destroying 
my  fruit,  the  next  generation  of  yellow  jackets  was  also  destroyed,  and  so 
complete  was  the  destruction  that  there  were  not  enough  of  the  little  pests  in 
that  neighborhood  the  following  year  to  require  a  repetition  of  the  treatment. 
There  is  no  risk  in  so  using  the  poison,  for  the  yellow  jackets  will  not  return 
to  the  fruit,  and  bees  will  not  go  near  the  meat. 


DISINFECTING    NURSERY    STOCK 

Cuttings,  scions,  young  trees  and  vines,  etc.,  can  be  freed  from 
insects  by  inclosing  in  a  tight  box  or  cask  and  placing  a  saucerful  of 
carbon  bisulphide  on  the  top  of  them,  covering  it  with  canvas  or  any 
tight-fitting  cover.  The  bisulphide  vapor  will  destroy  all  insect 
life  in  forty  minutes. 

Disinfecting  such  materials  on  a  larger  scale  may  be  done  in 
this  way : 

Use  square  canvas  sheets,  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  made  of  the 
best  ducking,  double  stitched  and  then  painted  with  boiled  linseed  oil  to 
make  it  gas  proof.  The  canvas  must  be  perfectly  dry  before  it  is  rolled  up,  or  it 
is  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  spontaneous  combustion.  To  fumigate  evergreen 
stock  use  one  ounce  of  cyanide  of  potassium  (in  lumps,  not  pulverized),  one 
fluid  ounce  of  commercial  sulphuric  acid,  and  two  fluid  ounces  of  water  to 
one  hundred  cubic  feet  of  enclosed  space.  For  deciduous  and  hardy  trees,  when 
dormant,  use  one-fourth  more  of  each  of  the  above.  When  the  canvas  has 
been  placed  over  the  stock  to  be  fumigated,  prepafe  the  charge.  Take-a  three  or 
four-gallon  glazed  earthenware  jar,  into  which  pour  the  necessary  quantity  of 
water,  then  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  place  it  well  under-the  canvas,  the  edges  of 
which  are  secured  with  soil  or  in  some  way  so  as  to  prevent  the  gas  escaping,  with 
the  exception  of  the  edge  immediately  in  front  of  the  jar.  The  proper  amount 
of  cyanide  of  potassium  is  then  dropped  into  the  jar  from  a  long  scoop,  and 
the  tent  is  immediately  closed,  and  remains  so  for  one  hour. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  chapter  will  convey  useful  hints  in  the  war- 
fare against  insects.  Whenever  questions  arise  which  are  not  met 
thereby,  appeal  should  be  made  to  the  University  Experiment 
Station  at  Berkeley.  A  condensed  statement  of  useful  insecticides 
is  issued  by  the  Station,  prepared  by  Professor  H.  J.  Quayle,  as 
follows : 

INSECTICIDES 

1.  Lime  Sulphur: 

Quicklime,  S3  pounds;    Sulphur,  66  pounds;    Water,  200  gallons. 

Sift  sulphur  through  box  with  screen  bottom  into  boiling  tank  with  50 
gallons  of  water.  Add  the  lime  and  boil  45  minutes  to  one  hour.  Stir  fre- 
quently. Strain  through  cheese  cloth  or  burlap  and  dilute  to  make  200  gallons. 
If  extra  lime  is  desired  strain  in  milk  of  lime  when  spray  is  ready  for  use. 

2.  Commercial  Lime  Sulphur: 

The  standard  strength  corresponding  to  the  above  formula  is  obtained 
when  commercial  solution  is  diluted  i  to  9. 

Either  of  the  above  for  San  Jose  and  other  armored  scales  to  be  applied 
during  dormant  season,  preferably  in  early  winter  or  early  spring.  For  Peacli 
Moth  as  the  buds  are  expanding  in  the  spring. 


^yg  CAIJFORNIA     FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

3.  Distillate: 

Soap,   I  pound;     Water,  6-12  gallons. 

A  28  deg.  gravity  oil  refined  for  tree  use.  Distillate,  12  gallons;  Water  200 
gallons. 

For  use  only  with  power  sprayer  with  good  agitator,  which  is  necessary  to 
make  a  mechanical  mixture  of  the  oil  and  water. 

For  the  Brown  Apricot,  Black,  and  other  unarmored  scales,  and  for  Woolly 
Aphis,  to  be  applied  during  dormant  season,  preferably  in  early  winter. 

4.  Distillate-Potash: 

Distillate,   10  gallons;    Lye  or  Caustic  Soda,  5  pounds;    Water,  200  gallons. 
Preparation  and  uses  same  as  under  3.     Has  the  advantage  of  freeing  tree 
from  moss. 

5.  Distillate  Tobacco: 

Distillate,  4  gallons ;  Black  leaf  tobacco  extract,  3  gallons ;  Water,  200  gallons. 
For  thrips  and  plant  lice,  to  be  applied  by  power  outfit  only. 

6.  Kerosene  Emulsion: 

Soap,  y2  pound;  Kerosene,  i  gallon;    Water,  10  to  25  gallons. 

Dissolve  soap  in  i  gallon  hot  water.  Add  i  gallon  kerosene.  Mix  thor- 
oughly with  spray  pump  by  turning  nozzle  back  into  mixture. 

For  plant  lice  and  other  sucking  insects  during  growing  season,  dilute  with 
20  to  25  gallons  of  water. 

For  Scale  insects.  Woolly  Aphis  and  other  sucking  insects  during  dormant 
season,  dilute  with   10  gallons  of  water. 

Kerosene  emulsion  can  be  used  on  small  scale  with  hand  sprayer. 

7.  Miscible  Oils: 

Commercial  preparations  to  be  used  according  to  directions.  Uses  same 
as  3,  4,  5,  and  6.     Power  outfit  for  application  not  necessary. 

8.  Straight  Kerosene: 

Kerosene  or  Water  White  Oil,  20  gallons;    Water,  200  gallons. 
In  use  for  scale  insects  of  citrus  trees.     Application  by  power  outfit.  Occa- 
sionally also  2  per  cent  distillate  used  for  same  pests. 

9.  Soap  Solution: 

For  plant  lice. 

10.  Tobacco: 

Tobacco  stems,   i   pound;    Water,  4  gallons. 

Steep  tobacco  in  i  gallon  hot  water.  Dilute  to  3  or  4  gallons.  Or,  Black 
Leaf  extract,   i   gallon;    Water,  60-70  gallons. 

For  plant  lice,  thrips,  and  other  sucking  insects  during  growing  season. 

11.  Sulphur: 

Dry. — Thoroughly  dust  over  foliage  when  wet  with  dew.  Hydrated  lime 
sometimes  used  to  increase  adhesiveness. 

^'Z' ray  .—Sulphur,  30  pounds;  Lime  (as  milk  of  lime),  15  pounds;  Water, 
200  gallons. 

For  red  spiders  and  for  silver  mite. 

12.  Lead  Arsenate: 

Lead    Arsenate,    6-10    pounds;     Water,    200   gallons. 

First  mix  arsenate  of  lead  with   two  or  three  gallons  of  water. 

For  Codling  Moth,  and  all  defoliating  insects. 


VARIOUS    INSECTICIDES 


577 


13.  Paris  Green: 

Lime,  5  pounds;    Paris  Green,  i  1-3  pounds;    Water,  200  gallons. 
For  Codling  Moth,  and  all  defoliating  insects. 

14.  Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas: 

Potassium  Cyanide,  i  part;    Sulphuric  Acid,  i  part;    Water,  3  parts. 

Place  water  and  acid  in  earthenware  vessel  and  add  cyanide.  To  be  used 
under  tents  or  in  tight  rooms  or  boxes. 

For  fumigating  buildings  and  the  like,  i  ounce  of  cyanide  to  each  100  cu- 
ft.  of  space  for  one  hour  or  more. 

For  use  against  scales  on  citrus  trees.  Ordinary  dosage  in  ounces  found 
by  multiplying  distance  around  by  distance  over  top  of  tented  tree  and  pointing 
off  two  places.     Example  : 

Distance  around  bottom,  40  ft.  X  Distance  over  top,  20  ft.  =  8.08  oz.  cyanide. 

15.  Carbon  Bisulphide: 

For  the  fumigation  of  stored  products  and  underground  insects,  and  for 
squirrels. 

Usual  dosage,  i  pint  to  1,000  cu.  ft.  of  space. 

Place  liquid  in  saucers  or  shallow  vessels  near  top  of  room  if  convenient. 
Inflammable :   avoid  lights. 

For  underground  insects,  a  tablespoonful  placed  in  holes  a  few  feet  apart. 


CHAPTER    XL 


DISEASES    OF    TREES    AND    VINES 

A  few  suggestions  concerning  pathological  conditions  which 
arise  in  trees  and  vines  and  prescription  of  treatment  and  remedies 
may  be  helpful :  First,  diseases  demonstrated  to  be  caused  by  fungi 
and  bacteria;  second,  abnormal  conditions,  of  which  the  causes  are 
not  yet  clear. 


Effect  of  mildew  on  young  growth  of  grape  vine. 

Powdery  Mildews. — Fungi  which  bring  upon  the  leaf  surface  the 
appearance  of  a  whitish  powder  and  afterwards  cause  the  leaf  to 
curl  and  dry  without  producing  marked  swelling,  perforation  or  dis- 
coloration, can  be  checked  by  the  use  of  sulphur.  The  chief  of  these 
is  the  mildew  of  the  grape,  the  mildew  of  the  apple,  appearing  chiefly 
on  the  young  growth,  etc.  The  way  to  use  sulphur  for  these  fungi 
is  to  throw  finely  ground  or  sublimed  sulphur  on  the  young  foliage 


578 


LEAF    SPOT    FUNGI 


579 


at  the  first  sign  of  the  trouble,  either  by  hand  or  with  suitable 
machinery  which  is  fully  discussed  in  Bulletin  186  of  the  California 
Experiment  Station. 

Leaf-Spotting,  Puncturing  or  Deforming  Fungi. — These  classes 
are  usually  distinguishable  by  the  results  they  produce.  The  mil- 
dew of  the  peach  produces  dense,  whitish  patches  on  the  leaves  and 
growing  fruit;  the  curl-leaf  fungus  of  the  peach  produces  swellings 
and  contortions  of  the  leaf;  the  scab  of  the  apple  and  pear  produces 


Effect  of  brown  rot  on  fruit  and  twigs  of  apricots. 


first  a  smoky  appearance  on  the  leaf  and  afterwards  causes  black 
scabby  patches  on  the  fruit  and  on  the  young  twigs ;  the  slot-hole 
fungus  of  the  apricot,  plum,  cherry,  and  almond  cuts  roundish  holes 
in  the  leaves  as  though  a  shotgun  had  been  discharged  through  the 
foliage,  and  then,  in  the  case  of  the  apricot,  produces  roundish,  dark 
red  pustules  on  the  fruit;  the  brown  rot  which  attacks  both  twigs 
and  fruit  of  apricots,  prune,  blackberry,  etc.,  produced  eruptions  on 
plums  and  peaches ;  the  rust  fungi  of  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves, 
first  of  a  yellowish  or  orange  color,  changing  to  dark  brown  or  black, 


5gQ  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

and  causing  the  leaf  to  fall.  These  fungi  are  only  slightly,  if  at  all, 
checked  by  the  dry  sulphur  treatment,  and  are  best  subdued  by  the 
use  of  copper  solutions  : 

The  Bordeaux  Mixture. — Lime,  four  pounds;  bluestone  (sulphate  of  cop- 
per), four  pounds;  water,  forty  gallons.  Use  part  of  the  water  to  slake  the 
line  and  dissolve  the  bluestone,  which  should  be  done  in  separate  vessels.  The 
bluestone  should  not  be  put  in  a  metal  vessel.  If  put  into  a  bag  and  sus- 
pended near  the  surface  of  the  water,  it  will  dissolve  more  readily,  or  hot 
water  may  be  used  in  making  the  solution.  Both  should  be  cold  when  mixed, 
and  the  resultant  mixture  will  be  a  beautiful  blue  wash.  If  mixed  hot,  a  black 
compound  (copper  oxide)  is  produced,  which  reduces  the  value  of  the  wash. 
After  thorough  mixing  of  the  solutions,  water  should  be  added  to  bring  the 
bulk  up  to  forty  gallons.  _^ 

This  is  safe  to  use  on  foliage.  It  may  be  used  much  stronger 
when  trees  are  dormant — as  strong  as  ten  pounds  of  lime  and  ten 
pounds  of  bluestone  to  forty  gallons  of  water  to  kill  spores  of  fungi 
on  the  bark,  but  the  chief  advantage  of  the  stronger  mixture  is  not 
directly  in  spore-killing  but  in  the  longer  resistance  to  removal  by 
rains.  This  winter  treatment  is  a  successful  preventive  of  curl-leaf 
on  the  peach,  shot-hole  on  the  apricot,  scab  on  the  apple  and  pear, 
rust  on  the  prune,  etc.  In  the  case  of  the  peach  blight,  which  is  an 
invasion  of  the  young  bark  by  the  shot-hole  fungus,  an  autumn 
spraying  is  imperative  to  protect  the  dormant  twigs.*  When  the 
fungus  survives  winter  treatment  or  when  it  attacks  the  fruit,  as  in 
case  of  the  apricot  particularly,  or  the  leaf  in  the  peach,  there  should 
follow  the  weaker  Bordeaux  in  the  spring  or  summer,  as  early  as 
indications  of  the  diseases  may  appear.  In  spraying  for  apple  and 
pear  scab,  the  addition  of  five  pounds  of  lead  arsenate  to  each  one 
hundred  gallons  of  the  Bordeaux  Mixture  makes  the  application 
answer  also  for  the  codlin  moth,  as  described  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

When  it  is  desirable  to  use  a  fungicide  on  fruit  near  the  picking 
season,  or  on  ornamental  plants,  which  would  be  disfigured  with 
the  lime  wash,  the  ammonical  copper  carbonate  may  be  submitted 
for  the  Bordeaux  Mixture,  viz. :  Copper  carbonate,  four  ounces ; 
ammonia,  forty  ounces;  water  forty  gallons. 

The  usual  way  of  making  this  wash  is  to  dissolve  copper  carbon- 
ate in  ammonia,  and  then  dilute.  If  the  carbonate  is  not  fully  dis- 
solved before  the  water  is  added,  it  can  not  be  further  dissolved,  and 
not  only  is  the  carbonate  wasted,  but  the  fluid  will  not  be  up  to 
standard  strength.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  give  the  ammonia  ample 
time  to  act,  say  over  night,  before  adding  the  water. 

The  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  mixture,  as  already  prescribed  for 
scale  insects  in  the  preceding  chapter,  is  an  active  fungicide  for 


♦Consult  Bulletin  191  of  the  University  Experiment  Station  on  "California  Peach 
Blight." 


BLIGHTS    AND    DECAYS 


581 


winter  use.    It  is  sometimes  a  satisfactory  curl-leaf  preventive  in  the 
interior  valleys  especially. 

Toadstool  Destruction. — Trees  are  often  destroyed  through  in- 
vasion by  toadstool  fungi  from  the  decaying  roots  or  w^ood  w^ith 
wrhich  their  roots  come  in  contact.  The  injury  is  often  not  detected 
until  the  tree  is  ruined  and  it  is  too  late  for  treatment.  If  only  part 
is  affected,  the  disease  may  sometimes  be  arrested  by  cutting  away 
the  diseased  parts  and  disinfection  of  the  exposed  tissue  with  the 
Bordeaux  Mixture. 

Moss,  Lichens,  etc.,  on  the  Bark. — It  has  been  clearly  shown  by 
investigation  at  the  University  Experiment  Station  that  the  growth 
of  moss,  etc.,  upon  the  bark  of  fruit  trees  is  a  decided  injury.  All 
trees  should  be  assisted  to  maintain  clean,  healthy  bark.  This  is 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  mixture  al- 
ready prescribed  for  scale  insects.  It  can  also  be  done  by  winter 
spraying  with  caustic  soda  or  potash,  one  pound  to  six  gallons  of 
water. 


Effect  upon  the  nuts  of  the  bacterial  blight  of  walnuts. 

Blights  and  Decays. — There  are  several  blights  which  are  trace- 
able to  bacteria,  parasitic  growths  which  are  not  discernible  as  are 
the  fungi,  and  not  usually  amenable  to  spray  treatment,  because 
they  exist  wholly  within  the  tissues  of  the  plant  and  are  not  reached 
by  applications.    The  blights  of  the  pear,  the  black  heart  of  the  apri- 


582 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


cot,  the  olive  tuberculosis,  etc.,  are  instances.  Cutting  back  to 
healthy  wood  (with  tools  dipped  after  each  cut  in  corrosive  subli- 
mate, one  part  to  one  thousand  parts  of  water),  and  burning  all 
removed  parts  is  the  best  treatment  which  can  at  present  be  pre- 
scribed. 

The  walnut  blight,  demonstrated  by  Newton  B.  Pierce,  of  Santa 
Ana,  to  be  caused  by  a  bacterium,  has  so  far  resisted  treatment.  The 
disease  is  recognized  by  black  sunken  spots  on  the  hull  of  the  young 
walnut;  generally  worst  at  the  blossom  end  and  usually  first  seen 
there  early  in  the  season ;  later  the  spots  run  together  and  encompass 
considerable  areas  of  the  surface.  As  the  disease  progresses  the  nut 
is  transformed  into  a  hateful  black  mass  and  is  utterly  destroyed. 
The  disease  also  affects  the  leaves  and  young  wood.  The  recourse 
seems  to  be  toward  resistant  varieties,  as  stated  in  the  chapter  on 
the  walnut. 

Lemon  Rot,  a  fungus  disease  destructive  to  the  fruit  in  the 
orchard  and  during  curing  or  in  transit,  is  fully  expounded  in  Bul- 
letin 190  of  the  University  Experiment  Station. 


Crown  knot  on  peach  just  below  ground. 


DIEBACK     AND     GUM     DISEASE 


583 


DISEASES    NOT   TRACEABLE    TO 
PARASITIC    GROWTHS 

There  are  a  number  of  prominent  troubles  which  are  ncft  trace- 
able to  parasitic  invasion  of  any  kind,  and  yet  may  be  in  some  cases 
promoted  by  bacterial  growth  invited  by  preceding  conditions. 

Sour  Sap. — There  is  a  fermentation  of  the  sap,  quite  noticeable 
by  its  odor,  which  may  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  tree,  from  the 
root  to  the  topmost  twigs ;  sometimes  in  one  part  and  not  in  another. 
Sour  sap  in  the  root  is  generally  due  to  standing  water  in  the  soil, 
and  the  remedy  is  drainage.  Trees  thus  affected  make  an  effort  to 
grow  and  then  the  young  growth  shrivels.  Severe  cutting  back  of 
the  top  to  reduce  evaporation  until  the  roots  can  restore  their  feed- 
ing fibers  is  the  only  treatment  of  the  tree,  and  its  success  depends 
upon  the  extent  of  the  root  injury.  Sour  sap  may  also  be  caused  in 
the  branches  by  the  occurrence  of  frost  after  the  sap  flow  has 
actually  started.  Cutting  back  the  diseased  parts,  as  soon  as  dis- 
covered, to  sound  wood,  is  the  proper  treatment. 

Die-Back. — Dying  back  of  twigs  or  branches  may  occur  without 
parasitic  invasion  through  root-weakness  or  partial  failure.     It  may 


Tuberculosis  of  the  olive. 


584 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


be  due  to  standing  water  or  to  lack  of  soil  moisture,  either  of  which 
will  destroy  the  root-hairs  and  bring  the  tree  into  distress.  The 
treatment  is  cutting  back  to  sound  wood  and  correcting  the  soil  con- 
ditions, either  by  irrigation  or  drainage,  as  one  or  the  other  may  be 
needed  to  advance  vigorous  growth  in  the  tree. 

Gummosis. — This  is  a  convenient  term  to  designate  the  gumming 
which  is  seen  on  many  kinds  of  trees.  As  has  been  said  of  die-back, 
gumming  may  result  from  excess  of  water  or  of  drouth  in  the  soil. 


i 


The  peach  blight — twigs  from  sprayed  and  unsprayed  trees. 


ROOT     KNOT  535 

Gumming  is,  therefore,  not  considered  in  itself  a  disease,  but  rather 
an  indication  of  conditions  unfavorable  to  the  thrifty  growth  of  the 
tree.  It  has  been  usually  found  by  investigation  that  trees  in  perfect 
condition  of  health,  with  the  moisture  just  enough  and  not  excessive, 
are  not  troubled  with  gumming;  but  there  are  cases  in  which  this 
statement  does  not  wholly  apply.  There  is  very  much  in  this  con- 
nection which  is  not  fully  demonstrated  as  yet  and  the  University 
Plant  Disease  Laboratory,  at  Whittier,  is  undertaking  careful  and 
wide  studies  of  which  preliminary  results  appear  in  the  University 
Bulletin  No.  200.  When  there  is  an  outbreak  of  gum  where  it  can 
be  treated  it  is  desirable  to  cleanly  remove  all  the  unhealthy  bark — 
cutting  clean  to  sound  bark  and  covering  the  wound  with  paint  or 
wax  to  exclude  the  air. 

Root  Knots. — These  are  excrescences  upon  the  roots  or  at  the 
root  crown  of  various  trees  and  of  grape-vines,  and  they  have  been 
a  serious  trouble  in  this  State  for  a  good  many  years.  Some  of  the 
knots  have  been  studied  by  experts  in  plant  pathology  and  the  cause 
of  the  trouble  demonstrated  to  be  a  fungus  and  the  disease  infec- 
tious. A  satisfactory  treatment  has,  however,  been  discovered.  If 
the  knot  has  not  increased  in  size  sufficiently  to  seriously  interfere 
with  the  growth  of  the  tree  it  can  be  smoothly  removed,  the  wound 
treated  with  the  Bordeaux  Mixture,  and  the  knot  will  not  reappear 
at  the  same  place.  Success  has  also  been  had  with  boring  a  hole 
into  the  knot  and  filling  the  hole  with  bluestone  solution,  but  some 
trees  have  been  killed  in  this  way.  Bluestone  can  be  used  with  least 
danger  when  the  tree  is  dormant. 


CHAPTER    XLI 

SUPPRESSION    OF    INJURIOUS    ANIMALS    AND    BIRDS 

The  beasts  of  the  field  and  the  fowls  of  the  air  are  sometimes 
such  grievous  trespassers  upon  the  fruit  plantation  that  protection 
has  to  be  sought  against  them.  The  animals  which  figure  in  this 
evil  work  are  mainly  species  of  rodentia^  some  of  them  burrowers, 
as,  for  example,  the  ground-squirrel  and  gopher;  others,  surface 
dwellers,  like  the  hare  or  jackass  rabbit.  Occasionally  there  is  injury 
done  by  deer  in  the  orchard  and  vineyard,  and  coons  in  the  melon 
patch,  but  these  larger  animals  may  usually  be  left  to  the  hunters 
and  the  dogs. 

RABBITS 

Though  there  are  three  species  prevalent,  none  are  burrowers. 
This  fact  has  led  to  united  efforts  at  their  suppression  by  driving 
them,  with  mounted  horsemen,  from  a  wide  stretch  of  country  into 
a  narrow,  fenced  inclosure,  where  they  are  killed  with  clubs.  Dur- 
ing the  last  few  years  tens  of  thousands  have  been  killed  in  this  way, 
and  comparatively  few  are  now  found  in  the  localities  where  the 
method  has  been  adopted.  Still,  however,  there  are  plenty  at  large 
to  vex  the  fruit  planter,  and  he  must  protect  himself  against  them. 

Rabbit  Fences. — The  surest  protection  against  rabbits  is  a  fence 
which  prevents  their  entrance,  and  many  miles  of  such  fence  have 
been  built  in  this  State.  Several  styles  prevail.  The  ordinary  board 
fence,  with  the  boards  running  horizontally,  is  made  rabbit-proof 
by  placing  the  lower  boards  close  together,  with  openings  of  but 


H 


A  rabbit-proof  fence  in  successful  use  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

about  two  inches  between  them.  A  barbed  wire,  with  bards  about 
two  and  one-half  inches  apart,  can  be  used  to  advantage  by  running 
it  along  at  or  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  prevent 
scratching  under. 


586 


RABBIT    FENCE    AND    POISON  537 

The  cost  of  board  fences  has  led  to  the  use  of  barbed  wire  and 
wire  nettings,  or  of  perpendicular  slats  interwoven  with  wire.  Such 
materials  are  sold  in  large  quantities.  A  very  effective  combination 
of  barbed  wire  and  netting,  which  is  used  in  the  upper  San  Joaquin 
Valley,  is  described  as  follows : 

The  tall  posts  are  regular  split  redwood  posts.  The  intermediate  small  ones 
are  made  by  sawing  in  two  the  regular  posts  and  splitting  them  into  eight  small 
posts,  or  rather,  large  stakes.  The  netting  is  of  galvanized  wire.  No.  19  gauge, 
and  one  and  one-half  inch  mesh.  This  netting  is  stapled  to  the  posts  and  stakes 
on  the  inside,  or  toward  the  field.  This  is  of  prime  importance,  as  it  will  not 
serve  the  purpose  if  it  is  placed  on  the  outside.  The  bottom  of  the  netting 
is  to  come  down  to  the  ground,  and  the  ground  must  be  left  hard,  and  not 
plowed  to  prevent  burrowing  or  scratching  the  dirt  from  underneath,  which 
can  be  easily  done  if  the  dirt  is  softened  up.  It  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  set 
the  netting  below  the  ground.  In  the  sketch  are  shown  three  barbed  wires, 
with  barbs  two  and  a  half  inches  apart.  These  wires  must  be  placed  on  the 
outside  of  the  posts.  This  position  is  also  a  prime  necessity.  The  lower 
wire  is  stretched  just  clear  of  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  middle  wire 
is  one  inch  higher  than  the  top  of  the  netting,  and  the  top  wire,  which  is 
intended  only  as  against  cattle,  is  at  a  height  suitable  for  the  purpose.  The 
rabbit-proof  portion  is  comprised  in  the  netting  and  the  two  lower  wires. 
Hence,  if  cattle  are  not  feared,  and  rabbits  are  the  only  foe,  the  top  wire  can 
be  dispensed  with,  and  the  posts  can  be  all  short  with  a  greater  proportion 
of  stakes,  having  only  enough  stout  posts  to  stand  the  strain  of  the  wires. 
The  theory  of  this  construction  is  that  a  rabbit  can  only  pass  the  fence  over 
the  top  or  under  the  bottom  of  the  netting,  and  this  is  effectually  prevented 
by  the  barbed  wires,  which  tear  the  animal  if  it  attempts  either  to  leap  or 
climb  over  or  to  scratch  under. 

Smears  Distasteful  to  Rabbits. — Where  the  expense  of  a  fence 
can  not  be  assumed,  measurable  protection  can  be  had  by  sprinkling 
the  leaves  or  smearing  the  stems  of  plants  with  substances  dis- 
tasteful to  the  animals,  which  are  quite  dainty  in  this  respect.  Com- 
mercial aloes,  one  pound  to  four  gallons  of  water,  both  sprinkled  on 
leaves  and  painted  on  the  bark,  gives  a  bitter  taste,  which  repels 
rabbits.  A  tea  made  of  steeping  quassia  chips  is  said  to  produce  the 
same  effect.  Rancid  grease,  liquid  manure,  putrescent  flesh  or  blood, 
have  been  approved  as  a  daub  for  tree  trunks,  but  the  efficacy  is 
only  of  limited  duration. 

Rabbit  Poison. — Pieces  of  watermelon  rind,  cantaloupe,  or  other 
vegetable  of  which  they  are  very  fond,  may  be  poisoned  with 
strychnine  and  then  scattered  around  the  orchard.  Rabbits  will  not 
touch  the  bark  as  long  as  they  can  find  this  bait,  and  one  meal  is 
effective,  for  the  rabbit  never  gets  far  away  from  it.  The  same  re- 
sults can  be  obtained  by  the  following  mixture :  To  one  hundred 
pounds  of  wheat  take  nine  gallons  of  water  and  one  pound  of  phos- 
phorus, one  pound  of  sugar,  and  one  ounce  of  oil  of  rhodium.  Heat 
the  water  to  boiling  point  and  let  it  stand  all  night.  Next  morning 
stir  in  flour  sufficient  to  make  a  sort  of  paste.  The  rabbits  eat  it 
with  avidity  if  scattered  about. 


ggg  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Another  preparation  is  half  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  strych- 
nine, two  teaspoonfuls  of  fine  salt,  and  four  of  granulated  sugar. 
Put  all  in  a  tin  box  and  shake  well.  Pour  in  small  heaps  on  a  board. 
It  hardens  into  a  solid  mass.  They  lick  it  for  the  salt,  and  the  sugar 
disguises  the  poison,  which  kills  great  numbers. 


GROUND-SQUIRRELS 

Ground-squirrels  are  poisoned  by  the  use  of  the  poisoned  wheats 
which  are  sold  in  the  markets,  or  by  use  of  bisulphide  of  carbon, 
or  "smokers,"  which  are  arranged  to  force  smoke  into  the  holes.  A 
small  quantity'of  bisulphide  of  carbon  poured  into  the  hole,  and  the 
hole  closed  with  dirt,  is  probably  the  most  effective  squirrel  killer, 
when  the  ground  is  wet,  so  that  the  vapor  is  held  in  the  burrow. 
Smokers  are  also  most  effective  when  the  soil  is  moist.  When  the 
ground  is  dry,  poison  is  the  best  means  of  reducing  squirrels.  The 
following  is  an  exceedingly  effective  preparation,  of  which  a  few 
grains  should  be  placed  in  or  near  each  hole : 

Take  strychnine,  one  ounce ;  cyanide  of  potassium,  one  and  one-half  ounces ; 
eggs,  one  dozen ;  honey,  one  pint ;  vinegar,  one  and  one-half  pints ;  wheat  or 
barley,  thirty  pounds.  Dissolve  strychnine  in  the  vinegar ;  and  you  will  have  to 
pulverize  it  in  the  vinegar,  or  it  will  gather  into  a  lump.  See  that  it  is  all  dis- 
solved. Dissolve  the  cyanide  of  potassium  in  a  little  water.  Beat  the  eggs.  Mix 
all  the  ingredients  together  thoroughly  before  adding  to  the  barley.  Let  it  stand 
twenty-four  hours,  mixing  often.  Spread  to  dry  before  using,  as  it  will  mold  if 
put  away  wet. 

To  keep  squirrels  from  gnawing  fruit  trees,  or  climbing  and 
getting  the  fruit,  tying  a  newspaper  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree, 
letting  the  paper  extend  out  four  inches  at  the  upper  edges,  is  said 
to  be  effective.  The  rattle  of  the  paper  when  the  squirrels  attempt 
to  get  over  it  will  frighten  them. 

GOPHERS 

Gophers  can  often  be  destroyed  by  the  use  of  poisoned  wheat, 
especially  prepared  with  a  little  oil  of  rhodium,  which  seems  to  be 
very  attractive  to  all  rodents.  Pieces  of  fruits  or  vegetable,  or  the 
succulent  stems  of  alfalfa,  into  which  a  few  grains  of  strychnine 
have  been  inserted  by  making  a  cut  with  a  knife-blade  and  then 
squeezing  it  together  again,  are  also  handy  conveyors  of  death  to 
gophers.  There  are  two  ways  to  put  poisoned  materials  into  a 
gopher  runway.  One  is  to  look  for  fresh  open  holes  and  put  in  the 
poison  as  far  as  possible  with  a  long-handled  spoon;  another  is  to 
take  a  round,  pointed  stick  and  shove  it  into  the  ground  near  the 
gopher  mounds  until  it  strikes  their  runway,  then  drop  in  the 
poisoned  bait.  Close  up  the  hole  with  some  grass ;  level  down 
mounds,  so  that  if  the  poison  does  not  kill  all  the  gophers,  you  will 


DESTROYING    GOPHERS 


589 


soon  discover  their  new  mounds.    If  there  are  many  mounds,  put  the 
poison  in  a  number  of  places. 

Bisulphide  of  carbon  is  also  successfully  used  in  killing  gophers, 
while  the  ground  is  wet,  using  an  injector  which  is  furnished  with 
the  poison  to  force  the  vapor  through  the  long  burrows. 

Trapping  Gophers. — Some  are  very  successful  in  using  gopher 
traps,  of  which  there  are  several  styles  sold.  Gophers  come  to  the 
surface  in  the  night,  and  generally  close  their  holes  soon  after  day- 
break. They  frequently  emerge  again  about  noon,  and  a  third  time 
late  in  the  afternoon.  It  is  best  to  set  the  trap  in  an  open  hole ;  still, 
the  holes  may  be  opened  if  the  dirt  is  still  fresh,  with  a  good  pros- 
pect of  the  gopher's  return.  Therefore,  the  trapper  may  make  his 
rounds  three  times  a  day,  as  above  indicated.  Care  should  be  exer- 
cised in  preparing  the  hole  for  the  insertion  of  the  trap,  a  straight 
hole  for  a  distance  of  at  least  ten  inches,  with  no  lateral  branches, 
otherwise  the  gopher  in  pushing  out  the  dirt  will  likely  enough 
thrust  the  trap  to  one  side,  cover  it  up,  or  spring  it,  without  being 
exposed  to  its  grasp.  The  trapper  should  be  supplied  with  at  least 
two  varieties  of  traps — one  for  the  larger  gophers,  and  the  other 
for  the  smaller  ones.  The  common  iron  gopher  trap,  which  springs 
downward,  is  excellent  for  the  former,  and  the  small  wire  trap,  which 
springs  upward,  is  generally  successful  with  the  later.  The  size  of 
the  hole  is  indicative  of  the  size  of  the  gopher.  Either  trap  should 
be  inserted  nearly  its  full  length  into  the  hole,  pressed  down  firmly, 
and  a  little  dirt  piled  at  the  outer  end  to  prevent  its  being  easily 
pushed  out.  After  the  trap  is  set,  it  is  well  to  cover  the  opening 
with  some  grass  or  weeds.  Sometimes  the  holes  require  a  little 
enlarging,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  fit  as  close  as  pos- 
sible, that  the  body  of  the  gopher  may  be  kept  near  the  center,  and 
thus  more  exposed  to  the  prongs  of  the  trap.  In  the  fourth  place, 
the  trapper  should  have  a  small  spade  and  a  little  gouge-shaped 
instrument  for  trimming  the  hole. 

Gopher  Pitfalls. — If  gophers  are  abundant,  large  numbers  can 
be  captured  in  this  way :  Dig  a  trench  around  the  orchard  or  vine- 
yard about  the  width  of  a  spade  and  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches 
deep.  In  the  bottom  of  the  ditches,  about  a  hundred  feet  apart,  sink 
five-gallon  oil  cans,  leaving  the  tops  level  with  the  ditch  bottom. 
The  gophers  migrate  in  the  night,  and  in  attempting  to  come  into 
the  inclosure  will  fall  into  the  ditch  and  then  run  along  the  bottom 
until  they  drop  into  the  cans.  Of  course  the  ditch  must  not  be 
wider  than  the  cans.  As  many  as  fifteen  live  gophers  have  been 
found  in  one  can.  The  cats  soon  learn  to  help  themselves  out  of 
the  cans.  The  ditch  must  be  kept  clean,  and  if  any  roads  cross 
the  tract,  set  up  a  board  at  night,  to  compel  the  gophers  to  tumble 
in  the  ditch.     This  ditch  should  be  constructed  about  the  first  of 


590 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


June,  when  the  outside  feed  begins  to  dry  up,  and  the  pests  rush  for 
the  cultivated  ground.  With  such  protection  from  the  outside,  and 
the  use  of  poison  and  traps  inside,  the  trees  and  vines  can  be  saved. 


DESTRUCTIVE   BIRDS 

Fruit  growers  generally  appreciate  the  value  of  insectivorous 
birds,  but  there  are  feathered  pests  which  do  such  ruinous  work  in 
disbudding  the  trees  in  spring-time,  and  in  destroying  ripe  fruit, 
that  protective  measures  have  to  be  adopted  against  them.  The 
so-called  ''California  linnet,"  which  is  not  a  linnet,  but  a  finch 
(Carpodacus  frontalis),  a  persistent  destroyer  of  buds,  and  the  Eng- 
lish sparrow,  infamous  the  world  over,  are  probably  the  most 
grievous  pests,  though  there  are  other  destructive  birds,  including 
the  beautiful  California  quail,,  which  is  protected  by  law,  and  yet 
must  be  destroyed  in  some  parts  of  the  State  or  the  grape  crop  must 
be  abandoned. 

For  the  killing  of  the  smaller  birds  poison  is  usually  employed, 
and  it  is  best  administered  in  water.  Poisoned  water  made  of  one- 
eighth  ounce  of  strychnine  to  three  gallons  of  water  and  placed  in 
shallow  tin  pans  in  the  trees,  has  been  widely  approved.  Cutting 
oranges  in  halves,  spreading  strychnine  over  the  cut  surface  and 
empaling  the  half  oranges  on  twigs  high  up  in  the  apricot  trees,  has 
destroyed  hundreds  of  linnets.  Some  advocate  the  use  of  the  shot- 
gun. No.  30  caliber,  with  a  small  charge  of  good  powder  and  No.  10 
shot.  As  many  as  five  hundred  linnets  have  been  killed  in  two  days. 
The  advantage  of  this  plan  is  that  one  kills  linnets  and  not  other 
birds,  while  poison  kills  both  friends  and  foes. 


CHAPTER    XLII 
PROTECTION    FROM   WIND    AND  FROSTS 

Though  the  climate  of  California  renders  unnecessary  the  pro- 
tection against  rigorous  weather  which  fruit  growers  in  some  other 
parts  of  the  world  have  to  provide,  there  is  often  advantage  in  secur- 
ing shelter  from  winds  and  protection  from  late  frosts. 

The  general  subject  of  forest  planting  in  California,  and  the  effect 
of  preservation  and  extension  of  our  forest  area  upon  our  fruit  in- 
dustries, has  received  the  attention  of  our  best-informed  growers. 
The  planting  of  shelter  belts  at  intervals  across  our  broad  valleys 
at  right  angles  to  the  courses  of  prevailing  or  most  violent  winds, 
has  also  been  urged  with  great  force.  These  greater  enterprises 
and  projects  are  beyond  the  scope  of  this  treatise.  It  is  rather 
concerning  the  planting  of  trees  to  shelter  individual  possessions 
that  a  few  suggestions  will  be  offered. 

It  has  been  already  remarked  that  on  the  immediate  coast  the 
successful  growth  of  fruit  will  sometimes  be  whally  dependent  upon 
proper  shelter  from  prevailing  winds,  and  in  regions  farther  from 
the  ocean  the  topography  may  induce  strong  currents  of  air  which 
will  illy  aflfect  trees  and  vines.  In  all  such  places  the  fruit  grower 
should  plant  windbreaks,  and  will  find  himself  well  repaid  for  the 
ground  they  occupy,  by  the  successful  production  on  the  protected 
area. 

In  the  interior  valleys  there  is  also  need  of  shelter  from  occa- 
sional high  winds  which  may  visit  the  orchards  either  in  summer 
or  winter,  and  prove  destructive  both  to  trees  and  fruit.  In  some 
cases  long  lines  of  the  sheltering  trees  have  been  cut  down  because 
they  affected  the  fruiting  of  orchard  trees  planted  too  near  them, 
and  afterwards  the  losses  through  lack  of  protection  were  far  greater 
than  would  have  been  incurred  by  retaining  them. 

What  Kind  of  Trees  to  Plant. — This  is  a  question  concerning 
which  there  is  much  to  be  learned.  Data  is  accumulating  in  the 
growth  of  trees  planted  to  test  their  suitability,  and  the  future 
planter  will  have  more  certain  ground  to  proceed  upon  than  is  now 
available.  Mention  will  be  made,  however,  of  a  few  trees,  which 
are  now  most  widely  grown. 

The  most  widely-planted  shelter  tree  is  the  Eucalyptus  globulus, 
or  Australian  blue  gum.  It  is  a  rapid  grower  and  voracious  feeder, 
and  wonderful  for  root  extension,  for  which  it  has  been  roundly 
abused.     It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  we  have  a  better  tree  for 

591 


^Q2  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

high  growth,  and  consequent  large  area  over  which  its  shelter  will 
be  felt.  It  is  deficient  in  undergrowth,  and  if  a  close  screen  is  de- 
sired, the  planting  of  eucalyptus  and  Monterey  cypress  (Cupressus 
macrocarpa)  is  a  common  practice.  The  latter  also  attains  good 
height,  but  its  broad,  thick  base  fills  the  gaps  between  the  bare  stems 
of  the  gum  trees.  Another  tree  which  has  often  been  planted  with 
the  blue  gum,  to  supply  a  thick,  low  growth,  is  the  pepper  tree 
(Schinus  molle).  It  is  also  grown  in  rows  by  itself.  It  makes  a 
dense  head,  grows  rapidly,  and  flourishes  without  much  care.  Trees 
planted  eighteen  feet  apart  will  soon  come  together  and  make  a 
dense  wall  of  very  beautiful,  bright,  light-green  foliage.  The  pepper 
is  not  only  a  good  windbreak,  but  also  an  excellent  dust-catcher. 
Unlike  most  trees  which  are  used  for  this  purpose,  it  does  not  be- 
come laden  with  dust.  The  leaves  are  smooth  and  glossy,  and 
therefore  repel  the  dust  particles,  which,  stopped  in  their  flight  by 
the  dense  foliage  of  the  tree,  instead  of  clinging  to  it  drop  to  the 
ground.  The  growth  of  the  pepper  tree  near  the  coast  is  much 
slower  than  that  of  the  Monterey  cypress.  The  eucalyptus  and  the 
cypress. for  the  coast,  and  the  eucalyptus  and  pepper  for  the  interior 
valleys,  make,  probably,  as  perfect  a  wall  of  foliage  all  the  year 
round  as  can  be  had.  The  blue  gum  is,  however,  somewhat  subject 
to  frost  killing,  especially  when  young,  and  in  very  frosty  places 
is  objected  to  on  that  account.  A  number  of  other  species  of 
eucalyptus  are  now  being  planted,  and  are  being  found  more  hardy 
than  the  blue  gum.  The  rostrata,  rudis,  tereticornis,  polyanthema, 
amygdalina,  viminalis  and  others  are  of  this  character. 

The  Monterey  pine  (Pinus  insignis)  is  a  rapid,  high-growing  tree, 
and,  though  a  native  of  the  coast,  has  proved  itself  well  adapted  to 
the  interior  valleys  of  the  central  portion  of  the  State.  Its  foliage  is 
dense  for  a  pine,  and  its  shelter,  therefore,  the  more  complete.  A 
native  white  cedar  (Libocedrus  decurrens)  has  also  been  employed 
as  a  shelter  tree  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  and  is  commended  as 
a  rapid  grower  in  the  interior  as  on  the  coast.  Its  ability  to  stand 
drouth,  heat  and  frost  is  said  to  exceed  that  of  any  of  the  conifers 
of  the  seacoast.  It  stands  well  in  the  most  exposed  situations,  as 
its  roots  run  very  deep  into  the  earth  and  it  is  claimed  that  it  does 
not  sap  the  fertility  from  the  soil  around  its  base,  as  with  the  blue 
gum.  It  is  also  said  to  be  less  subject  to  frost  injury  than  the 
Monterey  cypress  and  pine. 

All  the  foregoing  are  evergreen  trees,  and  therefore  afiford  pro- 
tection summer  and  winter  alike.  Of  deciduous  trees  there  are  many 
which  may  be  well  employed.  The  California  black  walnut  makes 
a  very  satisfactory  growth  both  in  the  interior  and  upon  the  coast, 
and  is  largely  used  for  roadside  planting.  The  California  broad- 
leaved  maple  {Acer  macrophylla)  is  very  beautiful,  rapid  in  growth, 
and  dense  in  foliage,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  box  elder  {Acer 
negrundo),  but  probably  both  trees  are  especially  suited  to  the  coast 


I 


PROTECTION    FROM    FROST 


598 


regions.  Of  the  poplars,  the  CaroHna  (Populus  monilifera)  is  best, 
because  of  its  breadth,  density  of  foliage,  and  comparative  freedom 
from  suckering.  The  locust  (Robinia  pseudacacia)  is  used  to  some 
extent,  but  its  suckering  is  very  objectionable. 

Quite  a  number  of  the  larger-growing  deciduous  fruit  trees  are 
used  to  some  extent  along  the  exterior  lines  of  orchards  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  inclosure.  The  fig,  the  walnut,  the  chestnut,  seedling 
almonds,  and  apricots  are  especially  commended  for  such  use. 

Growing  Trees  from  Seed. — Much  that  has  been  said  in  Chapter 
VIII  will  be  suggestive  to  one  who  desires  to  grow  his  own  shelter 
trees  from  seed.  Trees  from  small  seeds  are  best  grown  in  boxes, 
and  in  many  cases,  as  with  eucalyptus  and  cypress  especially,  do 
best  when  put  in  permanent  place  when  quite  small.  Whether  put 
at  once  in  permanent  place,  or  in  nursery,  the  land  should  be  deeply 
worked  and  the  young  plant  well  planted  and  cared  for. 

Cultivation  of  Shelter  Trees. — If  one  desires  rapid  growth  of 
shelter  trees,  they  should  be  cultivated  the  first  few  years  as  thor- 
oughly as  an  orchard.  Much  disappointment  results  from  allowing 
roadside  trees  to  shift  for  themselves  in  a  hard,  dry  soil.  With  such 
treatment  the  root  extension  is  naturally  most  rapid  into  cultivated 
orchard  ground,  which  is  undesirable.  Cultivate  and  enrich  the 
roadside,  and  the  tree  will  grow  chiefly  on  the  waste  land.  At  the 
same  time  the  roadside  will  be  prevented  from  producing  vast  quan- 
tities of  weed  seed,  to  be  blown  over  the  fence,  and  the  place  will 
have  a  name  for  neatness,  which  is  too  rare  even  in  California. 


PROTECTION    FROM    FROSTS 

Much  attention  has  been  given  during  recent  years  to  the  pro- 
tection of  citrus  fruits  as  they  approach  maturity,  and  of  deciduous 
fruits  as  they  are  starting  on  their  growth,  from  occasional  fall  of 
the  mercury  a  few  degrees  below  the  freezing  point.  It  has  been 
shown  by  ample  experience  that  fruits  may  escape  injury  by  a 
temperature  of  28  degrees  if  the  ground  surface  is  wet  and  the  ex- 
posure be  but  of  short  duration.  Fruit  has,  therefore,  been  saved 
by  irrigation,  while  that  over  dry  ground  has  been  nipped  by  the 
same  temperature.  About  the  same  result  has  been  secured  by 
checking  radiation  of  heat  by  covering  the  orchard  or  vineyard  with 
a  cloud  of  smoke.  Both  these  protective  measures  fail  when  the 
temperature  falls  a  few  degrees  below  28  degrees  or  when  such 
freezing  temperature  is  continued  several  hours.  During  the  last 
fifteen  years,  at  Riverside,  systematic  invention  and  trial  of  frost 
prevention  has  proceeded,  and  the  satisfactory  results  of  one  device 
is  thus  described  by  Mr.  E.  W.  Holmes : 


594  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Satisfactory  results  have  been  gained  by  the  use  of  soft  coal,  burned  in 
wire  baskets  suspended  under  or  between  the  trees.  When  twenty  to  forty  of 
these  to  the  acre  were  used,  we  occasionally  raised  the  temperature  from  three 
to  five  degrees.  More  has  been  claimed;  but  this  is  all  that  1  am  sure  has 
been  achieved.  However,  in  a  section  where  the  temperature  would  not  go 
below  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  degrees  for  a  few  hours,  this  method  was 
ample.  The  outfit  costs  about  ten  cents  a  basket,  or  four  dollars  an  acre  if 
forty  baskets  are  used,  and  the  coal  about  two  and  one-half  dollars  an  acre 
per  night.  The  objection  is  the  labor  of  replenishing  the  baskets  in  case  of 
their  being  used  the  second  night,  because  even  if  kerosene  is  poured  upon 
the  kindling,  it  is  no  easy  task  to  light  four  hundred  fires  with  a  torch.  Four 
men  will  be  required  to  do  this  in  proper  time.  Still,  this  is  the  system  more 
generally  approved  here,  and  because  definite  and  certain  results  have  been 
achieved  through  it'. 

Other  efifective  devices  are  pots  for  burning  crude  oil,  stoves  for 
burning  briquettes  of  inflammable  material,  etc.  The  best  accouiits 
not  only  of  the  conditions  favoring  the  occurrence  of  frosts,  but  the 
details  of  frost-fending  methods  are  given  in  the  publications  of 
Professor  A.  G.  McAdie,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Mechanics'  Ex- 
change, San  Francisco,  which  are  available  on  application  to  him. 
Appliances  for  use  in  these  eflforts  can  be  purchased  from  the  Frost 
Prevention  Co.,  of  Fresno. 

These  resources  have  been  chiefly  resorted  to  for  the  protectioti 
of  citrus  fruits,  the  value  of  which  as  the  crop  is  maturing  will  war- 
rant the  cost.  With  deciduous  fruits  thus  far  only  smoke  and  steam 
clouds  from  burning  piles  of  damp  rubbish  have  been  employed, 
except  in  irrigated  regions  where,  if  frost  threatens  while  the  ground 
is  dry,  the  limited  efilicacy  of  running  water  is  resorted  to.  There  is 
ample  field  for  further  experiment  in  all  lines  of  frost  prevention. 

Where  there  is  trouble  from  early  activity  of  deciduous  trees, 
the  trees  may  be  kept  dormant  for  a  limited  time  by  winter  spraying 
with  whitewash,  which  reflects  heat  and  thus  prevents  activity.  Ex- 
periment has  shown  that  heat  upon  the  aerial  parts  of  the  tree  starts 
the  growth;  it  does  not  come  from  the  roots  as  was  formerly 
supposed. 


CHAPTER    XLIII 
UTILIZING    OF    FRUIT    WASTES 

Some  progress  has  been  recently  attained  in  the  securing  of  hor- 
ticultural by-products  from  various  kinds  of  fruit  wastes.  There  is 
a  considerable  product  of  cream  of  tartar  from  the  pomace  and  lees 
of  the  wineries  in  central  California.  In  Southern  California  citric 
acid  factories  have  to  some  extent  used  lemons  rejected  in  packing, 
and  some  other  by-products  of  citrus  fruits  have  been  secured  in 
small  quantities.  Vinegar  from  wine  and  cider  are,  of  course,  made 
here  as  everywhere  in  fruit  countries. 

There  has  arisen  also  a  profitable  export  demand  for  fruit  pits 
and  apricot  and  peach  pits,  which  formerly  were  burned,  are  now 
selling  profitably — machinery  for  cheap  extraction  of  the  kernels 
having  been  contrived  by  California  inventors.  The  kernels  are 
bought  by  agents  of  European  manufacturers  of  oils  and  essences. 
Apricot  kernels  are  used  by  confectioners  in  place  of  almonds. 

Comparative  Value  of  Fruits,  and  Hay,  Grains,  Meals,  etc. 
100  Pounds  Fruit  Equivalent  to  Pounds  of 


FRESH  FRUITS 

Apples 34 

Oranges 33 

Pears 40 

Plums 50 

Prunes 46 

Apricots 40 

Nectarines 43 

Figs 50 

Grapes 50 

Watermelons  ...  22 

Nutmeg  Melons.  19 

DRIED  FRUITS 

Dried  prunes 175 

Dried  apricots. , .  194 

Dried  peaches. . .  190 

Dried  figs 186 

Raisins 216 


104 
115 
113 
110 
128 


W   d 


125 
138 
135 
132 
153 


^    ■)-) 


15    15 


85 
100 


97 


108 


■^     ^  pq 


84 
93 
91 
89 
103 


92 
102 
100 

97 
111 


•«  § 
^ 


18    16 


84 
93 
91 
89 
103 


^5 


The  disposition  of  waste  fruit  by  growers  must,  however,  always 
lie  chiefly  in  the  line  of  feeding  animals  unless  de-natured  alcohol 


595 


596  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

enterprises  should  arise  to  consume  it  at  prices  to  pay  something 
more  than  cost  of  handling.  Refuse  fresh  fruits  of  all  kinds,  and 
especially  refuse  dried  fruits  have  nutritive  value  which  should  not 
be  lost,  A  statement  of  the  value  of  various  fruits  as  compared 
with  various  cattle  foods  has  been  prepared  by  Prof.  M.  E.  Jaffa, 
of  the  University  Experiment  Station,  in  the  adjacent  table. 

A  good  average  of  the  pitted  fresh  fruits  is  represented  by 
prunes.  Using  the  equivalents  in  the  table  below  for  computation, 
it  appears  that  if  wheat  bran  costs  $15  per  ton,  fresh  prunes  would 
be  worth  as  a  substitute  $3  per  ton;  likewise,  if  cottonseed  meal  is 
selling  for  $21  per  ton,  the  prune  value  would  be  about  $2.75.  At 
the  market  price  of  oat  hay,  the  figure  for  fresh  prunes  should  be 
nearly  $3  per  ton. 

The  dried  fruits  naturally  rank  far  above  the  fresh  material  as 
stock  feed.  Of  the  dried  fruits  represented  in  the  table,  raisins 
lead  in  food  value ;  containing  one  and  one-fourth  to  one  and  one- 
half  times  the  nutritive  ingredients  of  alfalfa  and  oat  hays,  respec- 
tively; 100  pounds  of  the  fruit  being  practically  equal  to  the  same 
quantity  of  grain,  but  to  only  eighty-two  and  fifty-nine  pounds 
respectively  of  rice  bran  and  cottonseed  meal. 

Dried  apricots  rank  slightly  lower  than  raisins,  because  they 
contain  more  water.  Apricots  are,  however,  of  equal  value  as  a 
feeding  stuff  with  wheat  bran  and  almond  hulls  about  half  as  much 
as  alfalfa  hay,  bran  or  middlings. 

Concerning  the  feeding  of  raisins  to  hogs,  the  following  state- 
ments are  made :  ''With  raisins  selling  at  2^  cents  per  pound 
they  are  much  cheaper  food  for  hogs  than  corn  or  barley.  Raisins 
give  the  hog  a  hard  sweet  meat  and  are  much  sought  after  by  the 
butchers.  Care  must,  however,  be  exercised  in  feeding  raisins  to 
hogs,  as  they  are  full  of  sugar,  and  consequently  too  rich  when  fed 
alone.  They  heat  the  animal  up  so  that  the  hogs  lose  flesh  and 
will  kill  the  little  pigs  of  a  farrowing  sow.  For  fall  and  winter 
feeding,  pumpkins,  citrons  and  alfalfa  are  the  best  feed  to  give  the 
hogs  in  conjunction  with  the  raisins,  but  in  the  spring  a  change  is 
found  very  beneficial. 

"Many  people  feeding  raisins  to  hogs  are  not  having  the  success 
they  should  because  they  overfeed  their  porkers.  A  pound  of 
raisins  a  day  is  ample  to  start  in  with.  After  the  system  of  the 
hog  has  become  accustomed  to  the  raisins  the  amount  can  be  in- 
creased so  that  the  last  three  weeks  each  hog  should  get  about 
four  pounds  of  raisins  a  day.  The  last  ten  days,  when  the  finishing 
touches  are  being  put  on,  the  hogs  should  be  allowed  all  they  can 
get." 

Wine  grapes  rich  in  sugar  have  been  cheaply  dried  on  the 
ground  and  used  to  advantage  for  hog  feed.  One  grower  says 
that  in  1908  failing  to  get  $6  per  ton  for  his  grapes,  he  dried  them 


A    BLISSFUL    CONCLUSION 


597 


and  fed  them  to  hogs.  Having  more  than  the  hogs  required, 
grapes  were  fed  to  the  horses :  ''The  horses  soon  got  a  taste  for 
them  and  seemed  to  thrive  well  on  the  new  diet  and  in  a  short 
time  became  fat  and  sleek,  while  they  were  being  worked  as  hard 
as  ever,  and  we  continued  to  feed  them  dried  grapes  and  have 
kept  it  up  for  a  whole  year.  The  effect  seems  to  have  made  the 
old  horses  five  years  younger,  both  in  looks  and  in  ability  to  work. 
The  hogs  fattened  up  so  quick  that  we  thought  the  pork  would  be 
soft  and  sloppy,  but  to  our  surprise,  we  never  had  better  bacon 
and  ham  than  was  produced  from  these  grape-fed  porkers.  It  was 
not  only  solid,  but  sweet  and  tender." 

Prune-fed  and  raisin-fed  pork  is  indeed  an  accomplished  fact  in 
California.  As  to  the  acceptability  of  the  fruit  diet  to  the  hog, 
what  could  be  more  pertinent  and  more  fitting  appendix  to  this 
treatise  than  this  little  tale?  It  is  stated  that  Mr.  Balaam,  of 
Farmersville,  used  to  have  a  pet  pig  that  ran  under  the  fig  trees 
near  the  house.  When  the  fruit  began  to  drop,  he  ate  figs  and 
rested  in  the  shade  until,  he  finally  grew  too  fat  to  move  about 
to  gather  the  sweet  morsels.  By  this  time  his  owner  became  so 
much  interested  in  the  case  as  to  carry  him  his  regular  figs  three 
times  daily.  Gradually  he  grew  so  fat  that  his  eyes  closed  entirely, 
but  still  he  ate  figs  in  contentment  and  delight. 


RECAPITULATION 

'The  branch  here  bends  beneath  the  weighty  pear, 
And  verdant  olives  flourish  round  the  year; 
The  balmy  spirit  of  the  western  gale 
Eternal  breathes  on  fruits  untaught  to  fail ; 
Each  dropping  pear  a  following  pear  supplies, 
On  apples,  apples,  figs  on  figs  arise: 
The  same  mild  season  gives  the  blooms  to  blow, 
The  buds  to  harden,  and  the  fruits  to  grow." 

Pope's  Horn.  Odys.  Bk.  VII. 


INDEX 


Page 

Acorns,  edible    44 

Alkaline  Soils  . .  .  > 37 

Alligator  Pear 476 

Almond,  The  501 

growing  from  seed 74 

hulling  and  bleaching 503 

pollination 505 

propagation 502 

pruning 502,  503 

situations  and  soils 502 

wild    44 

varieties   505,  506 

Animals,    injurious    586 

Ants,  killing 574 

Apple  in  California 223 

aphis  resistant 226 

aphis   woolly    559 

drying  . 536 

exposures  for   225 

gathering 230 

irrigation 230 

localities   for    224 

mildew 578 

mission 46 

native  crab 39 

planting,  distance   227 

picking  and  packing 232 

pollination 234 

propagation 226 

pruning 227 

scab  or  smut 579 

second  crop    234 

seedlings,  growing 72 

shipping 233 

soils   for    225 

Southern  California 240 

storehouse  for 231 

summer  and  fall 233 

table  of .  varieties 241 

thinning 140,  229 

varieties,  most  popular 221 

when  to  pick 230 

winter 233 

worm 576 

varieties .' 236  to  240 

Apricot   243 

climatic   requirements    244 

diseases  of  251 

distances  for   247 

drying  .^ 536 

exposures  for 244 

growing  seedHngs    y^f 

irrigation 251 

localities  for 244 

mission 46 


Page 
Apricot — continued 

old  trees   243 

on  almond   root 246 

planting 247 

pruning 248, 

shot-hole  fungus    252,  579 

stocks  and  soils  for 246 

table  of  varieties 252 

thinning 137,  250 

varieties 253  to  255 

Army  Worms 548 

Atmospheric  humidity 23 

Banana,  The    468 

Barberry,  native  43 

Bear  berry  7 43 

Bergamot 467 

Berries  and  currants 479 

Berries,  various  wild 43 

Birds,  poisoning  590 

Blackberry,  The   480 

cultivation 481 

hybrids 494 

distances  for   480 

longevity  of  484 

propagation 480 

pruning 483,  486 

wild 41 

varieties 484 

Blasting  for  planting 104 

Borers 116,  568 

Bones,   treatment  of 159 

Bordeaux  Mixture  579 

Brush,  cutting  to  kill 66 

Budding,  common  method 81 

June 89 

over  old  trees 91 

spring 83 

Bud,  cutting  to  a 135 

Buds,  dormant    90 

Buffalo  berry 43 

Burbank's  varieties 219,  317,  326 

Cactus  fruits  44,  476 

Canned  fruit  product 525 

Canning  industry   526 

Canker  worms 550 

Caterpillars ' 551 

Chain  for  laying  out 103 

Chamisal  and  chaparral 61 

Charcoal  making 66 

Cherimoyer '. 469 

598 


INDEX 


599 


Page 

Cherry , 256 

delayed  fruiting  of 2g 

distances  for    260 

exposures  for    259 

gum  disease  264 

grafting,  the   260,  263 

localities  for 257 

moisture  requirements 258 

old  trees   256 

pests  and  diseases 264 

pruning  the 261 

seedlings  growing 72 

slug 553 

soils  for  the 257 

stocks  for  the 260 

table  of  varieties 266 

wild 40 

varieties 265  to  269 

Chestnut,  The  507 

seedlings 74 

wild 44 

Choco  or  Chayota 469 

Citron,  The   467 

Clearing  land  for  fruit 61 

brushy 64 

cost  of 62 

grading 67 

steam  puller 64 

stump  puller 64 

with  powder 64 

time  to  cut  to  kill 66 

Climate,  divisions  of  California n 

of  California,  characteristics  of.  .10,  19 

of  California,  why  mild 10 

foot-hill 16 

mountain  16 

coast 13 

valley  I5 

value  of 24 

Cloudiness,  east  and  west 22 

Coast  pests  and  diseases 11 

Codlin  moth 57i 

Composting 161 

Corner,  to  find  true . . 99 

Cover  crops  166 

Cranberries 487 

wild 42 

Crops  between  trees  or  vines 144 

Crystallizing  fruit    527 

Cultivation 141 

adequate I43 

hillside 148 

methods  of I45 

purposes  of 141 

shallow,  results  of I43 

summer iS^^  152 

to  retain  moisture 141 

without  plowing   151 


Page 

Currants 487 

culture  of 487,  488 

regions  for 488 

varieties  grown  489 

wild 42 

Custard  apple    469 

Cutworms 548 

Cuttings,  fruit  trees  from 76 

Dates ^^^ 

at  the  missions yjl 

bearing  age  of 378 

bearing  in  Solano  County ....  378,  381 

blooming  of 378,  381 

first  fruit 378 

from  seed 379 

from  suckers 380 

propagation  of 379 

requirements  of 378 

transplanting 380 

Dewberry 485 

'Diabroticas 574 

Die-back 583 

Dormant  buds   90 

Drainage  desirable 7i>  216 

Dried  fruits  (see  fruits) 528 

boxes  for 535 

covering 53^ 

cutting  sheds   532 

dipping 534,  542 

drying  floors   531 

grading  and  cleaning 532,  534 

packing 534 

product  of 528 

sulphuring 532 

sweating  . 534 

trays  for 530 

worm 535>  574 

Elderberries 41 

Evaporated  Fruits  542 

Evaporator,  sunshine 537 

Fertilizers  in  California 155 

caution  in  use  of 165 

for  trees  and  vines I57 

methods  of  applying 164 

value  of  green 166 

when  necessary 156 

sources  of  nitrogen. . 160 

sources  of  phosphoric  acid 158 

sources  of  potash I59 

Feijoa   Sellowiana    470 

Fig 382 

bearing  age 388 

budding 384 

caprification 389 

drying 536 

foes  of 390 

from  cuttings 384 

from  seeds  387 


gQQ  CALIP^ORNIA    FRUITS: 

Page 
Fig — continued 

grafting 385 

mission 46 

planting  and  pruning 387 

regions  for  382 

.    size  of  old  trees 382 

soils  for 382 

varieties 391  to  395 

Filbert  growing 508 

wild 44 

Frosts,  protection  from 591,  593 

Fruit  cultivation 141 

Fruit  gardens,  early 51 

Fruit  industries,  influence  of 57 

Fruit  industries,  outlook  of 58 

Fruit  interest,  extent  of 54,  56 

Fruit  shipments 54 

Fruit  thinning  136 

Fruit  tree  acreage 56 

Fruit  products,  value  of 56 

Fruits,  crystallizing 527 

drying 528 

drying  floors   531 

graders 534 

grafted,  first  in  California 49 

locations  for  , 12 

value  as  stock  food 595 

Fruit  shipments,  eastern 54 

Fruit  trees,   dwarf 51 

Fruits,  commercial  varieties 219 

Fruits,  locations  for 12 

Fruits,  native 39 

Goat  nut,  or  jajoba 44 

Gooseberry,  The 489 

culture  of  490 

requirements  of 489 

varieties 489 

wild 42 

Gophers,  killing 588 

pitfall  for  589 

trapping 589 

Grafting 83 

bark 87 

cleft 86 

root 88 

side 86 

time  for 93 

top 91 

whip 88 

wax  for 85 

waxed  bands 85 

Graft,  time  to 93 

Grafts,  planting  out 88 

Granadilla 471 

Grape,  area  of 330 

budding ^2>7 

conditions  of  ripening 20 


HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Page 
Grape,  area  of — continued 

cutting  grafts 346 

dibbles  for  planting 349 

diseases  of '366 

distance 347 

from  cuttings ^^2> 

from  layers ^^T) 

from  seed 332 

frost  injuries  366 

grafting 338 

insects 553 

industry 329 

length  of  season 331 

mildew 578 

number  per  acre 348 

planting  devices 350 

planting  in  rows 347 

products 56 

pruning 353 

pruning,  long 361 

pruning,  short 353 

resistant 342 

rooting  in  nursery 336 

soils  for 331 

stakes,  twine,  etc 353 

suckering 357 

sulphuring 578 

summer  pruning 358,  364 

syrup 542 

trellising 364 

varieties 368 

wild 41 

wine,  varieties  of 2>7Z 

Grasshoppers,  killing   556 

Growing  season,  long 24 

Guava,  The  470 

varieties : 

strawberry 470 

lemon 470 

Gummosis  583 

Gypsum,  uses  of 160 

Hard-pan,  breaking  up 104 

Heat,  deficient  on  coast 13 

importance  of   19 

summer,  records  of 20 

Heeling  in  young  trees 109 

Hexagonal  planting  97 

Hillside,  rows  on 100 

use  of  triangle  on 103 

Holes  for  trees 105 

Huckleberries,  wild   42 

Humidity,  atmospheric   23 

deficient 26 

east  and  west 23 

excessive 23 

Insects,  injurious  108,  547 

Insects,  remedies   575 

Irrigation 170 

distributing  manure  by 165 

ditches  204 


INDEX 


601 


Page 
Irrigation — continued 

drainage  and   216 

evils  of  excessive 171 

flooding 184 

for  citrus  fruits 176 

for   deciduous    fruits 174 

flume  building  for 201 

hillside 196 

how  much 172 

implements  for 186 

in  early  days 52 

in  basins 184,  191 

in  checks    184,  190 

in  furrows 192 

leveling  for    67 

locating  contour  lines 204 

manure  with  irrigation  water 165 

manurial  value  of 166 

measurement  of  water 210 

methods  of 182 

nursery 78 

objections  answered 171 

relation  to  cultivation. 180 

relation  to  rainfall 174 

relation  to  soil 177 

relation  to  tillage 178 

reservoirs,  small  206 

running  ditches  for 204 

subirrigation 216 

suggestions  for   215 

summer 182 

taken  from  ditches 209 

wells  and  pumps  for 210 

wheels  for    209 

when  desirable 180 

winter 181 

Jajoba 44 

Jujube  of  commerce 471 

Jujube,  native   43 

Kai  Apple 478 

Laying  out  land  for  fruit 98 

Leaf  lice  554 

Lemon,  The 457 

curing 462 

packing 453 

planting  and  pruning '.   459 

propagation 459 

situations  and  soils  for 458 

Varieties  : 

Eureka 466 

Lisbon 466 

Villa  Franca 466 

Lemon  berry  43 

Lice,  leaf   560 

Lime,  The 466 

Varieties  : 

Mexican 466 

Imperial 466 

Lime,  uses  of 160 


Page 

Loganberry    493.  494 

Loquat,  The 47i 

Varieties  : 

Advance 473 

Blush  . 473 

Commercial 473 

Pineapple 473 

Premier 473 

Victor 472,  473 

Manure,  care  of 161 

green 166 

sheep,  use  of 163 

Manuring  at  planting 114 

Manzanita  berries 43 

Map  of  orchard  and  vineyard 115 

Marls 161 

Mealy  bugs 566 

Measuring  wire 98 

Melon  shrub 475 

Melon  tree  475 

Mildew 578 

Miner's  inch 210 

Mission  fruits   45 

Moisture  lost  by  weed  growth 143 

retained  by  cultivation 143 

Morning  Glory,  killing 153 

Moss,  removing   57^,  580 

Mulberry,  The 491 

Mulching,  after  planting 114 

Mulching  as  substitute  for  cultivation.  154 

Nectarine 292 

compared  with  peach 292 

dried 293,  538 

future  of  294 

varieties 293 

Nitrogen  for  fruits 160,  166 

Nursery 69 

budding  and  grafting 80 

classes  of  nursery  stock 89 

growing  seedlings 71 

imported  seedlings  76 

irrigation 78 

laying  out  and  planting TJ 

pruning    in 89 

selection  of  site  for 69,  70 

soil,  preparation  of 70.  7i 

soil,  proper  for 69 

trees,  ages  of 89 

trees,  digging 109 

trees,  disinfecting 575 

trees,  selecting       107 

when  to  plant •  ijo 

Nuts  growing  in  California. . . 

growing  from  seed ix^*'-  •  •   100 

^     •...     43 


wild 


602 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    TIIIOM 


Page 

Olives  . 396 

at  old  missions 46 

budding 401 

canning 412 

climate  for   396 

from  cuttings  399 

from  seed  398 

grafting 402 

localities  for 397 

oil  making 409 

oil  yield  of  varieties 419 

planting 404 

preferred  varieties   413 

pruning 405 

pickling 408,  41 1 

small  cuttings 399 

soils  for 398 

truncheons 400 

twig  borer    570 

wild 43 

varieties 413 

Orchard  land,  preparation  of 95 

laying  out  in  squares 98 

alternating  squares  97 

measure  and  sight 98 

measuring  wire 99 

quincunx  planting    100 

time  for  planting no 

Orange 420 

all  the  year  from  California 426 

budding  and  grafting 439 

California  regions  discussed 422 

conditions  for  citrus  fruits 430- 

diseases 451 

distances  for 441 

from  cuttings 435 

from  layers 436 

from  seed  436 

in  central  California 424 

in  southern  California 422 

mission 46 

nursery 437 

packing 453 

planting  in  orchard 441 

product 56,  423 

pruning 445 

ripening  first  at  the  north 431 

seedlings,  care  of 436 

situation  and  soils   for 434 

superiority  of  semi-tropical 421 

transplanting 442 

world's  industry  420 

varieties 452,  453 

Orchard  planting   104 

Oregon  grape 43 

Oso  berry 40 

Popular  fruit  varieties 221 

Palm  nuts 44 

Grape,  ."--■: ^70 

budding^.l^ntmg  275 

conditions  b\ts  of 285 


Page 
Peach — continued 

blight 579 

blooming  of  varieties 284 

curl-leaf 28r 

diseases 281 

distance  in  planting 275 

dormant  buds 276 

drying 537 

early  bearing  271 

grafting 280 

growing  season  of 24 

irrigation 280 

localities  for 272 

longevity  of  ' 270 

mildew 282 

mission 46 

moth 568     / 

"peach  almond" 275  ^ 

pitting  clings 538 

propagation 275 

pruning 126,  277 

ripening  of  varieties 284 

root  borer 570 

seedlings 73 

soils  for 273 

stocks  for  275 

table  of  varieties 283 

thinning 140,  279 

varieties 285  to  291 

Peanut  growing 508 

Pear 295 

Bartlett,  why  popular 296,  297 

blight 302 

characteristics  in  California 296 

diseases 303 

distances  for  the 299 

drying 537 

dwarf 299 

for  alkali  soil 296 

irrigation 301 

largest  on  record 296 

locaHties  for 296 

mission 46 

on  quince  stock 299 

pollination 304 

propagation  of 299 

pruning     300 

seedlings,  growing  72 

slug 553 

soils  for 298 

storing  and  ripening 304 

tables    of   varieties 308 

thinning , 301 

varieties 305  to  308 

Pear,  Alligator   476 

Pecan,  The 509 

Persimmon,  Japanese   473 

Persimmon,  Virginian 473 

Persimmons,  curing 474 

Phenomenal  berry    494 

Phosphates 158 


INDEX 

Page 

Phylloxera 559 

Pioneers,  planting  by 46 

Pineapple 474 

Pine  nuts 44 

Pistachio,  The 510 

Planting,  conditions  favoring in 

bar  for  setting 106 

cutting  back  after 1 16,  124 

depth  of 114 

digging  holes  for : 104 

laying  off  for 98 

mulching 115 

operation  of 112 

preparing  land  for 95 

speed  in 114 

time  for no 

triangular  tree  setter 107 

use  of  manure 114 

use  of  water 113 

Plowing,  devices  for 146 

orchard  and  vineyard 146 

on  hillside 148 

to  break  hard-pan 95,  148 

Plow,  laying  off  with 98 

Plums  and  prunes 3^9 

California  false 40 

confusion  in  names 317 

definition  of  a  prune 309 

drying 539 

from  the  root ^312 

in  southern  California "311 

length  of  season 309 

localities  for 310 

mission ^. 46 

myrobalan 311 

planting 3^3 

pollination 319 

propagation 311 

pruning  the 313 

seedlings 73 

stocks  and  soils 311 

table  of  varieties 320 

wild 40 

varieties 321  to  326 

Plumcot,  The 317 

Pomegranate,  The 475 

Pomelo 455 

varieties 45^ 

packing 453 

Potash 159 

Prickly  Pear  > 44,  476 

Prune  curing 538 

Pruning 117 

Bearing  Trees  127 

California  style  120 

effects  of 119 

gathering  brush 136 

influenced  by  location 121 


603 

Page 

Pruning — continued 

low,  advantages  of 118  , 

nursery 89 

prunings  as  fertilizer 163 

purposes  of 118 

times  for 130 

tools 134 

to  renew  old  trees 127,  133 

vase  form,  securing 120 

wounds,  covering  I34 

Quince 327 

demand  for 3^7 

propagation 3^7 

pruning 328 

soils  for 328 

varieties 328 

Quincunx  planting  100 

Rabbit,  fences   586 

Rabbits,  destroying 587 

poisons  for 587 

smears  for 587 

Rainfall,  records  of 12 

Raisin  making *  •  •  •  •  53.  540 

Raspberry,  The 49^ 

black-caps 492 

hybrids 494 

pruning 49i 

varieties,  popular   492 

wild 41 

Red  Spider 557 

Root  rot  580 

Root-knots 585 

Russian  introduction  of  fruits 48 

Salal 43 

Salmon  berry 41 

Scale  Insects   560 

black  . 563 

brown  apricot 5^4 

cottony  cushion 565 

pear  .' 562 

orange,  red 563 

orange,  soft 564 

oyster  shell 562 

rose  and  berry 562 

San  Jose   561 

remedies  for 567,  575 

Sapota,  white    477 

Scions,  care  of 84 

selection   of    84 

Sea  Fig 43 

Seed,  growing  trees  from 74 

SeedHngs,  imported 71,  76 

Septuple  laying  off 100 

Service  Berry   43 


604 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Page 

Soils  for  fruits ^1 

adobe   35 

alkali Z1 

alluvial ZZ 

bed-rock  or  hard-pan 2>^ 

characteristics  of  California 27 

classification  of 30 

clay  .   34 

defective 36 

desert 32 

examination  of  Zl 

granitic  34 

loams 30 

mesa 32 

plains  31 

red 34 

river  bottom    34 

sedimentary  or  silty 33. 

shallow,  blasting 104 

Sour  sap  582 

Spider,    red 557 

Squares,  laying  off  in 98 

Squirrels,  destroying  588 

Strawberry  '.    495 

care  of 499 

continuous  bearing 499 

laying  out  for 496 

planting 498 

propagation 496 

situations  and  soils 495 

varieties,  popular   500 

wild 42,  500 

Strawberry  tree   475 

Sunburn,  protection  from 116 

Sunlight,  value  of  direct 21 

Sunshine,   evaporating    528 

Sunshine,  records  of 22 

Temperature,  lowest   20 

Temperature,  records  of 21 

Thinning  fruit 136 

Thrips 554 


Page 

Tomato   tree    478 

Toyon 43 

Trees,  activity  and  rest  of 17 

heeling  in   109 

selecting 107 

Tree-setters 106,  107 

Triangle  for  laying  out 102 

Tuna  fruit  44,  476 

Tussock  moth   552 

Vine  hoppers  555 

Walnut,  black 44,  511 

Walnut,  English  510 

bacteriosis   or   blight 581 

bleaching 522 

blossoms  of    521 

budding 513 

culture  and  soils 510 

gathering  and   drying 521 

grafting 515 

growing  seedlings   74,  514 

hybrids 511 

propagation  and  planting 511,  5iy 

pruning 520 

varieties 523 

Water  measurements 210 

Weed  killing  by  cultivation 153 

Weeds,  evaporation  by 143 

Weir  measurement 212 

Whitewash  against  sunburn 116 

Wild  Fruits  of  California 39 

Windbreaks 591 

trees  for   592 

Wine  grapes    260 

Winery  refuse  as  manure 164 

Winter-killing,  unknown 19 

Wire,  measuring  98 

Woolly  aphis  559 

Wounds,  covering   135 

Yellow  jackets,  killing , . .  574  i 


siA,  .1^/ 


\ 


THIS   BOOK   IS   DUE   ON   THE   LAST    DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


RENEWED  BOOKS  ARE  SUBJECT  TO  IMMEDIATE 
RECALL 


MAY  2  2  1981 


LIBRARY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  DAVIS 

Book  SUp-20m-8,'61(Cl623s4)458 


"California 


^m^ 


524135 


fraits 


JM!L2_2J945 


^      ^^'^*H^ 


Twr^^W 


3B359 


\S\0 


IVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  UBRARY 


